• Based on the teachings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and
Plato
• Classical writings were “Christianized” during the
early Middle Ages
• Cosmology
• Physics
• 4 Major Elements known as “Classical Elements”
• Fire
• Air
• Water
• Earth
• Nicolaus Copernicus
• Challenged the view that the universe
revolved around the Earth
• Proved the universe revolved around
the Sun
• Johannes Kepler
• Challenged the view that the planets
rotated in perfect circular orbits
• Proved through math they orbit at
different speeds in elliptical orbits
• Isaac Newton
• Combined inductive reasoning (specific facts
lead to general conclusion) and deductive
reasoning (general facts lead to specific
conclusion)
• Challenged idea that universe is governed by
religion
• Says that universe is governed by Natural Laws
(ex. gravity)
• Galileo Galilei
• Challenged Classical Elements
• Proved mathematical formula for acceleration of
falling objects, law of inertia, champion of the
experimental method
• Rise of Scientific Community and
Societies
• Modern Scientific Method
• Universe according to natural laws
• Champions human reason and intellect
• Competition between Church and
Science
• Deistic view of God (looking for
evidence based on reason instead of
faith in the supernatural)
• Continuation of Scientific Revolution ideals of
rationalism, humanism, and progressivism
• Champions the rising Middle Class
• Center of Enlightenment was
Paris
• Distrust of tradition and religion
• Scientific Method applied to
society
• Society can improve on its own
(without a supernatural force guiding
them to a better life)
• Baron d’Holbach
• Free will- God and the soul are myths
• Staunchly atheist
• David Hume
• Humans cannot be rational, everything is
based on impressions
• Immanuel Kant
• Enlightenment was a personal processmovement from immaturity to maturity,
took courage
• Rigid moral philosophy
• Class tensions between Middle and Upper classchallenging tradition and bringing about a new
notion of wealth (American and French Revolutions)
• Popularization of science
• Inclusion of women in intellectual subjects- feminine
influence that began in the Salons of wealthy
families
• Enlightened Despotism
• Political reform with powerful monarch pursuing
educational, legal, and societal reform
• Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the
Great of Prussia, etc.