Part 5 Predictors of Job Performance
CHAPTER
14
Integrity Testing, Drug
Testing, and Graphology
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Integrity Testing
• Why worry about
employee dishonesty?
 Pressure to remain
cost-competitive in a
global marketplace
 Wide differences in
perceptions of the
extent of employee
theft
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Polygraph Testing
• Polygraph (lie detector)
 A machine that measures the physiological responses
of an individual that accompany the verbal responses
the individual makes to questioning by a polygraph
operator.
 The physiological responses and the operator’s
opinion are used to evaluate the individual’s
truthfulness in responding to the questions.
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Employee Polygraph Protection Act (1988)
• Made it illegal in selection (with the exception of
specific circumstances) to:
1. Directly or indirectly require, request, suggest, or cause
any employee to take or submit to any lie detector test to
render a diagnostic opinion about the honesty of an
individual
2. Use, accept, refer to, or inquire about the results of any
lie detector test of any job applicant or current employee
3. Discharge, discipline, discriminate against, or deny
employment or promotion to (or threaten to take such
adverse action against) any prospective or current
employee who refuses, declines, or fails to take or submit
to a lie detector test
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Permissible Uses of the Polygraph
• By Specific Employers
 Private employers providing security services.
 Manufacturers, distributors, or dispensers of controlled
substances.
 Federal, state, and local government employers.
• Under Specific Testing Conditions
 Workplace theft or other incident has occurred that
resulted in an economic loss to the company.
 Employee must have had access to the property that is
the subject of the investigation.
 “Reasonable suspicion” that the employee was involved
in the incident.
 Employee has been given specific written information
about the incident being investigated and the reasons for
the testing.
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Limitations of Polygraph Testing
• Influence of reactions other than guilt on examinee
responses
• Variations in the levels of examinee lability
(autonomic threshold)
• Use of countermeasures by examinees
• High frequencies of false positive and false negative
test results
• Certification of examiner qualifications
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Paper-and-Pencil Integrity Tests
• Types of Integrity Tests
 Overt integrity tests

Directly ask for information about attitudes toward theft and
the occurrence of previous theft behaviors.
 Personality-based measures


Do not ask about theft behaviors directly.
Inventory traits linked to several related employee behaviors
that are detrimental to the organization.
• Social Implications of Integrity Test Results
 Respondents’ view of integrity versus personality
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Who Steals?
• “Typical” Employee-Thief
 is more tempted to steal
 engages in many of the common
rationalizations for theft
 would punish thieves less
 often thinks about theft-related
activities
 attributes more theft to others
 shows more inter-thief loyalty
 is more vulnerable to peer pressure
to steal than is an honest employee.
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Personality-Based Measures
• Integrity Scale Assumptions
 Employee theft is just one element in a larger
syndrome of antisocial behavior or organizational
delinquency.
 Common personality patterns can be identified
through the use of personality inventories.
 Scale items are not transparent which reduces fake
responses by respondents
 Individuals are rejected due to their personality profile
mismatch to successful employees rather than for
failing an integrity test.
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TABLE 14.1
Scales of the Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI)
Primary Scales
Adjustment—Self-confidence, self-esteem, and composure under pressure
Ambition—Initiative, competitiveness, and the desire for leadership roles
Sociability—Extraversion, gregariousness, and a need for social interaction
Interpersonal Sensitivity—Warmth, charm, and the ability to maintain relationships
Prudence—Self-discipline, responsibility, and conscientiousness
Inquisitiveness—Imagination, curiosity, vision, and creative potential
Learning Approach—Enjoying learning, staying current on business and technical matters
Occupational Scales
Service Orientation—Being attentive, pleasant, and courteous to customers
Stress Tolerance—Being able to handle stress, being even-tempered and calm under fire
Reliability—Honesty, integrity, and positive organizational citizenship
Clerical Potential—Following directions, attending to detail, and communicating clearly
Sales Potential—Energy, social skills, and the ability to solve customers’ problems
Managerial Potential—Leadership ability, planning, and decision-making skills
SOURCE: Performance Programs, Inc. (http://www.performanceprograms.com).
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TABLE 14.2
Criteria Measures Correlated with Employee
Reliability Index
Job
Truck driver
Negative Behaviors
That Are Correlated
Positive Behaviors
That Are Correlated
Discharges from work
Grievances filed
Claims for equipment failure
Commendations
Supervisor’s ratings of
performance
Psychiatric counselor
Hospital service worker
Times counseled for aberrant
behavior
Rehabilitation therapist
Injuries sustained
Incidents reported to insurance
fund
State dollars spent for treatment
Supervisor’s ratings of attitude,
accuracy, punctuality
Nuclear power plant worker
Service operations dispatchers
Absences
Navy electronics students
Course time completion
Customer service representatives
Supervisor’s ratings of quality,
teamwork, performance
Telemarketers
Sales performance
Sales lead generation
SOURCE: Based on Joyce Hogan and Robert Hogan, “How to Measure Employee Reliability,” in Employee Testing: The Complete Resource Guide
(Washington, DC: Bureau of National Affairs, Inc., 1988).
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Usefulness and Validity of Integrity Tests
• Issues
 Occurrence of false positives

Setting cutoff scores to avoid false negatives
 Empirical validity

Problems of measuring a criterion variable
 What the tests are measuring


Correlation with the Big Five personality dimensions
Correlation of overt and personality-based integrity tests
 The magnitude of fakability by respondents

Distortion is measured at the group-level; however selection
decisions and distortion occur at the individual-level.
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Drug Testing
• Issues in Drug Use Measurement
 Distinctions related to use (levels and frequencies of
consumption) and impairment (deterioration in
performance)
• Drug use varies by:
 Occupation
 Gender
 Age
 Education
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Types of Drug Tests
• Paper-and-Pencil Tests
 Resemble paper-and-pencil integrity tests
 Limited by prohibition on self-incrimination
• Urine Tests
 Require screening and confirmation tests
 Results are dependent on threshold level
set
• Hair Analysis
 Requires screening and confirmation tests
 Allows for longer detection periods
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Types of Drug Tests (cont’d)
• Fitness-for-Duty (Competency) Tests
 Compares an individual’s response times and
accuracy while operating a computer game to the
individual’s previous scores on the game.
• Oral Fluid Test
 Oral swab taken from inside of individual’s mouth is
analyzed for presence of drugs.
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Accuracy of Chemical Tests
• Issues
 Detection of drug does not determine:





Amount used
Frequency of use
Time passed since use
Impairment of the individual
Reasonableness of threshold for detection
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Legal Issues in Employment Drug Testing
• Major legal questions about drug testing:
1. Testing represents an invasion of privacy.

Confidentially of test results is the principle concern.
2. Testing constitutes an unreasonable search and
seizure.

Nexus of testing and workplace problems is required.
3. Testing is a violation of due process.

Validity of results represents due process.
4. Drug users are protected under the Americans
with Disabilities Act.

Former, but not active drug users, are covered by the
ADA.
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Legal Issues in Employment Drug Testing
• Major legal questions about drug testing:
5. Testing may violate the Civil Rights Act.

If testing is job-related, it is permissible.
6. Testing may violate the National Labor Relations
Act.



Testing is a working condition that is subject to collective
bargaining.
Employers generally cannot unilaterally institute testing.
Disciplinary actions resulting from testing are subject to
arbitration.
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14–18
Acceptance of Drug Testing Programs
• Drug testing is accepted when:
 An advance warning of the testing is given
 Rehabilitation rather than termination is when the
presence of drugs is detected
 There are fair detection procedures and explanation
of results
 There is a perceived need for testing.
 Either urinalysis or overt paper-and-pencil tests are
used rather than a personality inventory.
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Guidelines for Drug Testing Programs
• Limit testing to positions that have major safety
implications or a history of poor performance in specific
areas linked to drug usage.
• Use both screening and confirmatory tests.
• Obtain written consent before testing and provide the
test results afterward.
• Test all individuals in the same job status.
• Ensure that privacy is afforded to individuals being
tested.
• Include education, counseling, and assistance as part of
the testing program.
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Graphology
• Graphology
 The analysis of the handwriting of an individual in
order to infer personality traits and behavioral
tendencies.
• Graphologist
 The individual who performs the analysis of
handwriting features:

Size of letters, slant, width, zones (top, middle, and bottom),
regularity of letter formation, margin, pressure, stroke, line of
letters (upward, straight, downward), connections of letters,
form of connection, and word and line spacing.
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FIGURE 14.1 Some Examples of Handwriting Features and
Their Interpretation
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Key Terms and Concepts
• Integrity
• Integrity scale
• Polygraph
• False positives
• Employee Polygraph • False negatives
Protection Act (1988) • Faking
• Lability
• Drug tests
• Paper-and-pencil
integrity tests
• Overt integrity tests
• Personality-based
measures
• Urine tests
• Hair analysis
• Fitness-for-duty tests
• Oral fluid tests
• Graphology
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14–23