Dr. Afxendiou
A.P. Comparative Government and Politics
Sachem North High School

Topics
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Levels of government
Supranational organizations and Globalization
Modern challenges to the nation-state
Devolution
Executives
Bureaucracies
Legislatures
Linkage Institutions - elections

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
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The structures of a political system that carry out the work of governing.
Comparative: BE CAREFUL - Just because you see the same type of institution in two different countries, don’t assume that they serve the same functions for the political system.
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We study the way the particular structures operate
We study the functions they fill
And then we compare
 Common structures that exist in most countries are:
 LEGISLATURES
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EXECUTIVES
JUCICIAL SYSTEMS
BUREUCRACIES
ARMIES

Levels of Government
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All states have many levels of authority but they vary on the geographic distribution of power.
Three types of geographic distribution of authority
 Unitary system – all policymaking powers are concentrated in one central geographic place and the central government is responsible for most policy areas
 Confederal system - spreads the power among many sub-units, such as states, and has a weak central government
 Federal system - divides the power between the central government and the sub-units. Regional bodies have significant powers such as taxation, lawmaking, and keeping order. This system is often criticized for inefficiency since power is dispersed among many local authorities whose policies may sometimes conflict

Geographic distribution of power
Unitary
Federal
Confederal
A very rare type of system

Supranational Organizations and
Globalization
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All political systems exist in an environment that is affected by other governments and supranational organizations (organizations that go beyond national boundaries)
Most countries in the world must cope with influences from the outside and interactions with others
Supranational organizations reflect a trend towards integration
 Integration – a process that encourages states to pool their sovereignty in order to gain political, economic and social clout. It binds states together with common policies and shared rules. Was a very common phenomenon in the 20 th where national governments established relationships with regional organizations, ex. ??? _____, and with international organizations such as ________.

Supranational Organizations and
Globalization
 Supranational organizations reflect globalization
 Globalization – an integration of social, environments, economic, and cultural activities of nations that has resulted from increasing international contacts.
 Political globalization – a countertrend to the political power of states since it binds states to international organizations that they must follow and allow to shape their national positions.
 Consequently… globalization breaks down the distinction between international relations and domestic politics making many aspects of domestic politics subject to global forces. At the same time it internationalizes domestic issues and events.

Supranational Organizations and
Globalization
 Economic globalization – intensifies international trade, connects markets, producers and labor together across the world. Integrates capital and financial markets around the world so that banking, credit, stocks and foreign direct investments are increasingly interrelated
 Foreign direct investments - purchase of assets in a country by a foreign firm
 Globalization deepens and widens international connections, local events, even small ones, can have ripple effects throughout the world.

Supranational Organizations and
Globalization
 Discussion questions:
 How does technology affect globalization?
 Do supranational organizations contribute to the countertrends of globalization or fragmentation. Or perhaps both?

Supranational Organizations and
Globalization
SUPRANATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS:
GLOBALIZATION OR FRAGMENTATION?
GLOBALIZATION FRAGMENTATION

Supranational Organizations and
Globalization
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 Fragmentation – a tendency for people to base their loyalty on ethnicity, language, religion or cultural identity. Connected to the concept of
___________________
Regional supranational organizations may be seen as evidence of fragmentation because they divide the world into super blocs that often compete with one another

Modern challenges to the nation-state
– Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forces
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Changes in environment are challenging some of the political institutions of states every where
Discussion questions:
 Do you think that it is possible that large regional organizations like the EU will replace the smaller states as the basic model of political organization?
 Is it possible for an international organization like the UN to gain true governing power over nation-states?

Modern challenges to the nation-state
– Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forces
 Central to any of the previously suggested changes is a change in the nature of SOVEREIGNTY – states will have to accept and follow the rules of the supranational organizations for all major decisions and policies
 Supranational organizations - cooperating groups of nations that operate on either a regional or international level

Modern challenges to the nation-state
– Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forces
 Political scientists study the forces that affect nation-states:
 Centripetal forces – bring the people of a state together and give it strength
 Nationalism – one of the most powerful centripetal forces. Gives the identities that form the nation. Encourages allegiance to a single country, promotes loyalty and commitment to the country. Encourages people to obey the laws and accept the basic ideologies behind the functioning of the state.
 How do you promote nationalism?

Modern challenges to the nation-state
– Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forces
 Centripetal forces – bring the people of a state together and give it strength
 Schools – instill the society’s beliefs, values and behaviors in the young.
They teach the nation’s language and encourage students to identify with the nation
 Transportation and communication systems – broadcasting companies, part of the media, present the point of view of the nation.
Transportation systems allow people to travel to other parts of their country and allow the government to reach all the citizens.

Modern challenges to the nation-state
– Centripetal vs. Centrifugal forces
 Centrifugal forces – opposite of centripetal forces. They are destabilizing forces, push the country apart.
 Weak institutions – country is not well organized, government loses the loyalty of the citizens
 Strong institutions – challenge the government for the loyalty of the people – orthodox church in USSR and Russia
 Nationalism – different ethnic groups within the country have more loyalty to their ethnicity than to the state and its government.
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Separatist movements – nationalities within a country may demand independence ex. the breakup of the Soviet Union, Basques in Northern
Spain
Devolution – a response to centrifugal forces. Tendency to decentralize decision-making to regional governments. Ex. Britain devolved power to the Scottish and Welsh parliaments in an effort to keep peace with
Scotland and Wales (this is a move towards federalism, but London is still the geographic center of decision-making)

Devolution: Ethnic, Economic, and
Spatial Forces
 Without looking at yesterday’s notes, write down a definition of DEVOLUTION to the best of your understanding of the term

Devolution: Ethnic, Economic, and
Spatial Forces
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DEVOLUTION – decentralization of decision-making from central government to regional governments
 A reaction to centrifugal forces (forces that divide and destabilize)
Three types of devolutionary forces:
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Ethnic forces – a group has a strong sense of belonging to the same culture; shares an identity based on language, religion and customs. If these forces are strong enough, the
territorial integrity of the state is threatened. Explain this.

Devolution: Ethnic, Economic, and
Spatial Forces
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 Ethnonationalism – the tendency for an ethnic group to see itself as a distinct nation with a right to autonomy or independence. Fundamental centrifugal promoting devolution. Examples – Britain (not very strong),
Yugoslavia (strong)
Economic forces – economic inequalities especially if they are regional. Examples?
Spatial forces – away from the center of government, on the periphery of the state especially if geographic feature separates areas from the center of power. Examples?

EXECUTIVES
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Role of the executive – to carry out the laws and policies of a state
Most countries split the executive into
 Head of state – symbolizes and represents the people nationally and internationally and may or may not have any real policymaking power
 Head of government – runs the state, directs other members of the executive branch.
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Consider Britain and Japan
Consider the US
Consider Russia

EXECUTIVES
 Functions of the Chief Executive
 Most important person in policy-making whether president or prime minister
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 o Presidential – chief executive has veto power initiate and adopt new policies
Holds other executive branch officials accountable for their performance
Makes decisions in a foreign policy crisis

EXECUTIVES
 The Cabinet
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Most important collective decision-making body in parliamentary systems
Made up of ministers that head all the major departments into which the executive branch is divided
Led by the PRIME MINISTER who is a “first among equals”
Ministers are all members of majority party in parliament
 Cabinet coalition – if there is no clear majority party in parliament several parties will join forces and the cabinet will be made up of the members of these parties. Tend to be unstable
In presidential systems the president chooses the cabinet members from any area of political life. Appointments may have to be approved by the legislature
As cabinet members are not necessarily members of the dominant party and not members of the legislature they have more independence from the president than do ministers from the prime minister

BUREAUCRACIES
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Agencies that implement government policy
Usually part of the executive branch
Grew in the 20 th and 21 st centuries as government has improved health, security and welfare services for their populations
Max Weber – German political philosopher who wrote about bureaucracies. According to him a bureaucracy is a wellorganized, complex machine that is a “rational” way for a modern society to organize its business. It is a necessary response to a changing society

Use your notes to create a comparison chart of executives:
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EXECUTIVES
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BUREAUCRACIES
 Characteristics of bureaucracy according to Weber:
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Hierarchical authority structure – top bureaucrat has ultimate control and authority flows from top down
Task specialization – clear division of labor, every member has a specialized job
Extensive rules – clearly written, well-established formal rules that all people in the organization follow
Clear goals – clearly defined set of goals that all people in the organization strive towards
The merit principle - merit-based hiring and promotion; no nepotism
Impersonality – job performance is judged by productivity

BUREAUCRACIES
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In democracies:
Problem with having appointed officials, influence policymaking. In democracy only elected officials, have that right
 Discretionary power – the power to make small decisions in implementing legislative and executive decisions. These may add up to significant policymaking influence.
BUT while elected officials may be changed every election cycle, bureaucrats may keep their positions allowing for stability and continuity of expertise.

BUREAUCRACIES
 In authoritarian regimes:
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Directly under the control of the head of the government
It is a patronage system
 Patronage system – personal supporters receive jobs in return for their carrying out the ruler’s agenda
 Technocrats – in a military regime, the civilian bureaucrats who formed a coalition with the military officers who took over the government. A dominant model in Latin America in the 1960s and 1970s. They enforced an authoritarian state bureaucracy in the name of efficiency in modernizing the economy

BUREAUCRACIES
COMPARING BUREAUCRACIES
Bureaucracies consist of agencies that implement government policy, but their functions generally depend on whether they exist in a democracy or an authoritarian regime.
Bureaucracies in
Democracies
Bureaucrats usually have
discretionary power, which allows them to make small decisions that influence policy.
Bureaucracies in
Authoritarian Regimes
The head of government exercises almost complete control over bureaucratic activities.
Bureaucrats are usually appointed, not elected, so they often serve as a source of stability when elected officials are voted out of office.
Bureaucrats are more likely to receive their jobs through patronage (loyalty or favors to the leaders) than merit, although patronage exists in democratic systems as well.

BUREAUCRACIES
 Common Characteristics of Bureaucracies
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Non-elected positions – bureaucrats are appointed, usually salaried, and are not elected by the public
Impersonal, efficient structures – bureaucracies tend to be impersonal because they are goal oriented and have little concern for personal feelings. Bureaucracies are meant to be efficient in accomplishing their goals.
Formal qualifications for jobs – although authoritarian leaders may appoint whoever they want to government positions, they must at least factor in formal qualifications
(education, experience) in making their appointments. The only way a bureaucracy can fulfill its goals of efficiency and competent administration. Most democracies has formal qualifications as prerequisites for appointment.

BUREAUCRACIES
 Common Characteristics continued:
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Hierarchical organization – top-down organizations where higher officials give orders to lower officials. Everyone in the hierarchy has a boss (except the top official)
Red tape/inefficiency – despite the goal of efficiency, large bureaucracies weigh themselves down, people don’t know who is responsible for what, what order business is meant to follow
“one hand doesn’t appear to know what the other is doing”

LEGISLATURES
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Branch of government charged with making laws.
The representative popular component of government
 (80+% of UN member states have legislatures)
Bicameralism
 Legislatures may be bicameral (two houses) or unicameral
(one house)
 Bicameral- the most usual form. Originates from the British model of the
House of Lords and the House of Commons.
Why do you think most countries have a bicameral legislature?

LEGISLATURES
 Why do you think most countries have a bicameral legislature?
 In federalism (system where power is shared between a central government and subunit governments)
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Two houses allow for representation of regional governments and local interests (usually the upper house) and for representation of population as whole so that it is a direct democratic link to the voters (the lower house)
Two houses keep any one region from getting disproportional power (ex.
Populous states in the US)
In unitary system (power is centralized in one place)
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 Two houses disperse power by requiring two bodies to approve legislation
Legislative membership – varies widely, from election to selection by government officials to party membership.

LEGISLATURES
 Functions of Legislatures
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Formulate, debate and vote on political policies – in different countries they hold varying degrees of power. Ex. US Congress is very active but the National People‘s Congress of the People’s
Republic of China is a rubberstamp organization for policies made by the leaders of the Chinese Communist Party
May control a country’s budget in terms of fund-raising and spending
May appoint officials to the executive and judicial branches
May play a role in elite recruitment
 Elite recruitment – identifying future leaders of the government
May hold hearings about the behaviors of public officials

JUDICIARIES
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Vary widely from country to country but all have some sort of legal structure
In authoritarian systems courts have little or no independence. Decisions are controlled by the chief executive
Guilt or innocence courts -Tradition for these courts goes back to medieval England and were very limited to their focus
Constitutional courts – serve to defend democratic principles; they are recent historical phenomenon. They are the highest judicial body that rules on constitutionality of laws and government actions.
 Judicial review – mechanism that allows courts to review laws and executive actions for their constitutionality. First established in the US in the
19 th century. Guiding principle was the protection of human rights
Criticism of constitutional court – members not elected so they do not represent the will of the people.

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
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Groups that connect the government to its citizens, such as political parties, interest groups, electronic and print media
They are most developed in countries where there is a large population and complex policymaking activities by the government

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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
Parties
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In democracies:
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They help bring different people and ideas together to establish the means by which the majority can rule.
They provide labels for candidates that help citizens decide how to vote
They hold politicians accountable to the electorate and other political elites usually we find a multi-party system. The two-party system found in the
US is unusual
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Two party system found in about 15 countries around the world and is due to the plurality electoral system.
Multi-party systems are found in most European countries and are the result of the proportional representation method for elections. They are also associated with strong parliamentary systems.
In authoritarian states:
 One party systems

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
 Electoral Systems and Elections
 Electoral systems – the rules that decide how votes are cast, counted and translated into seats in a legislature
 First-past-the-post – used in the US, Great Britain and India.
Constituencies are divided into single-member districts
 Single-member districts – candidates compete for a single representative’s seat. Also called the plurality system or the
winner-take-all system. Winner does not need a majority to win, s/he simply must get more votes than anyone else.

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
 Electoral Systems and Elections
 Proportional representation used in many countries.
Creates multi-member districts. Voters cast their ballots for a party rather than for a candidate and the percentage of votes a party receives determines how many seats the party will gain in the legislature.
 Multi-member districts – more than one legislative seat is contested in each district
 Mixed system – combines first-past-the-posts and proportional representation

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
 Electoral Systems and Elections
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Plurality systems encourage large, broad-based parties because no matter how many people run in a district, the person with the largest number of votes wins. Parties without the support of a large number of voters have little chance of winning
Proportional representation electoral systems encourage multiple parties because they have a good chance of getting some of their candidates elected. It allows minor parties to form coalitions to create a majority vote so that legislation can be passed

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
 Electoral Systems and Elections
 TYPES OF ELECTIONS
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Election of public officials – may vote for thousands of officials on the national, regional and local level. In Europe they can now vote for representatives to the EU Parliament
Referendum – the public votes on particular policy issues. In the US they are used on the state and local level but there are countries that have them at the national level.
Plebiscite – also a ballot seeking to consult public opinion but unlike the referendum, it is nonbinding.
Initiative – a vote on a policy that is initiated by the people. It proposes an issue for a nation-wide vote and its organizers must collect a certain amount of signatures from the public in support and then the government is obligated to schedule a vote.

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
 Interest Groups
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 organizations of like-minded individuals whose main political goal is to influence and shape public policy.
In liberal democracies they are independent from the government so they maintain a strong civil society
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Based on any type of common interest – occupation, labor, business interests, agriculture, community action, or a cause
May be formal national organizations or they may be local ones
May also have nonpolitical goals ex. a business group that forms to promote their common product (ex. orange growers of
Florida)

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
 Interest Groups
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Differences between Parties and Interest Groups
 Parties run candidates for office, interest groups may support candidates but they do not run their own candidates
 Parties are interested in a large number of policies, interest groups are focused on policies that related to their interests
The strength of interest groups
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It is in their independence from the government – found in strong, western democracies
In authoritarian states no interest groups exist
There are systems where interest groups are few and are approved and some times are protected by the state – this is called corporatism. There are two types:
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State corporatism – the state determines which groups are operating
Societal corporatism - interest groups take the lead and dominate the state

LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
 Political Elites and Political Recruitment – found in all countries
 Political elites – leaders who have a disproportionate share of policy-making power. In democracies selected by elections.
 Elite recruitment – ways to identify and select people for future leadership positions

Where are we?
Unit I – Introduction to Comparative Politics
 Sovereignty, Authority and Power
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Political Institutions
Citizens, Society and the State
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Political and Economic Change
Public Policy
Comparison: Sources and Analysis of Data