INTRODUCTION TO
ARGUMENT
Engl 1020
Erin Breaux
COMPLICATING RHETORICAL SITUATION
 Author (Writer, Designer,
Speaker)
 Audience (Reader,
Listener)
 Text (Genre, Content,
Media)
 Constraints (Biases,
Dif ficulties, Limits)
 Exigence (Purpose,
Motivation, Importance)
 Kairos (Timeliness,
Context)
Author
Exigence
Constraints
Kairos
Audience
Text
PRACTICE WITH ARTICLE
Do exercise with a partner after reading article
DISCUSS WITH GROUP
 What other words come to mind when you think of
“argument”?
 What images come to mind?
 How do you usually approach argument? What’s
your usual response? Do you initiate?
HOW WE TALK ABOUT ARGUMENT
 Think about the metaphors that we use to describe
argument, disagreement, or debate:
 “Beat the opponent”
 “Win the debate”
 “Have the upper hand”
 “Prove them wrong”
 “Tear down their argument”
 Winners & Losers
 Pro/Con
 For/Against
 Us vs. Them
DEBORAH TANNEN
 “The argument culture urges us to approach the
world--and the people in it--in an adversarial
frame of mind. It rests on the assumption that
opposition is the best way to get anything done:
The best way to discuss an idea is to set up a
debate; the best way to cover news is to find
spokespeople who express the most extreme,
polarized views and present them as "both sides";
the best way to settle disputes is litigation that
pits one party against the other; the best way to
begin an essay is to attack someone; and the
best way to show you're really thinking is to
criticize. …”
DEBORAH TANNEN (CONT.)
 “The war on drugs, the war on cancer, the battle
of the sexes, politicians' turf battles--in the
argument culture, war metaphors pervade our talk
and shape our thinking. Nearly everything is
framed as a battle or game in which winning or
losing is the main concern. These all have their
uses and their place, but they are not the only
way--and often not the best way--to understand
and approach our world. Conflict and opposition
are as necessary as cooperation and agreement,
but the scale is off balance, with conflict and
opposition overweighted.”
NECESSARY ARGUMENT
 It is more than “disagreement” or “fight”
 Consider argument as “making a point” or “reasoned inquiry”
 A New Definition: “ Any issue on which reasonable people
can disagree.”
THE CONTINUUM OF ARGUMENT
Debatable issues
Fact
Subjective opinion
POINTLESS OR MEANINGFUL ARGUMENT
 Fact:
 “That wall is painted green.”
 “Michael Jordan is a tall man.”
 Subjective Opinion:
 Strawberry chunk ice cream is the best flavor.
 ______ is sexier than ______ [fill in with celebrities of your
choice].
 Room for Debate:
 More trivial issues like whether you should put carpet, tile, or
wood in your new house, or what kind of dog should you adopt ?
 More serious issues like whether or not the death penalty is moral
and should be used, or what’s the best way to help the AIDs crisis
in Darfur?
REASONS FOR ARGUMENT
 To Convince (change mind, bring awareness, show
importance)
 To Persuade (inspire action or actual change)
 To Inform
 To Explore
 To Make Decisions
 BAD REASONS: Just to win or to argue for argument’s
sake
BELIEF AND ACTION
 Persuasion is what we want someone else to do or not do,
believe or not believe. Usually, we try to persuade in order to
change minds or spur action . Those are the two
argumentative purposes.
 Belief/Mind:
 Dogs make better pets than cats.
 Gay parents should have the same rights as straight parents .
 Action:
 Drivers over 75 should have to re-take a driving test every 5 years.
 The U.S. government should stop sending so much aid to
Afghanistan.
GROUP DISCUSSION
 What do you feel leads to ef fective argument?
 What do you feel impedes argument?
ACADEMIC ARGUMENT
 What does argument look like in an academic
sense?
 You’re required to have more than just opinions in
academic discourse. You need to be able to think
through your opinions.
A PRETT Y GOOD ARGUMENT
MAIN PARTS OF ARGUMENT
1
• CLAIM (Often called THESIS)
• What is your position on the debatable issue?
• What do you think?
2
• REASONS (Sometimes called Sub-Claims)
• Why do you believe the position to be best or true?
• Why do you think that?
3
• EVIDENCE (Often called SUPPORT)
• What support can you give for those reasons?
• Why are those reasons valid?
CONVERSATION
 Our answers to those questions are the substance of our
argument, and they distinguish supported argument from
fact, dogmatic debate (I believe this because I say so!), or
subjective opinion.
 When we make an argument in a real conversation, we rely
on others to ask those questions, but when we make one in
writing, we have to imagine those questions on our
readers’ behalf.
VISUAL STRUCTURE
Claim
Reason
Reason
Evidence
Evidence
The number of reasons and amount of evidence will vary
according to the argument and the audience (what is
needed).
CLAIM (AKA THESIS)
 what the arguer wants the audience to believe or
accept; the main point of the argument; the thesis
statement
 statements that the writer makes that convey how you
want the audience to think about or do something
regarding a subject. Claims can always be questioned
and challenged; i.e. they are “arguable.”
 can appear anywhere in the argument or they may be
implied (in which case you must identify them by
inference)
 organizes the entire argument; everything else in the
argument is related to the claim.
 There are different types of arguable claims .
REASONS
 They support a claim—tell why the claim should
be accepted in the first place. These are
judgments the writer assumes aren't shared by the
entire audience. Reasons can also always be
questioned and challenged and must be supported
with evidence.
 The easiest way to determine the reasons you
believe a claim or have a certain perspective on
an issue: Add “because…” to your claim and finish
the new sentence.
 To be effective, reasons should be relevant and
supportable.
EVIDENCE (AKA SUPPORT)
 describes factual conditions that the writer assumes
are understood by the audience, make it possible for
the reader to accept the claim and reasons.
 Usually not questionable or challenged, can be
verified.
 Evidence is different from reasons; reasons come
from the mind of the writer, while evidence already
exists out there in the world.
 always explicitly stated and will not have to be
inferred.
 “To be believable and convincing, evidence should
satisfy three conditions. It should be sufficient,
credible , and relevant” (CSU).
T YPES OF SUPPORT
 Examples
 Facts and Statistics
 Authorities/Expert Opinion
 Anecdotes
 First-hand Experience or Observation
 Textual Evidence
 Analogies: Comparisons or Contrasts
 Cause and Effect
 Definition
 Visuals (Graphs, Charts, Photographs)
MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES
 Remember how I said that there are more than
just two sides to an issue?
 That’s because I don’t have to disagree with Bill’s
argument (claim, reasons, and evidence)
wholesale.
 Perhaps I agree with his claim, but I disagree with
the reasons he has chosen or think he could have
chosen stronger reasons.
 Or maybe we mostly disagree but for one situation
he gives, I agree in that exception to my
argument.
 This also means I could agree with Bill’s claim but
think he did not present his argument well.
STRENGTH OF ARGUMENT
 Some reasons and evidence will be stronger than
others. This is why a writer/speaker/designer must
choose the best reasons and evidence in order to
support their claim and move their audience.
 Start thinking about each part of an argument and
all aspects of an issue so that you can better
analyze and persuade.
RHETORICAL SITUATION
 It’s also important to think about how the rhetorical
situation affects an argument.
 Genre or Medium: Does the genre or medium fit the
content and purpose of the argument? Does it hinder it?
 Audience: What do they already know? What are their
likely interests, attitudes, and priorities? What would
they find convincing?
 Purpose: What is the purpose of this argument? To
solve a problem or propose a solution? To change
minds/get someone to believe or not believe
something? To get someone to do or not do something?
To get someone to think something is right or wrong?
SAMPLE ARGUMENT
 Claim: Smoking should be banned in public spaces.
 Reason: [Because] It poses too many health risks to
smokers and non-smokers.
 Support:
 Numbers of deaths attributed to second-hand smoke
 Lawsuits recently won against large tobacco
companies, citing the need for reparation for smoking related health care costs
 Examples of bans already imposed in many public
places
 Cite the surgeon general for authority
 Personal experience of aunt who never smoked but
when to bars with husband for many years, contracted
UNDERSTANDING AND TESTING AN
ARGUMENT
 What is the purpose here? What effect do we want
on audience?
 What would be best genre or medium for this
argument?
 What would audience probably think?
 Is the claim arguable, clear, and specific
statement?
 Are the reasons relevant (connected logically to
thesis) and supportable?
 Is the evidence sufficient, credible, and relevant?
FORMS OF ARGUMENT
 Remember that arguments can come in many different
forms.
 There are WRITTEN arguments like op -ed pieces,
academic essays, proposals, etc.
 There are ORAL arguments like speeches, debates,
radio ads, etc.
 There are VISUAL arguments like billboards,
magazine advertisements, posters, political cartoons,
etc.
 There are MULTIMEDIA arguments like websites,
commercials, public service announcements, etc.
SAMPLE VISUAL ARGUMENT
Claim: You should buy
Alkaseltzer…
Reason: …because it is the
best cure for a hangover.
Evidence: Alkasetzer will
prevent you from doing crazy
things while hung over, like
using your kitten to wash
your dishes. Support is the
example of a man doing
such a crazy thing while
hungover because obviously
he didn’t take Alkaseltzer.
EXPLICIT VS. IMPLICIT
 Depending on the type of argument you are looking at, the
claim and/or reasons may not be explicit.
 You may have to look closely in order to decide what the
author or the text is saying to its audience.
 There are also sometimes both explicit and implicit
messages to decipher, especially in advertisements. More
on this soon!
GOING DEEPER
 It’s time to go deeper into argument and add another
important part.
 Claim + Reasons + Evidence + Assumptions (Our textbook
calls them Warrants but I think Assumptions is much easier.)
NEW PARTS OF ARGUMENT
Claim
Reasons
Evidence
ALL PARTS TOGETHER




Claim: What do you think?
Reasons: Why do you think that?
Evidence: How do you know that’s true?
Assumptions: Why does your reason/evidence support
your claim? What is the unstated belief that links them?
What must an audience also believe in order to see a
logical bridge between your claim and your
reasons/evidence? What also has to be true for your
audience to think your reason logically connects to your
claim? What does the audience value/think is
important/like or dislike?
ASSUMPTIONS
 represents the psychology of an argument
 often assumed and taken for granted rather than stated;
usually lies beneath the visible structure of argument
 forms a logical link between reasons/evidence and a claim
(how did we get from here to there?)
 is what the audience must believe is true or agree with in
order to accept main part of argument
 can be cultural or personal values, commonly accepted
beliefs or conventions
 one claim/reason may have multiple assumptions
THINKING OF AUDIENCE
 Sometimes it is necessary to acknowledge these links
explicitly depending on the situation and audience.
 There might be several different assumptions and they may
be stated in various ways by different people.
 If readers accept your assumptions, you can then present
specific evidence to develop your claim. If readers dispute
these, you’ll have to defend the assumptions (with its own
evidence) before you can move on to the claim itself.
 You see, the assumptions give writer authority to proceed
with case and are important to either connect or alienate
an audience.
CAN ASSUMPTIONS NEED SUPPORT?
 In our textbook, when the author refers to “backing,” she
means evidence for an assumption. If you use an
assumption that a lot of your audience will not agree with,
then you may consider offering evidence for your
assumption.
 Only if needed: Claim + Reasons + Evidence
Assumptions + Evidence
REMEMBER THIS ARGUMENT?
 Claim: Smoking should be banned in public spaces.
 Reason: [because] smoking poses health risks to smokers
and non-smokers.
 Evidence:
 Numbers of deaths attributed to second-hand smoke
 Lawsuits recently won against large tobacco companies, citing
the need for reparation for smoking-related health care costs
 Examples of bans already imposed in many public places
 Cite the surgeon general for authority
LET’S GO INSIDE THIS ARGUMENT
 Claim: Smoking should be banned in public spaces.
 Reason: [because] smoking poses health risks to smokers
and non-smokers.
 What does the audience need to *also* believe ?
 Assumptions:




Citizens are entitled to protection from harmful actions by others .
Things that are unhealthy should be banned.
Laws should be made about things that pose health risks.
Public places should be healthy places.
DEBATABLE ASSUMPTIONS?
 Assumptions:




Citizens are entitled to protection from harmful actions by others.
Things that are unhealthy should be banned.
Laws should be made about things that pose health risks.
Public places should be healthy places.
 Do YOU agree that things that are unhealthy should be
banned? Do you agree in all cases? Some people may not
think that assumption is true.
 Therefore, if I think that there are many unhealthy
behaviors that we can’t or shouldn’t ban, I am probably not
going to agree with the reason that the writer gave in this
argument.
 There are, however, some assumptions that most people
would agree with and which may be used in many
arguments. These would be assumptions that are
generally-accepted truths in our society.
 Criminals should be punished. (This may be the reason
why you support harsher penalties for a certain crime, for
example.)
 Hard work is virtuous. (This may be why you think
standards should be raised in schools, for example.)
 Teachers are one of the most important professions in
society. (This may be why you want to the states to
increase teacher pay, for example.)
IS IT CULTURAL?
 However, different societies and cultures have different
generally-agreed-upon truths in the same way they have
socially-accepted behaviors.
 Many Eastern countries, for example, believe that elders
should always be respected. That assumption (something
most people in their culture would generally accept as true)
may underpin and influence many of their arguments and
their positions on issues in relation to Westerners.
ANOTHER HELPFUL STRATEGY
 There’s another good way, taken from philosophy and logic,
that can help you figure out what the assumptions of an
argument are.
 Remember: you are trying to make the implicit (unstated)
explicit (stated).
 Logic often organizes argument according to these three
parts:
 Major Premise + Minor Premise = Conclusion
USING LOGIC
 Major Premise + Minor Premise = Conclusion
 These are the parts of argument we have been discussing
except in a different order and with different names.
 Reason + Assumption = Claim (Thesis)
 See how this logical structure makes you have to explicitly
state the assumption?
 Let’s put it into a math -like equation that you can use like a
fill-in-the-blank.
 P. S. This is the most math you’ll ever get from me!
USING THE LOGIC EQUATION
REASON
•If __________________________________
ASSUMPTION
•And _______________________________
CLAIM
•Then ______________________________
BACK TO THE SMOKING ARGUMENT
REASON
• If smoking poses health risks to smokers and
non-smokers
ASSUMPTION
• And public places should be healthy places,
CLAIM
• Then smoking should be banned in public
spaces.
EXAMPLES
 Claim: You should not eat that mushroom
 Reason: The mushroom is poisonous.
 Assumption: Eating poisonous things is dangerous.
 (Most people would agree with this. That’s why most people
would have no problem with this entire argument! But if you
think poison isn’t a big deal, you will probably not accept the
writer ’s reason for why it is bad to eat a mushroom.)
EXAMPLES
 Claim: The town should create a plan to manage building
preservation and new development.
 Reason: If this doesn’t happen, the town won’t grow in
population and money.
 Assumptions: Neither uncontrolled development nor zero
development is healthy for a town.
 A town that is continually growing is good.
EXAMPLES





Claim: We need to stop using hairspray.
Reason: Hairspray pollution harms the ozone layer.
Assumptions: We want a healthy ozone layer.
Harming the ozone layer is bad.
Anything that causes pollution should be stopped.
REMEMBER THIS VISUAL ARGUMENT?
Claim: You should buy
Alkaseltzer…
Reason: …because it is the
best cure for a hangover.
What are the assumptions?
People don’t like being hung
over.
Hang overs are unpleasant.
People like to stop unpleasant
things as soon as possible.
People don’t want kitten to be
hurt.
People think kittens are cute.
VISUAL RHETORIC REVISITED
ARGUMENT IN THE BILLBOARD?
 Claim: You should watch the BBC America channel.
 Reason: [because] you’ll get both sides of the news story.
 What are the assumptions?
 Assumptions: People want both sides of a story.
 News media outlets that offer multiple perspectives are
better/more reliable than those that don’t.
 People need to get multiple perspectives.
PRACTICE: WHAT IS THE ASSUMPTION?
 Claim: WWE is fake.
 Reason: The results are never reported in the Sports
section of the newspaper.
 Claim: American Beauty is a good movie.
 Reason: It won the Academy Award for best picture in
1999.
 Claim: The president of the United States is doing a
poor job.
 Reason: The unemployment rate is the highest it has
been in ten years.
PRACTICE: WHAT IS THE ASSUMPTION?
 1. We must increase funding to the National Endowment of
the Arts because art is a fundamental part of any vital,
productive, and free-thinking society.
 2. The theory of evolution should not be taught in schools
because it contradicts a literal reading of the Bible.
 3. The theory of evolution should be taught in schools
because it is a valid scientific theory.
 4. The internet has a tremendous influence on society
because it dictates what we do and think.
PRACTICE: WHAT
ARE THE
ASSUMPTIONS?
Claim: Parents should
immunize their
children.
Reasons: [because] it
protects children from
diseases.
[because] physicians
immunize their
children.
BUT BE CAREFUL
 Some reasons, evidence, or assumptions will be stronger than
others. This is why you must choose the best reasons and
evidence in order to support your claim and move your audience.
 Claim: It will rain today.
 Reason: My grandmother ’s knee aches.
 Assumption: Achy knees can predict weather. (No one would
agree with that assumption, right?)
 Claim: Grades in college should be abolished.
 Reason: I don’t like them.
 Assumption: Anything that I don’t like is worth being abolished.
(Not many people would agree with this!)