FITNESS TESTING AND CONDITIONING IN
ATHLETICS
Core Concepts in Athletic Training and Therapy
Susan Kay Hillman
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
•
Identify ways in which information from fitness testing can help the athletic trainer.
•
Discuss the rationale for conducting fitness testing at various times before, during, or after
the sport or training season.
•
Explain the method of establishing the 1-repetition maximum in weightlifting.
•
Define aerobic and anaerobic with reference to energy systems and relate each to various
activities.
•
Define isotonic, isometric, and isokinetic exercise and give an example of each.
•
Compare and contrast the two types of muscle contraction: concentric and eccentric.
•
Discuss factors to consider in designing an exercise prescription.
•
Define the overload principle and explain how it applies to conditioning and strength
techniques.
INTRODUCTION
• Individual working with team should be familiar with different
aspects of strength and conditioning
• Coaches, S & C specialist, athletic trainer
• Attention to proper warm up, stretching and exercise
prescription
• Careful planning and exercise selection can help improve
performance and decrease risk of injury
FITNESS TESTING PROCEDURES
• Conditioning program requires knowledge of baseline of fitness
• Fitness test can help identify weaknesses, movement dysfunctions,
body composition, flexibility, cardio respiratory function
• Preseason Participation Evaluation
• Used to assess individuals level of conditioning
• Determine weaknesses and establish conditioning/training program
• Ongoing Evaluations
• Determine effectiveness of program
• Evaluation of program could allow the person implementing program to
better individualize lifting program of each participant
• Indicate individuals progress toward fitness goals
• Postseason Fitness Evaluations
• Establish specific areas to address during off-season
• Better understanding of goals to to reach during off-season
FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS
• Muscle Function
• Muscle strength
• Maximum amount of force that a muscle or muscle group can
generate during specific movement pattern at a specified velocity
• Muscle Endurance
• Ability of muscle or group of muscles to perform repetitive actions
• Sports like cross country , some events in track and swimming
require great amount of endurance
• Repeated movement can cause trauma in weak or
unconditioned muscles
FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS
• Muscle Power
• Work during a unit of time
• Weight lifted (force) x Range of movement (vertical
distance)/time required to perform lift.
• Develop power by lifting same (or greater) amount of
weight the same distance in shorter period of time
FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS
• Evaluating Muscle Strength
• 1RM: amount of weight lifted 1 time
• 50%-75%-90%-100% of predicted weight
• Add weight until person unable to complete lift
• Repetition maximum: maximum # of repetitions person can lift at
particular weight
• # of repetitions at specific weight can also measure strength, but
also endurance
• Testing Muscle Endurance and Evaluating Muscle Power
• Endurance uses different energy source
• Sport specific evaluation or general endurance evaluation
• Squat at given weight to test leg endurance=specific
• Sit up test (# in 60 sec)= general test
• Power
• Maximal force in short period of time
• Vertical jump
Fitness Testing Parameters
• Cardiorespiratory Function
• Function of Heart and Lungs working together
• Measuring Anaerobic Power: “ Without Oxygen
• Activities of short duration=uses source of energy that does not require as
much O2
• Sprints/Explosive Movements
• Shuttle run, vertical jump
• Evaluating Aerobic Power: “With Oxygen”
• Athletic events that require O2 consumption during performance
• Longer duration. Energy source that is dependant on O2
• 1.5 mile run=standard for measuring aerobic power
• Table 2.2
•
SIDEBAR: Aerobic Tests
FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS
• Agility and Speed
• Agility: ability to start, stop and change direction
• Useful in most sports
• Testing Agility
• Rapid acceleration, deceleration, change of direction, and
acceleration
• T-test, Edgren Side Step Test
• Measuring Speed
• Important for sports with short burst of activity to reach a
position or location
• 40 yard dash
FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS
• Flexibility
• Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a full range of
motion (ROM)
• Effect of Muscle Size on Flexibility
• Bulk (hypertrophied muscles) can limit movement
• Include stretching program for muscles exercised
• Strengthen agonist and antagonist muscles
• Effect of Ligament and Tendon Composition on Flexibility
• All connective tissue made up of combination of collagen and elastin
• Some people have more elasticity in ligaments and tendons
=Hypermobile
• Decreased elasticity=Hypo mobile
FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS
• Effects of Age and Sex on Flexibility
• Generally thought females are more flexible than men though
this is not absolute
• Activities that encourage flexibility will increase their ability
to stretch regardless of sex
• As we age we decrease in flexibility
• Can delay or reverse effects of aging with continued
stretching program
• Active people have better flexibility than sedentary people
FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS
• Testing Flexibility
• Evaluating flexibility important to fitness program.
• Decrease in ROM at a joint may play role in causing injury
• Manual stretching test: compare to normal values
• Sit and Reach Test: General test for hamstring flexibility
• Functional Movement Test
• Can identify shortened (overactive/tight) muscles and/or
lengthened (inhibited(weak) muscles
FITNESS TESTING PARAMETERS
• Height, Weight, and Body Composition
• Anthropometry: measurement of body size
• Body composition: amount of fat in relation to lean tissue
in body
• Levels of fat that are to high affect ability to move
optimally
• Also associated with heart disease high blood
pressure, diabetes, arthritis and some cancers
• Measured by skin caliper test, BMI, test,
hydrostatic weighting test and electric impedance
EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION
• Needs Analysis- Specificity
• Muscle Groups
• Demands of the sport and the abilities of the individual
• Physiology and mechanics of the sport and sport skills is essential for
designing the exercise program
• Energy Systems
• Aerobic vs. anaerobic or both
• Train accordingly
• Muscle Activity
• Concentric, eccentric and isometric
• Injury Patterns
• Understand teams injury history or evaluate baseline testing
• If individual has pre-existing injury must have clearance from physician
before beginning exercise program
EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION
• Goal Setting
• Critical role within exercise prescription
• Program without objectives and goals will lose interest of athlete
• Short-Term Goals
• Immediate (daily) and short range (monthly
• Contribute to long term goals
• Long-Term Goals
• People take responsibility for establishing own goals motivation is more likely
• Identify specific goals and exact outcomes
• Relate to needs analysis: strength endurance and cardiorespiratory
• Limitations to the Plan
EXERCISE PRESCRIPTION
•
Exercise Plans
• Training volume
• Amount of work performed during a workout, during a week, and during a
season
• Repetitions or total weight lifted
• If increasing muscle mass is the goal volume will increase as program
progresses
• Exercise order
• The station approach
• Maximize overload on one muscle group before moving on to another
• More intense load on muscle group, but need to manage rest time
between sets
• Circuit training
• Perform one set of exercise and then move on to another
• When circuit is complete start at first station again
• Theory is to work a muscle group to near fatigue or fatigue and then
moving on to next exercise keeping heart rate elevated
• Muscle groups get rest period while doing other exercises
DEVELOPING THE STRENGTH TRAINING
PROGRAM
• Necessary to incorporate 2 essentials into every
program
• Resistance to muscle actions
• Gravity, dumbbells, cables, elastic bands, etc.
• Overload
• Stress or load on the muscle that is greater than
what the muscle is accustomed to moving
DEVELOPING THE STRENGTH TRAINING
PROGRAM
• Exercise Intensity:
• Intensity refers to % of 1RM
• Hypertrophy method
• Hypertrophy=general increase in bulk of muscle through
increase in size of individual muscle fiber
• 5-12 repetitions at 70-85% of 1RM
• High-intensity training method
• Improve recruitment of existing muscle fibers rather than
increase size of fibers
• Greater the load on muscle fibers the more fibers are used
• 1-4 repetitions at 85-100% 1RM
DEVELOPING THE STRENGTH TRAINING
PROGRAM
• Periodization
• Gradual increase in type, intensity and amount of training
• Achieve peak performance
• Decrease injuries and overtraining
• Program that spans various seasons
• Modify program relative to athlete’s
• General to specific training throughout the cycles of
competitive season
PERIODS OR PHASES
• Transition period:
• Follows last competition (early off-season)
• Unstructured (escape rigors of training)
• Preparatory period:
• Off-season
• Hypertrophy/endurance phase (Low intensity with high
volume)
• Allows for development of endurance base
• Lasts several weeks to 2 months
• Strength Phase
• Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
PERIODS OR PHASES
• Preparatory period (continued)
• Strength Phase
• Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels
• Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
• Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery
• Competition period:
• May last a < week or several months for seasonal sports
• High intensity, low volume, skill training sessions
• May incorporate weekly training cycles (1-7 days)
• Designed to ensure peak on days of competition
DEVELOPING THE STRENGTH TRAINING
PROGRAM
• Progressive Overload
• Gradual increase in stress placed on a muscle as it gains
strength or endurance
• Rest periods and Training Frequency
• Rest Periods
• Rest between sets or exercises
• Crucial component to strength training
• Depends on training volume and exercise order
• Higher volume=longer rest period vice versa
• If circuit training 1:1 ratio in rest to exercise
can increase strength and aerobic endurance
DEVELOPING THE STRENGTH TRAINING
PROGRAM
• Training Frequency
• Weight training on alternate days to allow sufficient recovery periods
• Early in exercise program athlete may experience muscle soreness or
Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness.
• May require longer recovery periods
• Sessions of multiple joint exercise require more recovery than single
joint exercises
• When using 1Rm or near maximal loads individuals will require more
recovery time
• Lower training volume in between heavy training volume days can allow
for more frequent lifting sessions
• Persons who have weight lifted on a regular basis for a long time may
benefit from more frequent training sessions
TYPES OF STRENGTH TRAINING
• Isometrics
• Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged
• Muscle generates force without joint movement
• Resistance greater than participant is able to move,
thus no movement occurs
• Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and should
be performed 5-10 times/daily
• Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
• Con: only works at one point in ROM, produces
spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva maneuver,
not often applicable to sport performance
TYPES OF STRENGTH TRAINING
• Isotonic Training
• Moving a joint through range of motion with a set
amount of resistance
• Strength curves: points in the range of every joint
where the muscle is at its weakest
• Middle of range usually the strongest
TYPES OF STRENGTH TRAINING
• Variable Resistance
• Started in 1970’s by nautilus company who developed an
offset cam to deliver a variation in the resistance to the
movement
• Maximize strength at various points in the range of
motion
• Sliding lever bar systems and elastic tubing developed
later
TYPES OF STRENGTH TRAINING
• Isokinetics
• Muscle action performed at constant velocity
• More often used in rehabilitation
TYPES OF STRENGTH TRAINING
• Concentric and Eccentric Training
• Concentric Muscle Activity
• shortening of muscle with contraction in an
effort to overcome more resistance
• Eccentric Muscle Activity
• lengthening of muscle with contraction
because load is greater than force being
produced
TYPES OF STRENGTH TRAINING
• Plyometrics
• Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by a rapid
concentric contraction to create a forceful explosive
movement
• Mimics most sport movement
• Rate of stretch vs. magnitude
• Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws
• Very technical training - skills must be learned with
appropriate technique
• Often develop muscle soreness as a result of
extensive eccentric loading
INTEGRATING CARDIORESPIRATORY AND
FLEXIBILITY PARAMETERS
• Aerobic Endurance Training
• Nearly every sport activity requires some degree of
cardiorespiratory , or aerobic, endurance
• Develop rational program with understanding of persons current
fitness level
• ACSM recommends intensity of 60-90% of maximal HR 3 days
a week for 20-60 minutes
• Be person and sport specific
• Use overload and specificity training principles
• Vary Program to keep participants motivated
INTEGRATING CARDIORESPIRATORY AND
FLEXIBILITY PARAMETERS
• Anaerobic training
• Energy production of the body in the absence of O2
• Training requires short, intense burst of activity
• Should be sport specific
• High intensity near maximal exercise is impossible to sustain for
long periods of time
• Must use rest periods
• Interval training can be useful
• Not appropriate for those with low level fitness
• Events that take 1-5 minutes require aerobic and anaerobic systems
• Important to train both systems
INTEGRATING CARDIORESPIRATORY AND
FLEXIBILITY PARAMETERS
• Flexibility and Stretching Programs
• Thought that flexibility and stretching will decrease risk of injury
• Not well supported by research
• Though many injuries occur when joint is forced beyond its ROM
• Flexibility important, however proper warm up proven to be more
important
• Passive Stretching
• Entails no work by individual
• Someone takes limb through ROM
• Requires training and experience
• Active Stretching
• Individual uses own body to produce a stretch of particular area
• Contract–Relax Stretching
• PNF stretch: Uses passive and active participation from individual
INTEGRATING CARDIORESPIRATORY AND
FLEXIBILITY PARAMETERS
• Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
• Specialized technique of therapy that incorporates muscle
spindle stretch and specific movement patterns
• Uses 3 movements
• Flexion-extension
• Abduction-adduction
• rotation
• Stretching Methods
• Static stretching
• Joint moved to point where stretch is felt and position is
held
• 30-60Seconds Holds
INTEGRATING CARDIORESPIRATORY AND
FLEXIBILITY PARAMETERS
•
Stretching Methods
• Ballistic stretching
• Involves bouncing movements
• Difficult to perform safely because bouncing fires Golgi Tendon
Organs in muscle
• Causes muscle to reflexively contract
• Can cause damage to muscle
• Dynamic Stretching
• Stretching through specific movements
• Shown to be best method of warm up
• Stretches muscles
• Activates other muscles
• Addresses balance and coordination
• Increases body and intramuscular temperature
• Addresses neuromuscular system