The Social Child
Mark Jenkins
Major Play Theorists
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Friedrich Froebel, his kindergarten [child’s garden- the name
reflects the philosophy] aspired to the view that play fostered
enjoyment, emotional well-being and was a fundamental source
of benefit
Rudolf Steiner, Steiner-Waldorf schools, play should
predominate from birth to 7, it strengthens the imagination and
supports all aspects of development. It enables children to
concentrate, be inventive and adaptable
Susan Isaacs, with gentle guidance children could make sense
of the world for themselves. Children’s fantasies should not be
curbed and children’s questions should always be answered
seriously and respectfully
The Importance of Play
Play is vital for children’s all round development.
It provides opportunities for: Developing confidence, self-esteem and a sense of
security
 Realise their potential and feel competent
 Use creativity and imagination
 Develop thinking, reading, problem-solving and motor
skills
 Learn to understand the world around them and their
emotions
 Learn relationship and social skills, and develop values
and ethics
Piagetian Viewpoint
Children’s relationships with adults are qualitatively different
from their relationships with children
Adults – Vertical Dimension
Power assertion and dominance, children
falling below adults
Children – Horizontal Dimension
A more balanced and egalitarian relationship
Piaget characterized young children as egocentric and thus
incapable of understanding others until middle childhood
Social Learning Viewpoint
Children learn about their social
world and how to react
within it through their
interactions with peers
Either:
Directly through children
teaching one another
Or
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Indirectly through the
observation of others
Types of Play
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Cooperative play – Includes formal games, social pretend
play, constructive play. Rare before the age of 3 years
Associative play – Children talk to one another and share the
same materials but do not take on different roles in an
imaginary context or work toward the same goals
Parallel play – They play beside, rather than with other
children
Unoccupied play – Does not play with anything but simply
watches other interactions, events and things of interest
Solitary play – Children play by themselves in a way which is
noticeably different from those around them
Parten 1932
Social Functions of Play
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Piaget, social interactions
which occur within play are
essential for driving cognitive
development
Vygotsky, play builds mental
structures from the culture
surrounding the child, such
as language and number
Play allows children to
explore their social world by
adopting various roles and
interaction patterns thereby
promoting social
development
Developing Peer Relationships
From an early age
children are more often
found with child
companions than adult
companions.
Harris [1998] and
Pinker[2002]
controversially suggest
that socialization takes
place primarily in the
peer group rather than
the family
Friendship
Defined as a relationship
between two or more which
involves commitment and
reciprocity
[Hartup 1989]
Liking is an important part of
friendship but is not a
sufficient condition on its
own to develop friendship
The focus of friendship changes
with age
Friendship is at the Heart of
Social Competence
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Level 1 [5-7]
Friends momentary or transient, friends are playmates who
share and are fun
Level 2 [8-10]
Based on issues of trust and of what one likes about the
other person
Level 3 [11+]
Friendship based on intimacy and mutual understanding
Damon1977
Early friendships are fragile
Friendship offers a context for transmitting social norms, promoting
loyalty and alliance. Friendship offers companionship
Role Taking
The ability to see something from another’s point of
view
Selman’s 5 stage model
Level 0 Child does not distinguish between own and child’s
perspective
Level 1 Can recognise that they and another have different
perspectives, find others view difficult to describe
Level 2 See themselves from another’s perspective and know they
are similarly capable
Level 3 Recognizes how a third person perceives the situation
Level4
Understands that a network of perspectives exists that binds
individuals into a social system
Social Information Processing
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Encode the cues
Interpret the cues
Access or construct appropriate responses
Evaluate the likely effect of the responses and
select the most suitable
Enact the chosen response
This pro-social model has been used to locate the
problems rejected aggressive children have in
dealing with their peers
The Developmental Course of
Peer Interaction
Infancy
By 6 Months – Take an interest in other infants,
increased vocalization and smiling around peers
By 12 Months – Clear interest shown in peers, display
emotional expressions to peers
By 2 years – Mainly Parallel play
Understanding rules of social exchange
First evidence of pro-social behaviour, such as empathy.
Use of language in social exchange.
Child operates according to desire psychology
The Developmental Course of
Peer Interaction
Early Childhood
By 3 Years – Begins to engage
in cooperative play
Dominance hierarchies
observed in children’s peer
group
By 4 Years – Mostly Associative
play
Conflict is observed in children’s
relationships
The Developmental Course of
Peer Interaction
Middle and Late
Childhood
By 6 Years – Sharp increase in
the time spent with peers
Friendship is regarded as
shared interests and the
maintenance of successful
play
By 9 years – The goal of
friendship is gaining peer
acceptance
The Developmental Course of
Peer Interaction
Adolescence
Early Adolescence – Friendship is centred on intimacy
and self-disclosure
The peer group is organised around cliques and crowds
Adolescent egocentrism makes its appearance
Late Adolescence – Friends are seen as increasingly a
source of emotional and social support.
Adolescent egocentrism declines
Adolescent Egocentrism
The emerging recognition that
one may be the focus of
another’s attention
This leads to a high degree of
self-consciousness [the belief
that their behaviours are
constantly the focus of
other’s thoughts
An excessive preoccupation
with self may interfere with
the necessary attention to
others perspectives
underlying social
competence
Egocentrism decreases as
adolescence progresses
Determinants of Peer Acceptance
Based on
 Social skills
 Personal characteristics
 Names
 Physical Appearance [more important to girls than
boys]
 Sex
 Age
The common factor in our society is SIMILARITY
Peer Status
Based on Socio-metric testing, 5 Categories
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Popular high on most liked, low on least liked
Controversial high on both most and least liked
Neglected low on both low and least liked
Average some positive, some negative
Rejected low most liked high on least liked
Rejected Children
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2.
Aggressive – high
levels of behaviour
problems, poor
self-control, high
levels of aggression
Non-aggressive –
largely socially
unskilled,
withdrawn, anxious
Consequences of Low Peer Status
One of the best predictors of academic failure is rejection by the peer
group
Rejected children were perceived by peers and teachers as weak students
They are significantly more likely to drop out of school
They feel social dissatisfaction and loneliness. The feel poorly about their
own social competence
The friendship networks of aggressive rejected children are likely to
comprise other aggressive rejected children.
This deviant peer group reinforces and supports the rejected aggressive
child’s inappropriate behaviours
Delinquency
The legal definition of anti-social behaviour, includes
crimes such as vandalism and shoplifting which do
not harm people directly
Early starters – those who are aggressive
rejected at primary school [likely re-offenders]
Late starters – those who follow a more normal
developmental path but show some antisocial
behaviour for a period, a risk taking perception
usually from about 15 but desist after a time