EXAM REVIEW
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
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INTRODUCTION
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Human body has two specialized centers of control to maintain homeostasis:
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Endocrine system
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Nervous system
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The nervous system is the faster of the two control centers.
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Nervous system is the master control and communication center—even controls the
endocrine system
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Neurology—study of functions and disorders of the nervous system
ANATOMY
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Brain
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Cerebrospinal fluid
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Cranial nerves
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Meninges
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Special sense organs
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Spinal cord
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Spinal nerves
PHYSIOLOGY
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Sensory input—detect stimuli
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Stimuli are changes in the internal or external environment. Examples of stimuli
include pressure, temperature, and motion.
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Interpretive and integrative functions—interpret input to determine response (output)
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Motor output
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Higher mental functioning and emotional responsiveness
BASIC ORGANIZATION OF
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Two main divisions:
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Central nervous system
(CNS)
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Peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Occupies central or medial position in the body
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Interprets incoming sensory information and issues instructions in form of motor responses
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Major center for thoughts and emotional experiences
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The nervous system is sometimes likened to a computer network with a mainframe (the
CNS) linked to a number of smaller computers (the PNS). The computers communicate
information back and forth, with the mainframe (CNS) giving instructions and storing
information based on input from the rest of the network (PNS).
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Parts of the CNS
S Brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, and brainstem)
S Meninges
S Cerebrospinal fluid
S Spinal cord
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Components are surrounded by bones of the skull or spine
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Composed of cranial and spinal nerves emerging from CNS
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Divisions of PNS:
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Somatic nervous system—voluntary (governs skeletal muscles)
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Autonomic nervous system—involuntary
The peripheral nervous system has 43 pairs of nerves: 12 pairs of cranial nerves
and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
SOMATIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
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Sensory neurons carry information from bones, muscles, joints, skin, and sensory
receptors (vision, hearing, taste, smell) to CNS
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Motor neurons carry impulses from CNS out to skeletal muscles
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Consciously controlled
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM
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Supplies impulses to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
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Subdivided into two systems:
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Parasympathetic—“housekeeping system” and most active under calm
conditions
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Sympathetic—”fight or fight system” and activated by physical or emotional
alarm
A way to remember the distinction between the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems is to think of the word “sympathy.” The sympathetic nervous
system responds to the body’s negative experience or alarm.
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
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Neuroglia (glial cells)—comprise connective tissue that supports, nourishes,
protects, insulates, and organizes neurons
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Makes up more than 50% of CNS
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Neurons (nerve cells)—conduct nerve impulses
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Two key differences between neuroglia and neurons are (1) neuroglia cannot
transmit impulses and (2) neuroglia never lose their ability to divide.
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA
Four are located in the CNS:
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Astrocytes—provide structural support in the CNS; part of blood-brain barrier
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Ependymocytes—line cranial vessels and central canal of spinal cord; assist in circulation
of cerebrospinal fluid
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Microglia—protect CNS by destroying pathogens
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Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin around axons in the CNS
Two are located in the PNS
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Satellite cells—provide structural support of neurons in PNS
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Schwann cells—produce myelin around axons in PNS
PROPERTIES OF NEURONS
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Excitability—ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a nerve impulse
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Conductibility—ability to transmit impulses to other neurons, muscles, and glands
PARTS OF A NEURON
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Dendrites
S Receive and transmit stimuli toward cell body
S Short and highly branched
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Cell body
S Contains nucleus and other typical cell organelles
S Also contains Nissl bodies, which make protein for cell
S Cell bodies comprise the gray matter of brain and spinal cord
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Axons
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Carry the nerve impulse away from the neuron toward another neuron, a muscle cell,
or a gland
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Long axons are called nerve fibers
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Have infrequent branches, called collaterals
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Dendrites and axons are often referred to as nerve fibers.
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Mnemonic: Axons transmit impulses away from the cell body. (Both axon and away begin
with A.)
AXON STRUCTURE
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Synaptic bulbs—small buds at the end of each axon terminal, which contain synaptic vesicles
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Telodendria—clusters of short, fine filaments at the distal end of each axon
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Synaptic vesicles—saclike structures in the synaptic bulbs that produce and store
neurotransmitters
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Myelin sheath—a white layer of cells that surrounds axons in the PNS and CNS
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Electrically insulates the neuron and increases nerve impulse speed
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In PNS, formed by Schwann cells
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In CNS, produced by oligodendrocytes
Nodes of Ranvier—gaps at intervals between each Schwann cell on the myelinated axon
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Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath that allow impulses to travel more quickly.
It is said that the brain is made up of white matter and gray matter.
CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES
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Sensory (afferent) nerves—carry impulses from nerve receptors to brain or spinal
cord
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Afferent signals travel up the spinal column in ascending tracts. Efferent signals
travel down the spinal column in descending tracts.
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Interneurons (association nerves)—process information
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Motor (efferent) neurons—carry messages from brain or spinal cord to muscle or
gland
REFLEX ARC
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Consists of afferent, interneuron,
and efferent neurons
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Is the functional unit of the
nervous system
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The reflexes can be thought of as
a shortcut that enables very rapid
avoidance of something harmful
to the body.
REFLEXES
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Reflex—instantaneous, automatic response to a stimulus
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Essentially a protective mechanism
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Processed in the spinal cord
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Information reaches brain after motor response (e.g., dropping a hot item) has
already occurred
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Somatic reflexes—responsible for contraction of skeletal muscle
S
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The classic example of a somatic reflex is the knee-jerk reaction when a doctor
strikes the knee with a small hammer.
Visceral (autonomic) reflexes—maintain homeostasis through coughing, sneezing,
blinking, heart rate adjustment, etc.
PHYSIOPATHOLOGICAL
REFLEX ARC
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Abnormal reflex arc
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Caused by increased stimuli or increased amount of afferent impulses entering spinal cord
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Result: trigger points and pain
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Some of the pain caused by a physiopathological reflex arc is due to vasoconstriction,
which causes a decrease in oxygen and an increase in irritating waste products in the
tissues.
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The increased stimuli can be caused by pain, emotional stress, or other dysfunction
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Massage therapy can help break physiopathological reflex arcs, restore equilibrium, and
relieve pain
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
COMPONENTS OF NERVES
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Endoneurium—surrounds each nerve
fiber
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Perineurium—surrounds groups of fibers
(fascicles)
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Epineurium—surrounds groups of
fascicles, forming a nerve
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The three nerve connective tissue types
can be remembered by recalling the
meanings of their prefixes
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Endo—inside, within
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Peri—around, near
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Epi—over, above
RESTING POTENTIALS
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No conduction of electrical signals
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Produced and maintained by active transport system called the sodium-potassium
pump
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The sodium-potassium pump, located in the cell membrane, moves three
sodium ions out of the cell for every two potassium ions it moves into the cell.
ACTION POTENTIALS
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Action potential, or nerve impulse, is an active
neuron, or one conducting an impulse
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Electrical fluctuation that travels along the
surface of a neuron’s cell membrane
ACTION POTENTIAL CONDUCTION
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Na+ flows into cell due to stimulus
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This creates differential in charge along the nerve cell membrane and stimulates a nerve
impulse
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Reverse polarization in initial section stimulates adjacent sections; Na+ rushes inward,
stimulating the next segment
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Impulse moves in only one direction and does not decrease in speed
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The“all-or-none response”principle states that an impulse can be conducted only at
maximum capacity and never at partial capacity.
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After conduction, cell returns to resting potential via the sodium potassium pump
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Continuous conduction—nerve impulses travel along unmyelinated axons; slower
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Saltatory conduction—nerve impulses travel along myelinated axons; faster
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Fastest fibers: 130 meters per second (300 mph)
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Slowest fibers: .5 meters per second (1 mph)
SYNAPSE
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Synapse—junction between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle or gland,
where transmission of nerve impulses takes place
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Two types:
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Electrical synapses—occur between cardiac and smooth muscle cells
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Chemical synapses—more common; comprise synaptic bulb, synaptic cleft, plasma
membrane of postsynaptic neuron
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
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Synaptic transmission is a one-way
process.
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Nerve impulse reaches axon terminal;
thousands of neurotransmitters are
released into cleft
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Neurotransmitter molecules travel
across synaptic cleft and make contact
with plasma membrane of other
neuron
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Neurotransmitters bind with receptor
cites and elicit response in
postsynaptic neuron
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Note the blue presynaptic neuron and
the purple postsynaptic neuron and
the arrows indicating the one-way
transmission.
THRESHOLDS AND
SUMMATION
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Threshold—the minimum level of intensity a stimulus much reach to generate a
nerve impulse
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Summation—the amount of stimuli needed to reach threshold stimulus
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The strength and frequency of a stimulus determines whether or not an impulse I s
generated. A subliminal stimulus is one that does not reach the threshold.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
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Definition: chemical messengers involved in nerve impulse transmission, which
facilitate, stimulate, or inhibit
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Stored in presynaptic vesicles (as many as 10,000 molecules per vesicle)
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More than 50 compounds known to be neurotransmitters
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Neurotransmitters are either excitatory or inhibitory:
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Excitatory—decrease membrane potential, increasing the impulse rate
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Inhibitory—increase membrane potential, increasing the threshold needed to
cause an impulse
Many pain reducing medications serve to increase the threshold to inhibit noxious or
painful signals entering the CNS. The body produces its own pain reducing
chemicals called enkephalins and endorphins. The word endorphin means
“endogenous morphine.”
TYPES OF
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
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Acetylcholine—vital for stimulating muscle contraction; most common
neurotransmitter
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Catecholamines—cause excitation and inhibition of certain muscles, cardiac
excitation, metabolic action, and endocrine action; act directly on sympathetic cells
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Contains epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
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Serotonin—important for sensory perception, mood regulation, and sleep
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Histamine—involved in emotions and and regulation of body temperature and water
balance
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Enkephalins and endorphins—block pain, similar to opiates
TYPES OF
CATECHOLAMINES
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Epinephrine—acts as a hormone when secreted by adrenal medulla
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Norepinephrine—mediates responses that follow stimulation of sympathetic nerves
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Dopamine—involved with emotions, mood, attention, and learning
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Depletion causes rigidity and uncoordinated movement
MENINGES
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Definition: connective tissue covering the brain and spinal cord
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Layers and spaces:
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Pia mater—innermost layer
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Arachnoid—middle layer
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Dura mater—outermost layer
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Subdural space
Epidural space
A mnemonic for the layers of meninges is PAD: from inner to outer, they are the pia
mater, arachnoid, and dura mater.
MENINGES
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The spaces between the
meninges are (from inside to
outside):
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Subarachnoid space,
between the pia mater
and the arachnoid, filled
with cerebrospinal fluid
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Subdural space, between
the arachnoid and the
dura mater, filled with
serous fluid
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Epidural space, between
the dura mater and the
vertebral column;
contains adipose tissue,
connective tissue, and
blood vessels
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
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Clear fluid, derived from blood, that supplies the tissues of the brain and spinal cord
with oxygen and nutrients
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Circulates around the brain and spinal cord
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Acts as a shock absorber
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Formed in the choroid plexuses in the ventricles of the brain
SPINAL CORD
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The spinal cord can be viewed as an
information highway.
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Exits skull through foramen magnum
and extends to about L2
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Carries sensory impulses to the brain,
and motor impulses from the brain
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Consists of 31 segments
SPINAL CORD STRUCTURE
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Lower end marked by filum terminale, which is attached to coccyx
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Ends fan out like a horse’s tail, therefore named cauda equina
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Center of spine (central canal) contains cerebrospinal fluid, and sides are called horns
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White matter is organized into columns, within column are tracts called ascending (afferent)
and descending (efferent) tracts
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Ascending tracts carry sensory impulses up the cord to the brain and descending tracts carry
motor impulses down the cord.
SPINAL NERVES
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Each pair joins the spinal column at two points, on left and right
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Each nerve has two roots:
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Anterior (ventral) root contains motor neurons
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Posterior (dorsal) root contains sensory neurons
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Posterior root contains cluster called posterior or dorsal (sensory) root ganglion
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All spinal nerves have sensory and motor components
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Ganglion—cluster of nerve cell bodies located in the PNS
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Each spinal nerve has two branches: anterior ramus and posterior ramus.
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The anterior ramus innervates the extremities, lateral and interior trunk, and superficial
back muscles.
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The posterior ramus innervates the skin and deep back muscles.
SPINAL CORD
BRAIN—GENERAL FACTS
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Contains about 100 billion neurons
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Uses only glucose for energy; cannot store energy
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Uses about 20% of the body’s oxygen intake
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Cells will begin to die after only 1-2 minutes without oxygen
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Outer surface has sulci (grooves) and gyri (ridges)
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Deep sulci are called fissures, which divide the brain into hemispheres and lobes
Major regions:
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Cerebrum
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Diencephalon
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Cerebellum
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Brainstem
CEREBRUM
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Divided into left and right hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum
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Corpus callosum is a large bundle of transverse fibers that links the two cerebral
hemispheres so they can communicate with one another.
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Governs all higher functions (language, reasoning, memory)
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Largest region of brain
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Cerebral cortex—gray layer covering outer portion of cerebrum
MAIN PARTS OF THE BRAIN
CEREBRAL LOBES
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Each hemisphere divided into lobes:
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Frontal: motor output, cognition, speech (left side)
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Parietal: skin and muscle
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Temporal: auditory and olfactory, language (left side)
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Occipital: vision
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Insula: hidden by other lobes
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Brain lobes are named for the bone each area lies beneath.
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A structure near the bottom center of the cerebrum, the insula, is sometimes
considered a fifth lobe.
CEREBRAL LOBES
SPECIALIZATION OF
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
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Left hemisphere:
S motor control of right half of body
S language (receptive and expressive)
S skilled and general hand movements
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Right hemisphere:
S Perception of non-speech sounds (melodies, coughing, crying, laughing)
S Perception of spatial relationships
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Hemispheres communicate with each other via the corpus callosum
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Differences between hemispheres were discovered mainly through examination of
patients who underwent surgery in an attempt to control seizures by severing the
structure that connects the two hemispheres, the corpus callosum.
CEREBELLUM
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Located posterior and inferior to cerebrum
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Contains two hemispheres
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Cerebellar cortex—outer layer of gray matter
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Involved with muscle tone, complex movements, posture, and balance
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A person with a severely damaged cerebellum might suffer from lack of coordination.
BRAINSTEM
S
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Midbrain:
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Conducts nerve impulses from the cerebrum to the pons and sensory impulses from
the spinal cord to the thalamus
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Controls movements of the eyes, head, and neck
Pons:
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Relays nerve impulses from one side of the cerebellum to another
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Helps control breathing
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The midbrain contains the cerebral aqueduct, a canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
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Pons means bridge in Latin, so it can be viewed as the bridge between the two cerebellar
hemispheres.
BRAINSTEM
BRAINSTEM
S
Medulla Oblongata:
S Most inferior portion
S Conducts sensory and motor
impulses between other parts of the
brain and the spinal cord
S Contains fibers linking left cerebral
hemisphere to right side of body
and vice versa
S Often considered the most vital part
of brain—contains respiratory,
cardiovascular, and vasomotor
centers
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
S
Selective semipermeable wall of blood capillaries
S
Prevents or slows passage of some chemicals and pathogens (e.g., viruses) from
blood to the CNS
S
Purpose is to protect brain from potentially harmful substances, even components of
blood itself
NERVE PLEXUSES
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Plexus: network of intersecting nerves in
PNS
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Cervical plexus (C1-C5) supplies
head and neck
S
Brachial plexus (C5-T1) supplies arm
and hand
S
Lumbar plexus (L1-L4) supplies
abdomen, low back, and genitals
S
Sacral plexus (L4-S4) supplies
posterior hip, legs, and feet
DERMATOMES
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An area of skin served by a specific sensory
nerve root (C2-S5) or by one branch of the
fifth cranial (trigeminal) nerve
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Roughly the same from person to person
MYOTOMES
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A group of skeletal muscles innervated by a single spinal segment
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Some overlap exists among myotomes
NERVES OF IMPORTANCE TO MASSAGE
THERAPISTS
S
Some cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and
plexuses can be compressed during massage
S
Compression can cause numbness, tingling,
burning, or pain
IMPORTANT NERVES
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Axillary nerve—deltoids and teres minor
(shoulder)
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Obturator nerve—hip
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Radial nerve (great extensor)—elbow, wrist,
and hand
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Brachial plexus—arm and hand
S
Common peroneal nerve—ankle and foot
S
Sciatic nerve—hip
S
Facial nerve
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Tibial nerve—ankle, foot, knee, hip
S
Femoral nerve—hip and knee
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Ulnar nerve (accessory flexor)—forearm,
wrist, and hand
S
Median nerve (great flexor)—forearm, wrist,
and hand
S
Vagus nerve—heart, lungs, kidney,
gastrointestinal tract
S
Lumbar plexus—abdomen, low back, genitalia
S
Musculocutaneous nerve—elbow and shoulder
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
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Innervates cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle, and glands
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Subdivided into sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems
S
Some researchers believe there is a
distinct third branch of the autonomic
nervous system, the enteric nervous
system, which controls parts of the
digestive system.
PARASYMPATHETIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM
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“Rest-and-digest” system: supports body functions that conserve and restore body
energy
S
Can be considered the body’s “housekeeping system”
S
Regulates salivation, urination, digestive processes, defecation, and nutrient storage
S
Fibers occupy spaces at levels S2 to S4 and cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
S
Often called craniosacral outflow
S
During times of rest and relaxation, the parasympathetic nervous system broadens
the perceptual field. Often during a massage, the client can contemplate more
options or solutions to life’s challenges.
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
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The sympathetic nervous system can be triggered by physical, chemical (e.g., caffeine), or
emotional stress.
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“Fight-or-flight” system: overrides the parasympathetic division during exertion or stress
S
Triggers the adrenal gland to secrete epinephrine, which sustains action of the sympathetic
nervous system throughout the endocrine system
S
Body responses include pupil dilation, increased heart rate, airway dilation, energy
mobilization, etc.
S
Processes not needed to meet the stress (e.g., digestive tract movements) are suppressed
S
Often called thoracolumbar outflow
S
The reason why the sympathetic nervous system is also called thoracolumbar outflow is
because most of the cell bodies lie outside the spinal cord at levels T1 to L2.
SENSE ORGANS
S
All sense receptors arise from ectoderm (same layer as gives rise to brain and
spinal cord)
S
Touch, a general sense, involves the entire body
S
Special senses (taste, olfaction, vision, hearing) reside in the head
TOUCH
S
Sense of touch is an amalgamation of specialized receptors found in the skin
S
Skin can sense heat, cold, pressure, pain, and movement
S
Most primitive of all sensations and earliest to develop in embryos
TASTE
S
Mediated by taste buds (gustatory organs)
located on tongue projections called papillae
S
Type of receptor is chemoreceptor
S
Taste buds contain taste hairs linked to a
series of receptors
S
Taste is strongly influenced by sense of smell
S
The classic model of four primary taste
receptor types (salty, sweet, bitter, and sour)
is being challenged by new research, which
indicates that additional types might exist.
OLFACTION (SMELL)
S
Uses chemoreceptors to detect odors
S
Receptors are found in nasal cavity and
nasal mucosa
S
Has strongest link to memories
S
Scientists have suggested that humans can
detect between 7 and 32 primary odors.
VISION
S
Uses photoreceptors (rods and cones)
located in the eye
S
Cones require relatively bright
light, whereas the rods can
function in dim light; this is why it is
difficult to distinguish colors in dim
light.
S
Light enters the pupil and strikes the
retina
S
Each eye has a blind spot where the
optic nerve exits the retina; this is
compensated for by the presence of
two eyes
HEARING
S
Responds to air vibrations detected by
mechanoreceptors
S
Sound waves hit the tympanic membrane
(eardrum), causing it to vibrate
S
S
The word tympanic comes from the
Latin word tympanum (drum). A similar
word, tympani, refers to a set of
kettledrums sometimes played in a band
or orchestra.
Vibration is passed along to the three innerear bones (ossicles)
S
The six ear ossicles are the smallest
bones in the body.
S
Sound waves cause membrane of oval
window to vibrate
S
Vibration is passed to fluid of cochlea
TYPES OF SENSORY RECEPTORS
S
Classified by location:
S
Exteroceptors—in the skin, react to external
stimuli
S
S
Proprioceptors—in the skin, ears, muscles,
tendons, joints, and fascia; respond to
movement and position
S
Interoceptors—in the viscera, respond to
internal stimuli
S
S
External stimuli can also be touch and
pressure, light, or sound.
Internal stimuli can be sensations of
excretion (both defecation and urination)
as well as blood pressure.
Classifications by stimuli detected:
S
Chemoreceptors
S
Mechanoreceptors
S
Thermoreceptors
S
Photoreceptors
S
Nociceptors
CHEMORECEPTORS
S
Chemoreceptors function when a molecule
of the stimulus fits into a receptor site,
triggering an action potential.
S
Located in nose, tongue, some arterial
walls, brain
S
Detect smells, tastes, and blood chemistry
changes
S
Chemoreceptors in aorta and other blood
vessels detect low oxygen—increase
respiration rate
MECHANORECEPTORS
S
Located in skin, blood vessels, ears,
muscles, tendons, joints, fascia
S
Detect touch, pressure, blood
pressure, vibration, stretching,
contraction, proprioception, sound, and
equilibrium
TYPES OF
MECHANORECEPTORS
S
Touch and pressure receptors: Meissner, Ruffini’s, and Pacinian corpuscles and Krause
end bulbs, Merkel disks, and hair root plexus
S
Stretch receptors:
S
Muscle spindle: stretch-sensitive receptors; monitors changes in muscle length and
causes reflex contraction
S
An example of the stretch reflex detected by muscle spindles is the knee-jerk
reflex.
S
Golgi tendon organ: inhibits motor neurons & thus contraction if muscle tension too
high
S
A massage therapist may use the stretch reflex when strengthening a weak antagonist.
For example, if a client has rounded shoulders use hacking tapotement across the
fibers of the rhomboids to stimulate muscle spindles and create minute muscle
contractions.
TYPES OF MECHANORECEPTORS
S
Muscle spindle
S
Golgi tendon organ
PHOTORECEPTORS
S
Rods and cones are photoreceptors located
in the retina
S
Rods detect dim light, black, white, and
shades of gray
S
Cones detect color; three types are
normally present, each sensitive to a
different wavelength of light
S
The three types of cones each
contain a different pigment; each
pigment has a unique light
absorption spectrum.
S
Many color-blind individuals have
an abnormal form of one of the
cone pigments; some people are
missing one or more cone types
altogether.
NOCICEPTORS
S
Detect pain
S
Pain is said to have referred
when it is felt at a location other
than that of the original stimulus.
It is often in an area innervated
by the same spinal segment.
S
Present in most tissues except the
brain
S
Rarely adapt to prolonged stimulus
(so person does not ignore a
potentially harmful stimulus)
THERMORECEPTORS
S
Located immediately under the skin
S
Two types: one for cold and one for
heat
S
Nociceptors (pain receptors) are
triggered by extreme temperatures
EXPLAINING THE NA+/K+
PUMP
BREAK
S
REVIEW OF ARM
MUSCLES
S
INTRODUCTION OF
ERECTOR SPINAE
GROUP
S
ERECTOR SPINAE GROUP
Attaches from the:
S
Pelvis
to the
S
Spine, the rib cage, and the head
S
Extends the trunk and the neck and the
head at the spinal joints
S
Laterally flexes the trunk and the neck and
the head at the spinal joints
S
Anteriorly tilts the pelvis at the lumbosacral
joint and extends the lower spine relative to
the upper spine
S
Restrains/slows flexion and opposite-side
lateral flexion of the spinal joints, and
posterior tilt of the pelvis
S
Stabilizes the spinal joints, the rib cage,
and the sacroiliac joint
ILIOCOSTALIS (OF ERECTOR SPINAE GROUP)
Entire iliocostalis attaches from the:
S
Sacrum, the iliac crest, and ribs 3 through 12
to
S
Ribs 1 through 12 and the transverse processes of C4–
C7
S
Extends the trunk and the neck at the spinal joints
S
Laterally flexes the trunk and the neck at the spinal
joints
S
Anteriorly tilts the pelvis at the lumbosacral joint and
extends the lower spine relative to the upper spine
S
Restrains/slows flexion and opposite-side lateral flexion
of the spinal joints, and posterior tilt of the pelvis
S
Stabilizes the spinal joints, the rib cage, and the
sacroiliac joint
LONGISSIMUS (OF ERECTOR
SPINAE GROUP)
Entire longissimus attaches from the:
S
Sacrum, the iliac crest, the transverse processes of L1–L5 and
T1–T5, and the articular processes of C5–C7
to
S
Ribs 4 through 12, the transverse processes of T1–T12 and C2–
C6, and the mastoid process of the temporal bone
S
Extends the trunk and the neck and the head at the spinal joints
S
Laterally flexes the trunk and the neck and the head at the spinal
joints
S
Anteriorly tilts the pelvis at the lumbosacral joint
S
Restrains/slows flexion and opposite-side lateral flexion of the
spinal joints, and posterior tilt of the pelvis
S
Stabilizes the spinal joints, the rib cage, and the sacroiliac joint
SPINALIS (OF ERECTOR SPINAE GROUP)
Entire spinalis attaches from the:
S
Spinous processes of T11–L2; and the spinous process of C7
and the nuchal ligament
to the
S
Spinous processes of T4–T8; and the spinous process of C2
S
Extends the trunk and the neck and the head at the spinal
joints
S
Laterally flexes the trunk and the neck and the head at the
spinal joints
S
Ipsilaterally rotates the trunk and the neck and the head at
the spinal joints
S
Restrains/slows flexion and opposite-side lateral flexion of the
spinal joints
S
Stabilizes the spinal joints
MINI LAB
Palpating ES Group in pairs
15 min. per partner
S
LUNCH
S
LAB
Arm / Forearm / Hand Massage Sequence
40 – 60 min. per partner
S
LAB
Back / Shoulder Arm Massage
S
JEOPARDY
S