Models of Epistemological
Development
in Adults
by Amanda Walzer
California State University, Fullerton 2013
Introduction
•
While we’ve been studying child development since Piaget in the 1920s, adults’
stages of development hadn’t been considered until more recently (the 1970s).
– Jean Piaget | Cognitive Theory - Simply Psychology
•
Gail Sheey’s Passages (and later New Passages and Understanding Men’s
Passages) began interest in the concept of “adult development.”
– http://www.gailsheehy.com/passages.php
•
Like Piaget transformed child development theory, William Perry’s work at Harvard
in the 1970s transformed adult development theory.
•
Perry noticed that ways of thinking mature through predictable stages as an
individual moves from late adolescence into adulthood.
•
Perry offered a constructive-developmental analysis of “adult” thinking, identifying
four stages of development in adolescent-adult thinking…
Dualism
•
This stage is characterized by the belief that
Truth is Absolute and knowable.
•
An authority figure (parent, church, military
commander, teacher) is the source of Truth
and cannot be questioned.
•
Later, other perspectives may be
acknowledged, but they are “wrong.”
•
Characterized by black-and-white, us-andthem, good guys vs. bad guys thinking.
•
Hence the term “Dualism”—there are two
ways of looking at things
•
The thinker might say things like:
–
–
I’m right. You’re wrong.
What’s to discuss? The answer’s obvious.
Multiplicity
•
Reflects emerging understanding that
the world is uncertain.
•
Things are now “right,” “wrong” and
“not yet known.”
•
Learning means trying to understand
the “not yet known” to determine
rightness or wrongness.
•
Some learners get to the realization
that they “may never know every
thing for sure”
•
The thinker might say things like
– If I knew the correct way, I could…
– No one has ever taught me the right
way to…
Relativism
•
Things are not “right” or “wrong” with a
growing number of exceptions; instead
everything is relative with a few right/wrong
exceptions.
•
Everyone has an opinion & is entitled to that
opinion; moreover, all opinions are equally
valid
•
There’s no way to know the truth for sure
because we all have different vantage points
•
The learner might say things like:
–
–
–
–
It all depends.
Everyone is entitled to his/her opinion
In my opinion…
That’s his opinion.
Commitment Within Relativism
•
All opinions are not equally valid; some opinions are
more valid than others (because they are more
current, more relevant, come from a source with
more expertise on the issue, aren’t biased by an
agenda, are well-supported by evidence, etc.).
•
Involves making a commitment to a position, only
after being informed; “Takes in” all the available
information, then “weighs in” on the situation.
•
Reflects maturity of thinking, representative of
those who are graduating from college or are in
graduate school
•
Understanding and knowing require interpretation.
•
An authority can be a valuable resource to help one
shape a valid interpretation
•
A learner might say things like
–
–
–
After reviewing the research, it seems clear that…
The science to-date is inconclusive about the effect of…
Though Tyler May argues…her opinion is not as valid
as it once was because…
An Alternative to Perry’s Model:
Belenky et al. and Women’s Ways of Knowing
•
In Women’s Ways of Knowing, Belenky at al. (1986) pointed out that Perry’s
studies were all done on privileged, white males at Harvard—hardly a
representative sampling of people in general
•
They pointed out that diverse learners (including women, LGBT people, people of
non-white ethnic groups, people of different socioeconomic classes, etc.) have
ways of knowing that are not well-described by Perry’s stages
•
Further, we do a disservice to diverse learners if we view their modes of learning
as a deficit that must be overcome (rather than a legitimate difference)
•
Researchers studying women, Clinchy and Zimmerman (1982) and Benack (1982),
found that “women’s thoughts appeared to be more tolerant and flexible” than
Perry’s model would seem to indicate. (Baxter Magolda, 1992, p. 7)
•
Belenky et al. studied women’s ways of knowing and observed that the maturation
of their thinking was better described by a progressive movement between
different epistemological perspectives:
Women’s Ways of Knowing
According to Belenky et al.(1986)
Silence, Received
knowledge
• Silent women
• Don’t view
words as tools
for
understanding
Subjective
knowledge
• Listeners, who
listen to their
own internal
voices
• Listeners, who
focus on
receiving
knowledge
form others
Procedural
Knowledge
• Connected
knowing;
women gain
access to
others’
experiences in
a connected
fashion
• Separate
knowing;
women are
objective an
separate from
others
Constructed
knowledge
• Women
construct
knowledge by
judging
evidence
within a
context
• Represents an
integration of
separate and
connected
approaches
Another Alternative to Perry:
Baxter Magolda’s Epistemological Reflection
•
Baxter Magolda relied on student narratives on student narratives as a basis for
understanding how ways of knowing (and the patterns within those ways of
knowing) develop.
•
She finds much in common between Perry’s model and Belenky et al.’s models, but
notices some other patterns as well (Baxter-Magolda, 1992, 30, 75, 101, 135, 165).
•
Baxter Magolda noticed “an equality and fluidity in ways of knowing” that had not
been described before (Baxter-Magolda, 1992, 13).
•
The patterns Baxter-Magolda noticed (ie. receiving vs. mastery, interpersonal vs.
impersonal, etc.) are gendered ways of thinking but not “dictated by gender”
(13). The focus is on the student and on identifying his/her thinking pattern—not
on the student’s gender.
•
Baxter Magolda identified four developmental stages of knowing…
Epistemological Reflection
According to Baxter Magolda
Absolute
knowing
Transitional
knowing
Independent
knowing
Contextual
knowing
•Corresponds to Perry’s “Dualism” and Belenky et al.’s “Silence, Received knowledge.” Learner
obtains knowledge from instructor; peers share materials and explain what they have learned to
each other; instructor communicates knowledge and ensures students understand knowledge;
evaluation shows instructor what students have learned; knowledge is certain or absolute
•Corresponds to Perry’s “Multiplicity” and Belenky et al.’s “”Subjective knowledge.” Learner
understands knowledge; peers provide active exchanges; instructor uses methods aimed at
understanding, employs methods to help apply knowledge; evaluation measures students’
understanding of the material; knowledge is partially certain and partially uncertain
•Corresponds to Perry’s “Relativism” and Belenky et al.’s “Procedural knowledge.” Learner thinks
for self, shares views with others and creates own perspective; peers share views and serve as a
source of knowledge; instructor promotes independent thinking and exchange of opinions;
evaluation rewards independent thinking; knowledge is uncertain—everyone has own beliefs
•Corresponds to Perry’s Commitment within relativism” and Belenky et al.’s “Constructed
knowledge.” Learner exchanges and compares perspectives, thinks through problems, integrates
and applies knowledge; peers enhance learning via quality contributions; instructor promotes
application of knowledge in context and evaluative discussion; students and teacher work toward
goal and measure progress; knowledge is contextual, judge on the basis of evidence
In addition to Perry,
Belenky et al., and Baxter
Magolda, there are two
other models for adult
development theory:
King and Kitchener
describe “reflective
judgement stages”
(pre-reflective, quasireflective and
reflective-thinking);
Kuhn identifies three
“epistemological
views” (absolutists,
multiplists and
evaluativists).
Flippo & Caverly (2009, p. 28)
Models of Epistemological
Development
Intellectual and Women’s Ways Epistemological
Ethical
of Knowing
Reflection
Development
(BELENKY ET
(BAXTER
(PERRY)
AL.)
MAGOLDA)
Reflective
Judgement
(KING and
KITCHENER)
Argumentative
Reasoning
(KUHN)
Implications of Adult Development Theory for
Teaching College
Our goal should be
moving students
toward “contextual
knowing”
We should respect that
individuals will get
there to different
degrees, in different
ways, and in their own
time
We ought to identify
and incorporate
activities and learning
strategies that move
students toward
mature, contextual
thinking.
We ought to support
learners at different
developmental stages
by differentiating our
classroom instructional
strategies.
References
Baxter Magolda, M.B. (1992). Knowing and Reasoning in College: Gender-Related Patterns in Students’
Intellectual Development. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Carter-Wells, J. Adult Development Theory, Fall 101 [DOCX document]. Retrieved from https://moodle2013-2014.fullerton.edu/mod/folder/view.php?id=255158
McLeod, S. (2009, updated 2012). “Jean Piaget.” Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html
Pawan, F. and Honeyford, M.A. (2009) Academic Literacy. In Flippo, R.F. and Caverly, D.C. (Eds.)
Handbook of College Reading and Study Strategy Research (396-401). New York: Routledge.
Sheey, G. Passages. In Gail Sheehy. Retrieved from http://www.gailsheehy.com/passages.php