A.P. Government – Unit 4 Notes
I. Political Participation
A. The various activities that citizens employ in their efforts to influence policy making
and the selection of their leaders
B. Many opportunities to participate in American government (due to federalism)
C. American voting habits are well below other western democracies (ex. 30% voter
turnout rate in 2014 mid-term elections, lowest in 70 years!)
D. Types of participation
1. Watching campaign coverage on TV and voting (most common forms)
2. Influencing others to vote, donating money, or volunteering is far less common
E. Who participates?
1. Education level
a. More education attained, more likely to vote
b. Strongest factor associated with likelihood to vote
2. More religiously active ---- more likely to vote (regardless of denomination)
3. Ethnicity
a. Whites most likely to vote
b. Minorities less likely to vote (especially Latinos)
4. Age
a. 45+ are most likely to vote
b. 18-24 are least likely to vote
5. Gender – no significant difference in participation rates
6. Degree of real competitiveness between candidates – as this increases, so does
voter turnout
7. Important to look for “cross-cutting cleavages” when determining a group’s
likelihood of participation
F. History of voting expansion (suffrage rights)
1. Only white, landing owning, males of specific religious affiliation (until the
1820s)
2. Universal white male suffrage
a. Starting in the late 1820s
b. Impact on successful candidates (Jacksonian Era)
3. All males
a. Starting with the 15th Amendment (1870)
b. De facto restrictions on African-American voting in the South until the
1960s (Voting Rights Act of 1965)
4. All people over the age of 21 (starting with the 19th Amendment – 1920)
5. All people over the age of 18 (starting with the 27th Amendment – 1971)
G. Voter turnout
1. Relatively strong among “registered voters” (about 75% in recent presidential
elections)
2. Relatively weak among “eligible voters” (about 60% in recent presidential
elections)
3. Voter registration difficulties
a. All states (except ND) require voter registration in advance (OH –
minimum 30 days in advance of election day)
b. Originally done to prevent election abuses from the days of political
machines
c. Now seen as a major reason for low voter turnout rates
d. Modern issues with voter registration
i. Moter-Voter Bill (1993)
ii. Party interests (based on demographics)
1. Democrats – more people registered helps
2. Republicans – more people registered hurts
4. Other reasons for low turnout
a. Difficulty of absentee voting
b. Typically large number of offices to elect
c. Weekday, non-holiday voting
d. Weakening of major political parties
e. Recent stringent state I.D. laws
5. Is low voter turnout really bad?
a. No – indicates happiness with the status quo
b. Yes – shows voter apathy and opens opportunity for authoritarian
control
6. Attempts to improve voter turnout
a. Use of provisional ballots
i. Used if voter’s registration is in question
ii. Concerns about whether or not these ballots are actually
counted
b. Early voting
i. Used in most states – helped to explain victory for Obama in
2008 and 2012
ii. Warren County – Mon. thru Fri. 30 days before election and
weekend before (all done at county board of elections)
ii. Attempts by Republican state legislatures to restrict early voting
(ex. North Carolina – 2013)
c. On-line voting (concerns over possible fraud)
II. American Elections
A. The foundation of modern democracy (more elections done in the U.S. than any other
nation in the world)
B. Functions of Elections
1. Choose political leaders from a competitive field of candidates
2. Most common form of political participation for Americans
3. Allow for peaceful transitions of power
4. Legitimize positions of power (assuming citizens accept that the elections were
done fairly)
C. Guidelines for American Elections
1. Via the Constitution
a. House elections every 2 years, 1/3 of Senate elections every 2 years
b. National elections must be on the first Tuesday after the first Monday
in November
2. Other election rules other organized by state governments
3. Role of Political Parties
a. Almost all candidates either run as Democrats or Republicans
b. Limited role in fundraising and organizing campaign activities, more is
now done by candidates themselves
4. Winner-take-all system
a. Most winners only need a plurality (more votes than anybody else)
rather than a majority (more than 50% of voter support)
b. Use of single-member districts for representation in the House
D. Primaries, Caucuses and General Elections
1. Primaries
a. Way that voters choose a party’s nominees for elected offices
b. Grew as a result of Progressive reforms at the beginning of the 20th
century to curb the abuses of party bosses and political machines
c. Typically bring out party ideologues instead of moderates
d. Types of Primaries
i. Closed primaries – voters must declare their party affiliation in
advance and can only vote in that party’s primary
a. Most states use this method
b. Ohio technically uses this method, but it is loosely
enforced
ii. Open primaries – voters can choose which party primary to
vote in on election day
iii. Blanket primaries – voters can choose for candidates in BOTH
major party primaries at the same time (rarely used)
iv. Pros and cons of closed vs. open primaries
2. Caucuses
a. Not technically elections
b. Traditional way of determining a party’s nominees for elected office
c. Focus on group decision making and public swaying of support
d. Used in some states (most famously in Iowa)
e. Mostly brings out party ideologues rather than moderates
f. Pros and cons?
3. General Elections
a. Elections to determine the actual office holder from among of
candidates typically chosen via primaries and/or caucuses
b. Typically have twice as much voter turnout than primaries (mostly
ideological moderates)
E. Campaigns for President
1. Deciding to Announce
a. Informally campaigning months or years before a formal
announcement is made
b. Impacted by support from party leaders and wealthy donors
2.
3.
4.
5.
c. Formal announcing is generally done in the spring before the primaries
(ex. Spring 2015 for 2016 election)
Primaries and Caucuses
a. Voters are choosing delegates for upcoming National Conventions
b. Delegate apportionment
i. Proportional system – usually done by Democrats
ii. Winner-take-all system – usually done by Republicans
iii. Pros and cons?
iv. Superdelegates (Impact on DNC in 2008)
c. Early primaries and caucuses
i. Iowa Caucus (Jan.)
ii. New Hampshire Primary (Jan.)
iii. South Carolina and Nevada Primaries (Feb.)
iv. Growing trend of “frontloading”
a. Negative impact?
b. Ways to improve system?
v. Importance of doing well in early races
d. Super Tuesday (March 5, 2016)
i. Almost half of states have primaries/caucuses on the same date
ii. Ohio included in the states
iii. Usually nominees are de facto chosen shortly after this
e. Candidates try to appeal to ideologues (solid conservatives or liberals)
National Party Conventions (held in late summer)
a. Officially nominate presidential and vice-presidential nominees
b. Historical change in terms of knowing the nominee in advance
c. Importance of showing party unity and pride
d. Importance of nomination acceptance speech
e. Incumbent party has their convention last
f. Historical convention “bump” in the polls
General Election Campaign
a. Most of campaign funds are spent here
b. Move towards the middle ideologically
c. Impact of debates
Contrast with Congressional Elections/Campaigns
a. House elections are far less competitive than Senate or presidential
races (mostly as a result of gerrymandering of districts)
b. Voter turnout in mid-term (congressional elections) are about half of a
presidential election, and voters tend to be more ideological
c. Congressional races tend to be affected by the popularity of the
president (coattail effect)
d. Members of Congress (especially in the House) can do more personal
campaigning, while presidential candidates have to rely more on
mass media to connect with voters
e. Congressional candidates (even incumbents) can run a campaign
focusing on the problems of Washington, while the president can’t
really do that
F. Campaign and Election Reform
1. Campaign Finance
a. The budgeting and spending of funds to win elections
b. History of significant ethics problems with the obtaining of funds
(mostly anonymous/illegal sources)
c. Reform Act of 1974
i. Creation of the Federal Election Commission (FEC)
ii. Bans on foreign contributions
iii. First ever limitations on individual donations (including cash
donations) – creation of “hard money”
iv. Availability of federal matching funds for major presidential
candidates
d. Creation of Political Action Committees (PACs)
e. Buckley v. Valeo (1976)
i. Limits on personal spending on one’s own campaign and
creating maximum spending limits are unconstitutional
ii. Campaign spending is deemed a type of free speech
f. Rise of “soft money”
i. Money designated for “party building activities” that end up
having an impact on campaigns
ii. Leads to massive increases in the spending of presidential
campaigns in the 1980s and 1990s
g. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold) – 2002
i. Raised limits on personal donations
ii. Banned “soft money” and limited the use of campaign ads by
outside interest groups
h. Rise of 527s
i. Found in a loophole in federal campaign finance law
ii. Impact on 2004 election – Swiftboat Veterans for Truth
i. Impact of Citizens United case (2010)
i. Bans limits on donations to PACs
ii. Corporations and labor unions could now donate to PACs
iii. PACs now considered “SuperPACs”
iv. SuperPACs are still not allowed to coordinate with campaigns
v. Loopholes easily allow SuperPACs to raise funds from
undisclosed donors
vi. Impact on future campaign spending?
G. Critical Realigning Elections
1. Elections that create a seismic shift in political allegiance
2. Usually a result of significant political, economic or social change
3. Examples
a. Election of 1860
b. Election of 1896
c. Election of 1932
4. Modern dealignment
III. Interest Groups
A. An organization of people who engage in political participation to achieve shared
policy interests
B. Feared by Founding Fathers as types of “factions”, federalism serves as way designed
way to limit their power
C. Contrast with political parties
1. Interest groups don’t nominate candidates to win elections, though they may
endorse and donate money to specific candidates (generally via PACs)
2. Interest groups generally have specific, limited polices (ex. NRA for gun
rights) whereas parties focus on broad policy goals (ex. GOP for gun
rights, pro-life, low taxes, etc.)
D. Theories of Interest Groups
1. Elite Theory
2. Pluralist Theory
3. Hyperpluralist Theory
E. Number of interest groups has increased dramatically in recent years
F. Types of Membership
1. Institutional Interests
a. Representing corporate interests (U.S. CofC)
b. Large broad organization interests (National League of Cities)
2. Individual Interests
a. Representing the interests of individual citizens based on specific goals
b. Vary from unions, religious, to environmental in nature
G. Types of Interest Groups
1. Economic Groups
a. Labor Unions
i. Hope to achieve better pay and benefits for workers
ii. Hope to create “closed shops” (union shops) and avoid “right to
work” laws in states
iii. Have lost significant power in recent decades (only 10% of
Americans are in labor unions today)
iv. Examples – AFL-CIO, Teamsters, UAW
b. Agriculture Groups
i. Hope to gain favorable policies on subsidies and tariffs
ii. Examples – National Farmers Organization, American Farm
Bureau Federation
c. Business Groups
i. Represent HALF of all of interest groups nationwide
ii. Hope to achieve favorable tax laws and free agreements
iii. Hope to create “open shops” and “right to work” laws in states
iv. Examples – National Association of Manufacturers, United
States Chamber of Commerce
d. Professional Groups
i. Represent specific white collar interests
ii. Examples – ABA, AMA, NEA
2. Consumer and Public Interest Groups
a. Public Interest Groups
i. Look to protect the “common good” for consumers and all
citizens
ii. Impact of Ralph Nader – Unsafe at any Speed
iii. Common Cause
b. Environmental Groups
i. Promote pollution controls and protection of wildlife
ii. Examples – Sierra Club, Audubon Society
3. Equality and Justice Interest Groups
a. Looking out for the interest of minorities and other historically
oppressed groups
b. Expand economic and social opportunities and prevent discrimination
b. Examples – NAACP, NOW, GLAAD, AARP
4. Other Notable Specific Interest Groups
a. Christian Coalition
b. NRA
c. PETA
d. NORML
H. How Interest Groups Work
1. Lobbying
a. The attempt to influence government policies
b. Examples
i. Testifying in legislative hearings (most common method)
ii. Contacting government officials (via e-mail, phone or letter)
iii. Writing legislation
iv. Informal socializing (ex. having lunch, playing golf)
2. Electioneering
a. Aiding campaigns for candidates that share their goals
b. Donating money through PACs
3. Litigation
a. Filing lawsuits in court to affect change (including class action
lawsuits)
b. Example – NAACP fighting discrimination laws in public schools
c. Writing amicus curiae (friend of the court) legal briefs
4. Appealing to the public through the media
I. Use of the “Ratings Game”
J. Where do Interest Groups get their money?
1. Foundation Grants
2. Federal grants to favorable programs
3. Direct solicitation of members
K. Influences on Success of an Interest Group
1. Size of membership should be relatively small
a. Problems of Free Riders
b. Maintain clarity of goals and message
2. Intensity (the more specific the issue, the better)
3. Mo’ Money = Less Problems
J. The “Revolving Door”
1. Members of elected or bureaucratic positions leaving to quickly take new jobs
working for interest groups (usually as lobbyists)
2. Why would this be favorable for interest groups and former officials?
3. Why would this be a problem for America?
4. Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995
5. Impact of the Jack Abramoff scandal (2006)