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Template for Developing Softchalk ILA
Use this template for developing each Softchalk interactive learning activity
(ILA) - - use with Guidelines and Steps for Developing an ILA document
Elements
Descriptive Title
Should reflect content—important
as part of the searchable
information for NCLOR.
Introduction
Explain what will be learned and
the relevance to student’s
knowledge base
Theories and Theorists
A theory is both an explanation and a model of how things work. A theory of development deals with change over time and is usually
concerned with three things. First, it should describe changes over time within an area or several areas of development. Second, it should
describe changes among areas of development. Third, it should explain these changes.
However, no one theory includes all there is to know about how children mature, discover, reason, and act. Numerous theories of
development have influenced educational practices during the 20th century. Some of the historical and current theories that have
influenced education include Gesell's (1925) maturational theory, Skinner's (1974) behaviorist approach, Freud's (1935) psychoanalytic
theory, Piaget's (1952) constructivist theory, Vygotsky's (1978) sociocultural approach, Bronfenbrenner's (1989) ecological systems theory,
and Gardner's (1983) multiple intelligences theory. This Interactive Learning Activity will present thirteen theories, some of which include
entire developmental progressions, some of which explain portions of development, and some of which are relatively modern.
Learning As We Grow: Development and Learning (Theory into Practice)
http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=1859
Prerequisite Knowledge
Any prior knowledge needed for
successful completion of
interactive learning activity
Template for Developing SoftChalk ILA
No prior knowledge is required to complete this Interactive Learning Activity.
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Measureable Student Objectives
Between 1 and 3 objective(s)
depending on content. Be sure to
number objectives. Objectives
should explain purpose of ILAs &
objectives expected. Use action
verbs: analyzed, performed,
drawn, demonstrated, conducted.
Content
1.
2.
Identified major child development theories and theorists.
Classified the key principles of each of the following theories: maturational theory psychoanalytic theory, behaviorist theory,
humanistic theory, constructivist theory, ecological systems theory, multiple intelligences theory, Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development, and Gilligan’s Ethics of Care.
MATURATIONAL THEORY
Arnold Gesell
Maturational theory_Plant
growing from hands (alt text)
Microsoft clip art
The maturational theory of Arnold Gesell states that physical growth and mental growth are
determined by heredity and that growth takes place in an orderly sequence. Gesell’s maturation
theory emphasized the physical and motor aspects of development. He placed development in
age-related stages known as maturity profiles.
Gesell based his theory on three major assumptions correlated with personality development:
1. Development has a biological basis
2. Good and bad years alternate
3. Body types (endomorph, ectomorph, mesomorph)
[text popper] Endomorphs are usually shorter with heavy trunks and limbs.
[text popper] Ectomorphs are long, tall, and thin
[text popper] Mesomorphs are a blend with medium length limbs, wide shoulders, and muscled
bodies.
In this theory, teaching and parenting are much less important than genetics; children simply mature with age. A metaphor used to
explain this theory is that of a growing plant. If children are given love, safety, and proper nutrition, they will grow much the way a plant
does, but if the child does not receive basic needs, he will not develop properly, much like a plant that is deprived of sunlight or water.
Maturational theory strongly influenced the teaching of reading in the mid 1900s. Children were not thought to be ready for reading until
they had a mental age of six and a half years. As a result, readiness activities were developed for children who were not yet ready to
read. Today, maturational theory is partially responsible for the existence of pre-kindergartens and pre-first grades aimed at children
who supposedly need the" gift of time," because of immaturity or a late birthday.
BEHAVIORIST THEORY
Theorists such as Edward Thorndike, John Watson, and B.F. Skinner contributed greatly to the environmentalist perspective of
development. These theorists believe the child's environment shapes learning and behavior; in fact, human behavior, development,
and learning are thought of as reactions to the environment. This perspective leads many families, schools, and educators to assume
that young children develop and acquire new knowledge by reacting to their surroundings. Classical conditioning and operant
conditioning are two key principles underlying behaviorist theories.
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[text popper] Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus.
[text popper] Operant Conditioning is where learning takes place with the use of reinforcement or rewards. Operant conditioning is
used by behaviorists to shape wanted behaviors.
Ivan Pavlov and John Watson
Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning that was first recorded by Ivan Pavlov. The typical procedure is to introduce a
neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of significance. The neutral stimulus can be anything unrelated to the behavior. The stimulus of
significance necessarily evokes an innate, reflexive response. Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned
response (UR). If the two are repeatedly paired together, eventually, the two stimuli become associated together and produce the same
behavioral response. The following video is a reenactment of Pavlov’s original experiment.
Pavlov’s Dogs Get Conditioned
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CpoLxEN54ho&feature=related
Watson’s Little Albert experiment conditioned the baby to become afraid of fluffy white objects when the loud noise was associated with
the white stuffed toy.
Watson Video: Title: John Watson-Pequeno Albert (legendado) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxKfpKQzow8&feature=related (no
transcript—close captioning in Spanish)
Edward Thorndike
Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) is considered by many to be the first modern education psychologist sought to bring a scientific
approach to the study of learning. Thorndike believed that learning was incremental and that people learned through a trial-and-error
approach. His behaviorist theories of learning did not consider that learning took place as a result of mental constructs. Instead, he
described how mental connections are formed through positive responses to particular stimuli. For Thorndike, learning was based on
an association between sense impressions and an impulse to action. Thorndike favored students’ active learning and sought to
structure the environment to ensure certain stimuli that would “produce” learning (Darling-Hammond, Rosso, Austin, Orcutt & Martin).
B. F. Skinner
The father of modern behaviorism, B. F. Skinner (1904–1990), further developed Thorndike’s behaviorist learning theory focused on
stimulus and response. Skinner was responsible for developing “programmed learning,” based on his stimulus–response research on
rats and pigeons in experiments that provided positive reinforcement for “correct” responses. He considered learning to be the
production of desired behaviors and denied any influence of mental processes. Programmed learning gave proper reinforcement to the
student, emphasized reward over punishment, moved the student by small steps through discrete skills, and allowed the student to
move at his own speed:
Skinner’s conditioning of pigeons to peck with a reward of food is an example.
This video shows Skinner’s Operant Conditioning experiment.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA
Behaviorist learning theory has had substantial influence in education, guiding the development of highly sequenced and structured
curricula, programmed instructional approaches, workbooks, and other tools. It has proved useful for the development of some types of
skills—especially those that can be learned substantially by rote through reinforcement and practice. The Behaviorist method is
teacher-centered. In other words, the teacher delivers structured lessons that the pupils must follow. Instructional strategies include,
lectures, copying notes, learning by rote and watching demonstrations. Applications of this theory have resulted in an overemphasis on
isolated skills and drill, as well as a heavy reliance on teacher-directed and teacher-reinforced activities. Consequently, teachers often
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ignore children's curiosity and prior knowledge.
Many educators believe the theory behind No Child Left Behind is behaviorism. The methods reported to be scientifically based are
rooted in the behaviorist tradition, and so the methodology recommended under No Child Left Behind is behavioral in nature.
The following video demonstrates a common application of operant conditioning in the use of time out and rewards to influence
children’s behavior.
Operant Conditioning – Time Out
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4muo6jXzLX8&feature=related
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Psychodynamic or psychoanalytic theory primarily encompasses the work of Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson. This theory is
concerned primarily with personality development and emotional crises. Theorists study the underlying motives that influence individual
thoughts and behavior. Behavior problems displayed by children were viewed as symbolic manifestations of unresolved conflict, often
emanating from early caregiver-child interactions.
According to this theory, a healthy child is one who learns the balance between immediate need for gratification of a desire and the
ability to control that urge. Therefore, parents and teachers must provide just the right amount of independence and supervision. If
there is too much or too little of either, the child may fail to mature emotionally. Problems with attention and activity levels were
attributed to unconscious processes. Play therapy was the recommended form of intervention, with accompanying therapy for the
child's parents. Psychodynamic models continue to have an effect on education and intervention for children with special needs.
Sigmund Freud
Freud was a psychoanalyst who studied his patients and developed a theory. He looked at
human behavior in terms of inner drives and motives. He believed that the main cause of
behaviors is related to the relationship between infant/child and his mother. His theory
discusses psychosexual behavior.
Freud’s five stages of personality development each associated with a particular erogenous
zone:
Flickr: Creative Commons license
http://www.flickr.com/photos/
mansionwb/3585083753/)
Template for Developing SoftChalk ILA
Oral Stage (birth -1 year)
•
Mouth is associated with sexual pleasure
•
Weaning a child can lead to fixation if not handled correctly
•
Fixation can lead to oral activities in adulthood
Anal Stage (1 -3 years)
•
Anus is associated with pleasure
•
Toilet training can lead to fixation if not handled correctly
•
Fixation can lead to anal retentive or expulsive behaviors in adulthood
Phallic Stage (3 -5 years)
•
Focus of pleasure shifts to the genitals
•
Oedipus or Electra complex can occur
•
Fixation can lead to excessive masculinity in males and the need for attention or
domination in females
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Latency Stage (5 -puberty)
•
Sexuality is repressed
•
Children participate in hobbies, school and same-sex friendships
Genital Stage (puberty on)
•
Sexual feelings re-emerge and are oriented toward others
•
Healthy adults find pleasure in love and work, fixated adults have their energy tied up
in earlier stages
This video explains Freudian theory: Freud’s Id, Ego, and Superego
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCXynjpFaKU
Summary of Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFNU-RHTMO0&playnext=1&list=PLD470F18309A8A07A)
Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson developed a theory based on social motivators. He explains development based on 8 stages where there is a conflict in
every stage. Each stage the person confronts a challenge and hopefully completes each. Each stage builds on the success of the
previous stage. If the conflict is not resolved, the conflict will probably reappear as problems in the future.
The eight stages of development are:
1. Trust v. mistrust (ages 0-1)
2. Autonomy v. shame and doubt (ages 2-3)
3. Initiative v. guilt (ages 4-6)
4. Industry v. Inferiority (ages 7-11)
5. Identity v. role Confusion (ages 12-19)
6. Intimacy v. Isolation (ages 20-34)
7. Generativity v. Stagnation (ages 35-65)
8. Ego Integrity v. Despair (age 65+)
Breakdown of Erickson’s Stages http://www.learning-theories.com/eriksons-stages-of-development.html
Watch the video on Erikson Title: Erik H. Erikson: A Life's Work (Davidson Films, Inc.)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0sxaU34MPE
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vapEpQmz86o)
HUMANISTIC THEORY
Abraham Maslow
Humanism was a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanism focuses on human freedom, dignity, and potential. The main
premise of this theory is that each individual has certain basic needs, regardless of age, gender, race, culture, or location, and if those
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needs are not met, no significant growth can take place. Abraham Maslow, a major contributor to this theory, believes that basic needs
are expressed in a pyramid because there is a certain way these needs are related and because the most essential needs form the
basis from which the other needs can be met. Physiologic needs such as air, water, food, and shelter must be provided, then safety
and security, then sense of belonging, then self-respect and respect by others, and finally self-sufficiency. This humanistic theory has
important implications for child development because children’s needs are the teacher’s first concern; for example, a hungry child will
ignore a lesson or simply not be able to concentrate or a tired child will tend to be uncooperative until he is rested. Therefore, until the
child’s needs are met, he will not be capable of addressing curriculum and skill development.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (alt text)
Wikimedia Commons
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_hierarchy_of_needs.png
If You Know Nothing About Personality: 12 Maslow
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hlaFzLLXDtU
Constructivist Theory
Constructivists argue that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas.
There are many variations of constructivist theory; however, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky have been two of the most influential
theorists. Both have had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education and form an underlying theme of
many education reform movements.
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Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was the first to state that learning is a developmental cognitive process, that learners create knowledge
rather than receive knowledge from the teacher. He recognized that students construct knowledge based on their experiences, and that
how they do so is related to their biological, physical, and mental stage of development. Piaget spent years observing very young
children, mapping out four stages of growth.
Stage
Age
Behaviors
1. Sensorimotor
Ages 0-2
(Infancy)
During this stage, the child learns about himself and environment through
his senses and movement.
2. Preoperational
Ages 2-7
(Early Childhood)
Applying his new knowledge of language, the child begins to use symbols
to represent objects
3. Concrete
Operational
Ages 7-11
(Middle Childhood)
While children in any one grade or classroom will exhibit the characteristics
of this stage to different degrees, most will have arrived in this stage by
Grade 3 and a few will have acquired some characteristics of the next
stage, the Formal Operational Stage, by Grade 6.
During this stage, accommodation increases. The child develops an ability
to think abstractly and to make rational judgments about things that are
concrete or observable.
4. Formal Operations
Template for Developing SoftChalk ILA
Age 12 +
(Adolescence-Adulthood)
In this stage, a child is s capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning.
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Piaget did acknowledge the utility of some behaviorally guided, rote learning while also arguing that other activities that support
students’ exploration are essential. According to Piaget, cognitive development is the process of restructuring knowledge. He asserted
that new sensory information received by a person either supports or differs from her current mental constructs and assumptions. The
conflict causes a disequilibrium that she attempts to resolve by revising previously held notions and working the new information into
her mental structures (schemata) to recreate equilibrium. As she struggles to make sense out of events, she assimilates new ideas
into what she already knows but also adjusts prior thinking to accommodate new information.
[Text popper] Variously described as “trouble,” “tension,” “disequilibrium,” or “conflict,” this concept attempts to describe the
destabilization experienced by children as they move from one level of understanding about the world or themselves to a more complex
level of understanding.
[Text popper] Assimilation is taking information and using for one’s own purposes without adapting one’s thinking to it.
[Text popper] Accommodation is adapting current levels of thinking or schema to take new data into account.
Piaget’s constructivist theory continues to affect what goes on in many classrooms today.
Watch the video on Piaget: Title: PIAGET'S DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY: AN OVERVIEW (DAVIDSON FILM) Link:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEam9lpa6TQ&feature=related
Lev Vygotsky
Social constructivist theory is mainly the work of Russian teacher and scientist, Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934). Vygotsky extended Piaget’s
developmental theory of cognitive abilities of the individual to include the notion of social-cultural cognition—that is, the idea that all
learning occurs in a cultural context and involves social interactions. He emphasized the role that culture and language play in
developing students’ thinking and the ways in which teachers and peers assist learners in developing new ideas and skills. Therefore,
he emphasized family, social interaction, and play. He placed a great deal of emphasis on language development.
Vygotsky proposed the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). He suggested that students learn subjects best just
beyond their range of existing experience with assistance from the teacher or another peer to bridge the distance from what they know
or can do independently and what they can know or can do with assistance. His work led to an emphasis on the deliberate use of
discourse and cooperative learning in the classroom and theories of assistance or “scaffolding” to help students learn in systematic
ways.
[text popper] zone of proximal development: The area in which the child can most benefit from instruction with the help from an
adult or more knowledgeable peer.
[text popper] scaffolding: Scaffolding represents the helpful interactions between adult and child that enable the child to do
something beyond his or her independent efforts.
Although Vygotsky's ideas can be difficult to understand, his work has been very influential in the U.S., especially in the past decade or
so. Building on Piaget, Vygotsky’s theory introduced into education the ideas that teachers can be more effective if they organize
learning so that it is responsive to the child’s stage of development, if they connect learning to the child’s prior knowledge and
experiences, and if they use social and natural environments as opportunities for learning.
Watch these videos on Vygotsky:
Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory: An Introduction
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hx84h-i3w8U
A Vygotskian Approach
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SpC0INWo3o
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES THEORY
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory is a relatively recent influence on education. Traditional views of intelligence favored particular
cognitive processes, including certain types of problem solving (mathematical-logical intelligence) and language abilities (linguistic
intelligence). According to Gardner (1983), however, these are just two types of intelligence. Five other intelligences—musical, visualspatial, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal-must be considered. Gardner (1983) has also added an eighth intelligence
he calls the naturalist. A naturalist is someone who has the ability to recognize important distinctions in the natural world
The following definitions describe each intelligence and the related occupations and directions an intelligence might take. These are by
no means the only examples, nor does the development of any one intelligence suggest the exclusion of others. All healthy people
possess all the intelligences, which they blend in various ways when they create products or perform meaningful roles or tasks.
• Linguistic intelligence—Linguistic intelligence involves the ability to communicate and use language in a variety of ways—through
speaking, writing, and reading. This intelligence includes a sensitivity to the meaning of words, the order of words, and the sounds and
rhythm of words. Poets, journalists, and speechwriters exhibit strengths in this intelligence. Students who enjoy playing with language,
telling stories, and who quickly acquire foreign languages exhibit linguistic intelligence.
• Musical intelligence—We put into practice musical intelligence when we create and perceive sound patterns. Musical intelligence
includes a sensitivity to pitch (melody), rhythm, and the qualities of a tone (Gardner, 1983). Composers, singers, conductors, and
musicians exhibit this intelligence, as do poets and others who use word sounds and rhythms in their writing. Students who sing well,
enjoy making rhythmic sounds, and can distinguish between notes are displaying musical intelligence.
• Logical-mathematical intelligence—Logical-mathematical intelligence is involved when we order objects, assess their quantity, and
make statements about the relationships among them. Scientists, mathematicians, and philosophers all display strength in these areas.
You can observe this intelligence in students who can carry out complex calculations in their heads, enjoy finding patterns in shapes
and numbers, and excel at making logical arguments.
• Spatial intelligence—We use spatial intelligence when we perceive a form or object (either visually or through touch), when we
remember visual or spatial information, and when we recognize and imagine objects from different angles (Gardner, 1985). Spatial
ability is often assessed by having people copy shapes or match one visual image with another. Architects, mechanics, and engineers
possess strong spatial abilities. Spatial intelligence can be observed in students who understand and can create visual images of their
understanding— like charts, diagrams, or maps—as well as students who are drawn to the visual arts.
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence—Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is visible when people use their bodies to create products or solve
problems. Athletes, surgeons, dancers, choreographers, and craftspeople display competency in this area. Students strong in bodilykinesthetic abilities show good coordination and gross motor skill—on the stage or playing field—or the fine motor skills involved in
making models or sculptures.
• Interpersonal intelligence—People exhibit interpersonal intelligence when they display an awareness or sensitivity to others’
feelings and intentions. Teachers, parents, politicians, psychologists, and salespeople rely on interpersonal intelligence in their work.
Students exhibit this intelligence when they collaborate well, when they show thoughtfulness and sensitivity toward their friends, and
when they interact with ease with others of all ages.
• Intrapersonal intelligence—Intrapersonal intelligence helps individuals to “distinguish among their own feelings, to build accurate
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mental models of themselves, and to draw on these models to make decisions about their lives”(Kreshevsky & Siedel, 1998, p. 20).
Therapists and religious leaders may exhibit strength in this intelligence. Students who understand their strengths and weaknesses,
have an awareness of their own emotional states, and are thoughtful when they make decisions about their lives are displaying
intrapersonal intelligence.
• Naturalistic intelligence—Finally, naturalistic intelligence allows people to recognize and classify species and other aspects of their
environment. Farmers, gardeners, botanists, geologists, florists, and archaeologists all exhibit this intelligence. Students who enjoy
studying the world around them—insects, cars, or stamps—display strength in this intelligence.
Multiple intelligences theory shows promise in developing appropriate practices for children who do not fit the traditional mold or do not
excel in the math or linguistic areas. Teachers can use children's types of intelligences to assist in planning and teaching in areas in
which they are not as gifted. Schools and teachers, however, are not usually equipped equally to deal with multiple intelligences. For
example, children from lower socioeconomic areas may not have many opportunities to explore music or visual-spatial intelligences,
even if these are areas in which they might thrive. More efforts need to be made to understand multiple intelligences fully and to
develop the resources necessary to support them.
Watch the video: Different Kinds of Smart: Multiple Intelligences
http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=1861
Review the session guide
http://www.learner.org/courses/learningclassroom/support/04_mult_intel.pdf
Multiple Intelligences Thrive in Smartville
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zBKAT3Ie_s
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY
Ecological Systems Theory is primarily the work of Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005). Bronfenbrenner was a co-founder of the national
Head Start program and was widely regarded as one of the world’s leading scholars in developmental psychology, child-rearing, and
human ecology. His theory is not a stage theory as is Piaget’s.
Bronfenbrenner (1989) proposed that children are influenced by, and thus influence, the multiple systems in which they reside, either
directly or peripherally. These systems include the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. The
microsystem is the small, immediate environment the child lives in. Children's microsystems will include any immediate relationships or
organizations they interact with, such as their immediate family or caregivers and their school or day care. How these groups or
organizations interact with the child will have an effect on how the child grows; the more encouraging and nurturing these relationships
and places are, the better the child will be able to grow. Furthermore, how a child acts or reacts to these people in the microsystem will
affect how they treat her in return.
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Ecological Model [alt text]
Psychology Portal http://www.saskschools.ca/~psychportal/ecological.htm
The following video provides an Overview of Bronfenbrenner’s Theory
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=me7103oIE-g
Ecological Systems Theory
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXqcYXTgpB4
Bronfenbrenner emphasized the importance of the social environments in which children are raised, and saw the breakdown of the
family as leading to the ever growing rates of alienation, apathy, rebellion, delinquency, and violence among American youth. He
contended that teachers should work with families and social service agencies and should even try to change society as a whole
through advocacy and other means.
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Bronfenbrenner’s theoretical model transformed the way many social and behavioral scientists approached the study of human beings
and their environments. It led to new directions in basic research and to applications in the design of programs and policies affecting
the well-being of children and families both in the United States and abroad.
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) expanded on Piaget’s stages, determining that moral development is a lifelong task and that many
people fail to develop the more advanced stages of moral understanding. He described three stages of moral development which
outlined the process through which people learn to discriminate right from wrong and to develop increasingly sophisticated
appreciations of morality. He believed that his stages were cumulative; each built off understanding and abilities gained in prior stages.
Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development
Approximate Age Range
Stage
Substages
Birth to 9
PreconventionalBased on concrete operational
stage. Moral decisions are egocentric (based on
me) and concrete.
1)
2)
Avoid punishment
Gain Reward
Age 9 to 20
Conventional
Based on the children's ability to "decenter" their
moral universe and take the moral perspective of
their parents and other important members of
society into account.
3)
4)
Gain Approval & Avoid Disapproval
Duty & Guilt
Age 20+ maybe never
Postconventional
Based on the adult's ability to base morality on the
logic of principled decision making based on
standards that are thought to be universalizable
and not dependent on culture.
5)
6)
Agreed upon rights
Personal moral standards
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xL3ADOS6XsY&feature=related
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uCsZz05pdX0
Carol Gilligan (born November 28, 1936) is an American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist best known for her work with and against
Lawrence Kohlberg on ethical community and ethical relationships. Gilligan pointed out that that many of the theories such as those of
Freud, Erickson, and Kohlberg were based on a male-centered view. Kohlberg, for example, built his theory solely on interviews with
males.
Gilligan proposed a stage theory of moral development for women. From her careful interviews with women making momentous
decisions in their lives, Gilligan concluded that these women were thinking more about the caring thing to do rather than the thing the
rules allowed. Therefore, Gilligan produced her own stage theory of moral development for women. Like Kohlberg's, it has three major
divisions: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. But for Gilligan, the transitions between the stages are fueled by
changes in the sense of self rather than in changes in cognitive capability.
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Several studies since Gilligan’s work was published have shown both men and women use justice and care dimensions in their moral
reasoning, which contradicts Gilligan’s assertion that men and women differ in their moral reasoning. Nevertheless, her theory broke
the idea that there is only one dimension of moral reasoning.
Gilligan’s Stages of Ethical Care
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zx-9dZFMbf0
SUMMARY
Early childhood education draws from these and other theories as well as child psychology research in order to help solve social
problems and promote learning in the classroom. A teacher’s decision about how to deal with a child’s behavior will depend on his
understanding of child development.
Because no one theory includes all there is to know about development and learning, it is often necessary to employ a combination of
ideas in order to promote growth in the different domains. Contemporary learning theory recognizes the role that both experience and
reflection play in the development of ideas and skills. Researchers and practitioners appreciate that reinforcement and practice play a
role in the development of skills, and so do cognitive intent, effort, and reasoning. They acknowledge the importance of developmental
stages; they also recognize that development can be encouraged through social interaction and the structuring of experiences within
the learners’ sphere of readiness. Modern learning theories incorporate the role of culture and other influences on experience in views
of how people construct their understandings and develop their abilities. Effective teachers understand that different strategies are
useful for different kinds of learning and different situations.
Learning As We Grow: Development and Learning (Theory into Practice)
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http://www.learner.org/vod/vod_window.html?pid=1859
Interactive Learning Activities
Flashcards
Flashcards
Psychoanalytical
Theorist who believes the
first stages of development
are characterized by sexual
pleasure centered around a
particular body part
Behaviorism
Theorist who believes the
focus is on behavior and he
can train anyone to become
any type of specialist
(teacher, doctor, beggar,
etc).
Cognitive
Theorist who believes that
development occurs in four
stages.
(Who is Piaget?)
(Who is Sigmund Freud?)
Freud’s stage of
development in which a
particular body part focus is
the mouth.
(Who is John Watson)
The process by which
responses become linked to
a particular stimuli
(What is the oral stage?)
(Who is Erik Erikson?)
Freud’s stage of
development where the
particular body part focus is
the penis.
(What is the phallic stage?)
Template for Developing SoftChalk ILA
Theorist who believes that a
person learns best from a
more skilled member of the
community thru guided
participation.
(Who is Lev Vygotsky)
(What is conditioning?)
A follower of Freud whose
eight developmental stages
are characterized by a
developmental crisis.
Sociocultural
The process by which a
particular action is followed
by something desired (likely
to be repeated) or by
something unwanted (likely
not to be repeated).
(What is operant
conditioning?)
A learning process by which
a meaningful stimulus (such
as smell of food) is
connected with a neutral
stimulus (such as bell) which
has no other meaning before
Stage of development where
children are egocentric and
perceive the world to be their
own.
(What is the preoperational
stage?)
Stage of development where
children can understand and
apply newly gained logical
abilities.
The distance between what
children can do by
themselves and the next
learning that they can be
helped to achieve with
competent assistance.
(What is the zone of proximal
development?)
Providing support structures
to help learners get to that
next stage or level.
(What is scaffolding?)
(What is concrete
operational?)
The process of adaptation
that involves altering one’s
existing schemas, or ideas,
as a result of new information
or new experiences. New
schemas may also be
Process by that takes place
when creative thinkers
interact with a
knowledgeable person, is
practiced around the world.
Rev 9.10.10
Page 15
conditioning happens.
Erikson’s stage of
development where children
want to either take on adult
like activities (adventurous)
or internalize the limits (guilt).
(What is initiative vs. guilt?)
Summary
Review main points, rules,
concepts, steps in a procedure,
etc. Establish the relationship to
the module for which it is a part.
Should help students recall what
they learned.
Template for Developing SoftChalk ILA
developed during this
process.
(What is classical
conditioning?)
Theorist who conditioned a
dog to salivate every time he
heard the bell.
(What is accommodation?)
Taking in new information or
experiences and incorporate
them into our existing ideas.
(Who is Pavlov?)
(What is assimilation?
(What is guided
participation?)
Vygotsky believed that this is
necessary to clarify important
points but also helps us to
learn more about
communication.
(What is language or talking)
Early childhood education draws from these and other theories as well as child psychology research in order to help solve social problems
and promote learning in the classroom. A teacher’s decision about how to deal with a child’s behavior will depend on his understanding of
child development.
Because no one theory includes all there is to know about development and learning, it is often necessary to employ a combination of
ideas in order to promote growth in the different domains. Contemporary learning theory recognizes the role that both experience and
reflection play in the development of ideas and skills. Researchers and practitioners appreciate that reinforcement and practice play a role
in the development of skills, and so do cognitive intent, effort, and reasoning. They acknowledge the importance of developmental stages;
they also recognize that development can be encouraged through social interaction and the structuring of experiences within the learners’
sphere of readiness. Modern learning theories incorporate the role of culture and other influences on experience in views of how people
construct their understandings and develop their abilities. Effective teachers understand that different strategies are useful for different
kinds of learning and different situations.
Rev 9.10.10