I.3. Alternative titles
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UNIVERSITE DE NICE-SOFIA ANTIPOLIS Faculté des Lettres, Arts et Sciences Humaines Département d’Anglais _________________________________________________________________ MASTER 1 MÉMOIRE _________________________________________________________________ Film Title Translation into French, a few Methods and Strategies Benoît Mora Directeur de Recherches : Madame le Professeur M. Monacelli-Faraut Juin 2010 Table of contents FOREWORD ............................................................................................................................ 3 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER I. French titles ...................................................................................................... 6 I.1. Faithful translation ........................................................................................................... 6 I.2. Lengthening out (Etoffement) .......................................................................................... 9 I.3. Alternative titles ............................................................................................................. 13 I.3.1. Alfred Hitchcock’s films: ........................................................................................ 14 I.3.2. Other examples: ...................................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER II. English titles .................................................................................................. 22 II.1. Unchanged or truncated titles (deletion) ...................................................................... 22 II.1.1. Unchanged titles: ................................................................................................... 22 II.1.2. Truncated titles: ..................................................................................................... 24 II.2. Lengthening out (two titles in juxtaposition, English and French) .............................. 26 II.2.1. Faithful translation:................................................................................................ 27 II.2.2. Lengthening out: .................................................................................................... 27 II.2.3. Alternative French title: ......................................................................................... 28 II.2.4. Alternative English title: ........................................................................................ 31 II.3. Alternative titles (modification).................................................................................... 32 II.3.1. Addition (Etoffement):........................................................................................... 32 II.3.2. A word substitution: ............................................................................................... 33 II.3.3. Two words out of one (space insertion):................................................................ 34 II.3.4. Minor modification: ............................................................................................... 34 II.3.5. Full modification: .................................................................................................. 35 CHAPTER III. A comparison: France and Quebec............................................................ 37 III.1. Faithful translation versus unchanged title.................................................................. 37 III.2. Faithful translation versus modified title .................................................................... 39 The French titles stray from the original titles when it comes to faithful translation. The French distributors also often prefer an alternative title rather than a faithful one. ................. 40 CHAPTER IV. A chronological evolution ............................................................................ 42 IV.1. ...................................................................................................................................... 43 IV.2. ...................................................................................................................................... 43 IV.3. ...................................................................................................................................... 43 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................... 44 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................. 46 2 SITOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 46 THANKS ................................................................................................................................. 48 FOREWORD Only a selection of those titles will be studied. I’ve watched each movie studied. Tables Tous les tableaux du dossier sont similaires à celui qui suit : l'ordre chronologique est la norme dans la présentation de films, ensuite le titre original et le ou les titre(s) choisi(s), enfin, le réalisateur. 3 INTRODUCTION This dissertation deals with film title translation and adaptation from English to French. Numerous techniques are used when it comes to the selection of a title for the intended audience, and they have been since the very beginnings of the Seventh Art. However, some titles are not translated, that is the reason why I will speak about title "choices". I will try to show that a good understanding and assimilation are essential in order to attract the most people possible in the film theatres. When a movie is in production, it has one or several working titles, which are temporary titles. Most of the time, it is the producers’ decision to select the official title for the release of the film. In France, the distributors are the ones that select the official French title. They are also in charge of the distribution, the programming (French cinemas) and the promotion of the film. My problematic is focused on how to translate or choose a film title (from English to French), what are the methods and strategies used and what are the reasons of these choices? A few methods: This part will focus on translatology. I will state the different translation and adaptation processes. First, I will study French title choices (CHAPTER I). Subsequently, English title choices (CHAPTER II). These chapters are divided in three subparts. A few strategies: I will compare the differences between France and Quebec through some examples (CHAPTER III). Finally, I will study the evolution of film titles selection in France through the chronological aspect (notably with the help of Alfred Hitchcock’s films). I will highlight certain translation processes according to the periods (CHAPTER IV). 4 I will try to show the causes and the reasons of the title selections depending on the movie genre or the target audience, mostly based on lengthened or alternative titles and I will provide my propositions of titles throughout the analysis, highlighting irrelevant choices according to the problematic of the dissertation. 5 CHAPTER I. French titles I.1. Faithful translation Examples: Year Original title 1925 1927 1929 1931 1933 1935 1939 1941 1946 1950 1951 1955 1956 1963 1963 1966 1967 1968 1972 1975 1983 1985 1988 1989 1991 1993 1994 2001 2003 2006 2006 2009 The Gold Rush The Unknown Blackmail City Lights Duck Soup The 39 Steps The Wizard of Oz The Maltese Falcon The Big Sleep Sunset Blvd. A Streetcar Named Desire The Night of the Hunter The Man Who Knew Too Much Charade The Birds Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? The Graduate 2001: A Space Odyssey The Godfather One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest Once Upon a Time in America Back to the Future A Fish Called Wanda Sex, Lies, and Videotape The Silence of the Lambs Schindler’s List Four Weddings and a Funeral The Others Intolerable Cruelty Letters from Iwo Jima The Prestige The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus French title La ruée vers l'or L’inconnu Chantage Les lumières de la ville La soupe au canard Les trente-neuf marches Le magicien d’Oz Le faucon maltais Le grand sommeil Boulevard du crépuscule Un tramway nommé désir La nuit du chasseur L’homme qui en savait trop Charade Les oiseaux Qui a peur de Virginia Woolf ? Le lauréat 2001, l’odyssée de l’espace Le parrain Vol au-dessus d’un nid de coucou Il était une fois en Amérique Retour vers le futur Un poisson nommé Wanda Sexe, mensonges, et vidéo Le silence des agneaux La liste de Schindler Quatre mariages et un enterrement Les autres Intolérable cruauté Lettres d’Iwo Jima Le prestige L'Imaginarium du Docteur Parnassus Director(s) Charles Chaplin Tod Browning Alfred Hitchcock Charles Chaplin Leo McCarey Alfred Hitchcock Victor Fleming John Huston Howard Hanks Billy Wilder Elia Kazan Charles Laughton Alfred Hitchcock Stanley Donen Alfred Hitchcock Mike Nichols Mike Nichols Stanley Kubrick Francis Ford Coppola Milos Forman Sergio Leone Robert Zemeckis Charles Crichton Steven Soderbergh Jonatan Demme Steven Spielberg Mike Newell Alejandro Amenábar Joel and Ethan Coen Clint Eastwood Christopher Nolan Terry Gilliam 6 A faithful translation allows the same level of information, without any addition or deletion. The original title is translated literally into the French language. In each case the translation is obvious and simple. Moreover, one can notice that the French title keeps a good consonance and seems to be "natural" as far as the language level is concerned. I will now proceed to the study of several titles. - La ruée vers l'or The Equivalence method is used to translate The Gold Rush: the expression is translated by its idiomatic expression in the target language: La ruée vers l'or, a historical phenomenon that began in the nineteenth century in the United States. - Boulevard du crépuscule This movie's title refers to a Californian boulevard in Los Angeles that connects Hollywood to the Pacific Ocean coast. It is famous for its connection with cinema. Nowadays, "Sunset Boulevard" is widely known around the world. Back in 1950, the French distributors chose to translate the street's name into French ("Sunset" becomes "crépuscule"). As a comparison criterion, countries such as Austria, Denmark and Sweden selected the original title: Sunset Boulevard. - Le lauréat The Graduate can also be translated by "Le diplômé" which is closer to the original title's definition: "(UK) a person who has a first degree from a university or college" and "(US) a person who has finished their school, college or university education" (from the Cambridge dictionaries online1). In comparison, according to the Larousse dictionary, the definition of the term "lauréat" is: "Qui a remporté un prix dans un concours, réussi un examen"2. Furthermore, we know that Benjamin Braddock (played by Dustin Hoffman) has just finished his undergraduate studies when he goes back to California in the beginning of the 1 2 http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/graduate_1 http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/lauréat 7 film. A COMPLETER - 2001, l’odyssée de l’espace Kubrick's movie was based on The Sentinel, a short story written by Arthur C. Clarke (who also wrote the novel 2001: A Space Odyssey concurrently with the film). When filming, it had two working titles: How the Solar System Was Won and Journey Beyond the Stars which can be translated respectively as such: "Comment le système solaire fut conquis" (Transposition: "La conquète du système solaire") and "Voyage au delà des étoiles". The word-for-word translation of the 1968 film is: "2001: Une odyssée de l'espace". The French title replaced the colon with a comma and the indefinite article with a definite article. The purpose of these changes could be the simplification and shortening of the original title. A COMPLETER - Vol au-dessus d’un nid de coucou The word-for-word translation of Forman's film is: "On a survolé le nid du coucou" or "Quelqu'un a survolé le nid du coucou". The French translators used the Transposition translation method: they replaced the subject and the verb by a noun and an adverbial locution ("One flew over" became "Vol au-dessus de"). A COMPLETER - Retour vers le futur Some alternative ways to translate Zemeckis' title could be "Retour dans le futur". Although here, the term "to" is well transposed in the official French title by "vers". It conveys the idea of moving and travelling from one point to another. Besides, the original French title is more fluent and more natural. - Intolérable cruauté The French title keeps the English sentence and offers a Calque translation. This allows a comic effect produced by an English language well-known fact: the adjectives are placed before the nouns. I suggest two alternative translations using Transposition: "Cruauté 8 intolérable" or "Une cruauté intolérable". I.2. Lengthening out (Etoffement) Here, the matter is to bring additional information to the original title, an explanation or a phrase that will catch the attention of the potential spectators. While the original title is generally more enigmatic, the French title gives away some additional connotations. Examples: Year Original title 1945 1951 1964 1968 1974 1975 1976 1980 Mildred Pierce The African Queen Marnie Rosemary’s Baby The Conversation Jaws Carrie Airplane! 1988 1993 1995 1997 1997 1998 1999 1999 2002 2003 2005 2005 2005 2007 2007 2007 2007 2008 Who Framed Roger Rabbit The Piano Twelve Monkeys Bean Gattaca Saving Private Ryan Being John Malkovich Notting Hill Mr. Deeds Cold Mountain Brokeback Mountain Capote Elizabethtown 1408 Beowulf Darjeeling Limited Knocked Up Bolt 2008 2009 In Bruges 9 French title Director(s) Le roman de Mildred Pierce L’odyssée de l’African Queen Pas de printemps pour Marnie Un bébé pour Rosemary Conversation secrète Les dents de la mer Carrie au bal du diable Y a-t-il un pilote dans l’avion ? Michael Curtiz John Huston Alfred Hitchcock Roman Polanski Francis Ford Coppola Steven Spielberg Brian De Palma Jim Abrahams, David Zucker, Jerry Zucker Qui veut la peau de Roger Rabbit ? Robert Zemeckis La leçon de piano Jane Campion L'Armée des douze singes Terry Gilliam Bean, le film le plus catastrophe Mel Smith Bienvenue à Gattaca Andrew Niccol Il faut sauver le soldat Ryan Steven Spielberg Dans la peau de John Malkovich Spike Jonze Coup de foudre à Notting Hill Roger Michell Les aventures de Mister Deeds Steven Brill Retour à Cold Mountain Anthony Minghella Le secret de Brokeback Mountain Ang Lee Truman Capote Bennett Miler Rencontres à Elizabethtown Cameron Crowe Chambre 1408 Mikael Håfström La légende de Beowulf Robert Zemeckis A bord du Darjeeling Limited Wes Anderson En cloque, mode d’emploi Judd Apatow Volt, star malgré lui Byron Howard, Chris Williams Bons baisers de Bruges Martin McDonagh Numéro 9 Shane Acker 9 2009 2009 The Lost World Zombieland Le monde (presque) perdu Bienvenue à Zombieland Brad Silberling Ruben Fleischer I will now present a study of some of the most interesting titles: - Le roman de Mildred Pierce The screenplay was based upon the 1941 novel Mildred Pierce written by James M. Cain. The movie kept the original title of the novel. The film shows Mildred's questioning by police. She relates her life story to the policemen in flashbacks. The addition of "Le roman" is intended to complete the original title that consists of only a female name. The French words help suggesting that Mildred Pierce is actually a name. Indeed, Mildred is a rather uncommon English first name. But there is no link with a hypothetic Mildred’s novel in the story. In my opinion, a better similar diegetically-inspired title would have been "L’histoire de Mildred Pierce", "La vie de Mildred Pierce", or "Les confessions de Mildred Pierce". A REVOIR - Pas de printemps pour Marnie Here is another title consisting of a character’s name based on the eponymous novel written in 1961 by Winston Graham. This time it is a female first name. The French title ("No Spring for Marnie") adds a sense of fatality and mystery that goes along with the genre of the film (suspense, thriller). However, A COMPLETER - Un bébé pour Rosemary The French title can be translated as such: "A baby for Rosemary". It is a bit different than the original one and is actually the same title used for the book in France. A COMPLETER - Les dents de la mer This film from 1975 was based on Peter Benchley’s novel from the year before. The working title was "Stillness in the Water" which can be translated by "Calme dans l’eau" ou "Le calme de l’océan". The French title reveals that the film (and the novel as well) is about a dangerous sea creature. A faithful translation would have been "Mâchoires" or, to be closer to 10 the 1975 French title, "Les mâchoires de l’océan". But the French title is very catchy, and Steven Spielberg himself said that he preferred Les dents de la mer than Jaws. - L'Armée des douze singes The script was inspired by the French short science fiction film La jetée (1962) directed by Chris Marker. The French title is directly taken from the film. The Army of the Twelve Monkeys is the secret organization linked with the virus. The Army of the Twelve Monkeys is inspired by "The Magic of Oz" (1919) written by L. Frank Baum, in which the King convinces twelve monkeys to become his soldiers. It is a rather good title choice in my opinion, since it uses the full expression from which is taken the original title. An alternative title could have been simply the faithful translation: "Douzes singes". - Bienvenue à Gattaca This movie was written and directed by Andrew Niccol. Gattaca is the name of the Aerospace Corporation around which the film is centered. The addition of "Bienvenue à" introduces the fact that it is a place and also that we, as spectators, are about to discover it. By doing so, the French title does not give away any diegetic information, which respects Niccol’s intentions. However, it may connote a different kind of genre. - Dans la peau de John Malkovich The French title can be translated by "Being inside John Malkovich’s skin". The faithful translation "Être John Malkovich" looses the idea of being inside Malkovich’s body. But since the movie’s main genre is fantasy, the faithful translation can easily work. The French title is taken from a line of the film stated by John Cusack’s character: "Being inside another skin". - Coup de foudre à Notting Hill 11 The French title reveals the genre of the film: a romance. The original title is an area in London. Since most of the French audience is not familiar with this place, the title is completed by "à" which states that it is a place, and by "Coup de foudre" which unveils a love story. A faithful title adaptation could have been "Notting Hill, Londres" or "Le quartier de Notting Hill". A REVOIR - A bord du Darjeeling Limited The Darjeeling Limited is the name of the train that the protagonists take to travel through India. The French title can be translated into: "Aboard the Darjeeling Limited". This indicates that the action is located either on a boat, a train or a plane. Darjeeling is an Indian town, famous for its black tea production. One can easily understand that The Darjeeling Limited is the name of an Indian vehicle. - En cloque, mode d’emploi The French title can be translated as such: "Knocked Up: a User's Guide". The slang expression is kept in the French title "en cloque", and "mode d’emploi" was added to increase the comic effect. This last addition is due to a trend certainly started by Georges Perec's novel La Vie mode d'emploi (1980). This appears in two French films: Adultère, mode d’emploi by Christine Pascal (1995) and Hommes, femmes, mode d’emploi by Claude Lelouch (1996). It is to notice that two American movies had a similarly chosen French title: Mère-fille, mode d'emploi (Georgia Rule, 2007) and Maman mode d'emploi (Motherhood, 2009). Concerning Judd Apatow’s movie, a faithful translation would have worked well in my opinion: "En cloque". - Volt, star malgré lui This movie is aimed at a young audience. Thus, the French title needs to be easily understandable. While the name of the main character "Volt" is a good translation (it allows keeping both the meaning and the sound of it), the juxtaposed sentence divulges essential 12 information about the plot and that can spoil the opening scene of the movie. In my view, selecting "Volt" as the official French title would have been a better choice. - Bons baisers de Bruges This title is directly inspired from the James Bond movie From Russia with Love (1963) by Terence Young (adapted from Ian Fleming’s book). This sentence is an idiom usually placed at the end of a letter. It was translated by a close French idiom: Bons baisers de Russie. The French distributors decided to adapt this title with the Belgium city of Bruges. Instead of translating faithfully In Bruges by "A Bruges", they add the reference to James Bond and thus to action and thriller movies. It should be noted that a French action movie (a Luc Besson's production) was released in 2010 with the international title From Paris with Love (directed by Pierre Morel). - Numéro 9 In the year 2009, two films were released with the respective names Nine (Rob Marshal) and 9 (Shane Acker). The first one was released with the same name and the second one was completed by "Numéro". The original title is the name of the main character 9 as it is written on his back. In France they added a transparent term in order to avoid possible confusion. A COMPLETER synthèse de remarques plus théoriques. - Le monde (presque) perdu A COMPLETER The faithful translation of this title would be "Le monde perdu". - Bienvenue à Zombieland Gattaca A COMPLETER I.3. Alternative titles In each case, the selected title marks a detachment from the original title. Some information is replaced (some is lost and some added) for a title that differs partially or even 13 completely. Alternative titles are often inspired by the plot (diegetic information), or often summarizes the film or its main theme. In my view, these choices are rarely judicious. There are some reasons behind these changes: the will to create a catchy title for the French target audience, and simplification. I will suggest several different title choices, always beginning with the most obvious one: literal translation. This title has, de facto, a stronger link with the original title; it is consequently more legitimate regarding the film. In each case that will follow, the literal translated title will be my first choice. However, other plausible selections exist, and that is why I also selected some alternative titles that I will comment on a case by case basis. I.3.1. Alfred Hitchcock’s films: Year Original title French title 1927 The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog L'éventreur 1936 Sabotage Agent secret 1936 Secret Agent Quatre de l'espionnage 1942 Saboteur La cinquième colonne 1945 Spellbound La maison du docteur Edwardes 1946 Notorious Les enchainés 1951 Strangers on a Train L'inconnu du Nord-Express 1953 I Confess La loi du silence 1954 Dial M for Murder Le crime était presque parfait 1957 Four O'Clock (series premiere of NBC's Suspicion) Pris au piège 1958 Vertigo Sueurs froides 1959 North by Northwest La mort aux trousses 1969 Topaz L'étau The following consists of a study of some Hitchcock's titles: - L'éventreur (The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog) It was inspired by Marie Belloc Lowndes' novel The Lodger (1913). This story is based on 14 Jack the Ripper, who committed a series of murder in London in 1888. This explains why the French title is named "L'éventreur". As it reveals some essential information about the contents of the film, and both Marie Belloc Lowndes and Hitchcock chose not to reveal that this story was about a ripper, I think the French title should have followed this lead. Title suggestions: • "Le pensionnaire: une histoire du brouillard Londonien" • "Le pensionnaire" • "Meurtres dans le brouillard Londonien" As Hitchcock's original title was The Lodger: A story of the London Fog, and Belloc Lowndes' was The Lodger, I consider these choices to be legitimate. As opposed to my second suggestion, my last title does not revolve around the main protagonist but around the mysterious events and also the place and the atmosphere of the story. - Agent secret (Sabotage) and Quatre de l'espionnage (Secret Agent) Sabotage is translated by Agent secret (from Joseph Conrad's eponymous novel). The following film (Secret Agent) had to get a different French name: Quatre de l'espionnage was chosen. Because of the number "four" that appears in the title, the number of spies that are in Switzerland is revealed. In my opinion, this spoils the plot and the final denouement. Titles suggestions for Secret Agent • "Agent secret" • "Ashenden : agent secret" (or "L'agent secret Ashenden") • "Espionnage" (or "Espion") In the first place, my title is inspired by the novel from which the movie is based on (Ashenden, written by W. Somerset Maugham) and by the original title to create a new French title focused on the plot's hero. In the second place, I suggest an alternative title that is less specific than the French one and that has an explicit link with the original title - it goes along 15 with the spy film genre. Translation: "Ashenden: Secret Agent" ("Secret Agent Ashenden"); "Espionage" ("Spy"). Titles suggestions for Sabotage: • "Sabotage" • "Espion et sabotage" • "Sabotage : une histoire d'espion" This movie is the adaptation for the screen of Joseph Conrad's novel The Secret Agent (1907), but as Hitchcock had already chosen this title for his second movie to come of the same year (1936), he had to change it. This explains the French distributors' choice. I suggest an alternative title that combines the main idea of the novel's title and preserve the original title of the movie. Translation: "Spy and Sabotage"; "Sabotage: a Spy's Story". - La cinquième colonne (Saboteur) In France, Saboteur's title consisted of a common phrase - La cinquième colonne, which refers to partisans that live in a different state that they support. Titles suggestions: • "Saboteur" • "Qui est le saboteur ?" • "A la recherche du saboteur" My suggestions are directly inspired from the film's diegetic. It reveals some of the plot but it adds a connotation of detection that can turn out to be intriguing (Etoffement). - Pris au piège (Four O'Clock) Four O'Clock has a specific connotation, since the hero is a clockmaker (unfortunately, this information is lost in the French title). Besides, something is supposed to happen at this precise time. Titles suggestions: 16 • "A quatre heure" • "Quatre heure pile" • "Les quatre coups de l'horloge" When translating literally into French, the "clock" term that remains in the expression "O'Clock" is lost. In my last suggestion, I chose to reinsert this idea adapting the expression "les douzes coups de minuit" by substituting "horloge" with "minuit" since the time is indicated by the number of strokes (Equivalence and Substitution). - Sueurs froides (Vertigo) Vertigo deals about the detective John 'Scottie' Ferguson (James Stewart) who suffers from a phobia: the pathological fear of heights, also known as Acrophobia. The French title does not take this information into account and has a more general denotation: fear. It is also worth noticing that Hitchcock's film was based on a novel entitled D'entre les morts written by Pierre Boileau and Thomas Narcejac and the working title of the movie was From Among the Dead. This title characterizes Kim Novak's role. In the eventuality that the title "Vertige" (or "Vertiges") was refused due to a high number of homonyms, I think that the French novel's title would have been more suitable. Titles suggestions: • "Vertige" (or "Vertiges") • "D'entre les morts" • "Enquête vertigineuse" Regarding this film, I think that no other title suits better than the literal translation. It is simple and very close to the original one (both its spelling and sound). I suggest nonetheless some alternative titles that are, in my opinion, more relevant than the selected French title back in 1958. The last title is simply a reformulation of the original title's meaning with the addition of the detective story connotation "Enquête". It is, de facto, more specific and thus, it 17 gives more importance to the film's genre. I.3.2. Other examples: Year Original title French title 1934 1936 1938 1939 1940 1943 1944 1944 1945 1949 The Thin Man Mr. Deeds Goes to Town Bringing Up Baby Stagecoach The Philadelphia Story Stormy Weather Double Indemnity To Have and Have Not The Lost Weekend On the Town L’introuvable L’extravagant M. Deeds L’impossible M. Bébé La chevauchée fantastique Indiscrétions Symphonie magique Assurance sur la mort Le port de l’angoisse Le poison Un jour à New York 1952 1956 1958 1962 1963 1964 High Noon The Searchers Touch of Evil To Kill a Mockingbird The Nutty Professor Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb Midnight Cowboy Dirty Harry Blazing Saddles The Deer Hunter Being there The Fox and the Hound Le train sifflera trois fois La prisonnière du désert La soif du mal Du silence et des ombres Docteur Jerry et Mister Love Docteur Folamour 1969 1971 1974 1978 1979 1981 1984 1984 1988 1993 1994 1994 1995 1997 1998 1999 2001 2004 2006 2006 2008 2008 Director(s) W. S. Van Dyke Frank Capra Howard Hawks John Ford George Cukor Andrew L. Stone Billy Wilder Howard Hawks Billy Wilder Stanley Donen, Gene Kelly Fred Zinnemann John Ford Orson Welles Robert Mulligan Jerry Lewis Stanley Kubrick Macadam cow-boy L’inspecteur Harry Le shérif est en prison Voyage au bout de l’enfer Bienvenue Mister Chance Rox et Rouky John Schlesinger Don Siegel Mel Brooks Michael Cimino Hal Ashby Ted Berman, Richard Rich, Art Stevens A Nightmare on Elm Street Les griffes de la nuit Wes Craven A Passage to India La route des Indes David Lean Die Hard Piège de cristal John McTiernan Carlito's Way L’impasse Brian De Palma Shallow Grave Petits meurtres entre amis Danny Boyle The Hudsucker Proxy Le grand saut Joel and Ethan Coen The Shawshank Redemption Les évadés Frank Darabont The Crucible Les sorcières de Salem Nicholas Hytner Lock, Stock, and Two Smoking Barrels Arnaques, crimes et botanique Guy Richie Three Kings Les rois du désert David O. Russell Monster's Ball A l’ombre de la haine Marc Forster 50 First Dates Amour et amnésie Peter Segal The Departed Les infiltrés Martin Scorsese Stranger Than Fiction L'incroyable destin de Harold Marc Forster Crick Revolutionary Road Les noces rebelles Sam Mendes Seven Pounds Sept vies Gabriele Muccino 18 2008 2009 2009 2010 The Brothers Bloom (500) Days of Summer Where the Wild Things Are How to Train Your Dragon Une arnaque presque parfaite 500 jours ensemble Max et les Maximonstres Dragons Rian Johnson Marc Webb Spike Jonze Dean DeBlois, Chris Sanders Similarly to Hitchcock's films, the original title is partially or in some cases completely different when adapted for France. Symphonie magique emphasizes the fact that it is a musical (genre). Rox Et Rouky differs also from the novel's title from which it was based on: The Fox And The Hound by Daniel Pratt Mannix; Same thing for Les évadés inspired from Stephen King's short story: Rita Hayworth and Shawshank Redemption (1982) which benefited from a literal translation in France. As to The Crucible, the adaptation of Arthur Miller's play (1953), the original French play's title was chosen for the film as well: Les sorcières de Salem. In many cases, the French title gives away too much information about the diegetic. Petits meurtres entre amis, even if the title keeps the death connotation (Grave), it displays more information than Danny Boyle's original title. The same point occurs when considering Le grand saut, which deals about a jump from the top of a building. Amour et amnésie as well, in which the character played by Drew Barrymore suffers from amnesia (also, the comic effect present in the original title is lost). Here is a study of some titles: - Rox et Rouky (The Fox And The Hound) • "Le renard et le chien" • "Le renard et le chien de chasse" The English title is faithful to the novel from which it is based on. When it was in production, its working title was Tod & Copper which are the names of the two main characters. This title was transposed into French (Rox et Rouky). Even if this movie is intended for a young audience, I think that to preserve the opposition between the two animals works well (emphasized by the addition of "de chasse"). Moreover, this title may recall many 19 titles from Jean de La Fontaine's Fables. - Petits meurtres entre amis (Shallow Grave) • "Une tombe pas assez profonde" • "Une tombe peu profonde" • "Une tombe qui manque de profondeur" I selected these titles to be the closest possible to the original one. By doing so, the reference to the film's line is kept as well as the same humorous effect (thanks to different modulations). - Le grand saut (The Hudsucker Proxy) • "Le remplaçant d'Hudsucker" • "PDG par procuration" • "Le PDG de substitution" • "A la tête d'Hudsucker : ça tombe sur lui" The term Proxy conveys the idea of substitution and procuration, and Hudsucker is the name of the former CEO (Chief Executive Officer) of the business and thus, the business' name as well. I included a play on words in the fourth suggestion that tries to combine the two titles into one (thanks to juxtaposition). - Les évadés (The Shawshank Redemption) • "La rédemption de Shawshank" • "Rédemption à la prison Shawshank" First, let us note that, for Darabont's original title, Stephen King's short story's title is truncated. However, the essential is preserved. Yet, the key term "Redemption" does not appear in the French title. I selected two titles that are closer to the original titles (both the short story and the film), and I added a precision on the word "Shawshank": it is a place and more precisely a jail. (Etoffement). 20 By definition, it is impossible to translate the full meaning of a language into another. Consequently, the closer a title is to the original one, the better it is. Thanks to Education and Globalization notably, the French people has more and more connection with the English language (cinema, series, music, internet, etc...). Shortly after WWII, more and more American movies are progressively released in the French Republic. The "aura" of the United States of America over the world is becoming particularly important in the seventh art. These are some of the reasons why more and more English titles appear in the French film theatres. 21 CHAPTER II. English titles II.1. Unchanged or truncated titles (deletion) II.1.1. Unchanged titles: Year 1941 1942 1943 1950 1961 1964 1964 1969 1970 1983 1986 1987 1988 1988 1991 1993 1996 1998 1998 1999 2000 2000 2002 2002 2003 2003 2004 2004 2004 2005 2005 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 Original title Citizen Kane For Me and My Gal Cabin in the Sky Annie Get Your Gun West Side Story Goldfinger My Fair Lady Easy Rider Love Story Scarface Platoon Full Metal Jacket Beetlejuice Rain Man Trainspotting Jurassic Park Mars Attacks! Snake Eyes The Big Lebowski American Beauty Memento Requiem for a Dream Insomnia Minority Report Big Fish Mystic River Garden State Million Dollar Baby Shaun of the Dead Broken Flowers The Constant Gardener The Descent The Jacket Little Miss Sunshine The Fountain Hot Fuzz Director(s) Orson Welles Busby Berkeley Vincente Minnelli George Sidney Jerome Robbins, Robert Wise Guy Hamilton George Cukor Dennis Hopper Arthur Hiller Brian De Palma Oliver Stone Stanley Kubrick Tim Burton Barry Levinson Danny Boyle Steven Spielberg Tim Burton Brian De Palma Joel and Ethan Coen Sam Mendes Christopher Nolan Darren Aronofsky Christopher Nolan Steven Spielberg Tim Burton Clint Eastwood Zach Braff Clint Eastwood Edgar Wright Jim Jarmush Fernando Meirelles Neil Marshall John Maybury Jonathan Dayton, Valerie Faris Darren Aronofsky Edgar Wright 22 2007 2007 2008 2008 2008 2009 2009 2010 2010 Into The Wild There Will Be Blood Burn After Reading Slumdog Millionaire The Wrestler A Serious Man Lovely Bones Kick-Ass Shutter Island Sean Penn Paul Thomas Anderson Joel and Ethan Coen Danny Boyle, Loveleen Tandan Darren Aronofsky Joel and Ethan Coen Peter Jackson Matthew Vaughn Martin Scorsese The original title is preserved. The potential audience does not necessarily have the title's indication (due to an approximate understanding of the English language), but in compensation, they are more and more guided by various film reviews. Most of these examples can easily be translated faithfully. This results from the fact that they are composed either by transparent words, either by accessible words. This phenomenon is observed in titles such as: Love Story ("Histoire d'amour"), Jurassic Park ("Le parc du jurassique"), Mars Attacks! ("Mars attaque !" or "Les martiens attaquent !"), Requiem for a Dream ("Requiem pour un rêve"), Insomnia ("Insomnie"), Minority Report ("Rapport minoritaire"), The Fountain ("La fontaine"), etc. Concerning the less obvious original titles that have been kept in France, I will suggest some French titles, using literal and faithful translation, Etoffement, or alternative titles. - Full metal jacket Faithful translation: "Balles blindées". Alternative title: "Le Merdier" (from Gustav Hasford's novel translated by "Le Merdier" into French). - Beetlejuice Literal translation: "Jus de Scarabée". Faithful translation: "Bételgeuse". Etoffement: "Beetlejuice: jus de cafard". - Big Fish 23 Etoffement: "Big Fish: un film aux proportions mythiques" (from Daniel Wallace's novel Big Fish: A Novel of Mythic Proportions). - The Jacket Faithful translation: "La camisole". Etoffement: "La camisole de force". - Into The Wild Alternative title: "Voyage au bout de la solitude" (from the French title of Jon Krakauer's book) or "Retour à la vie sauvage" or "L'appel de la nature". - There Will Be Blood Literal translation: "Il y aura du sang". Faithful translation: "Du sang coulera" or "Le sang va couler". Alternative title: "Pétrole !" (This is the literal translation of Upton Sinclair's novel Oil!, from which Anderson's movie is based on) or "Du pétrole et du sang". - Slumdog Millionaire Faithful translation: "Le millionnaire du bidonville". Etoffement: "L'enfant des bidonvilles et les millions". - The Wrestler Literal translation: "Le catcheur". II.1.2. Truncated titles: II.1.2.1. The: Year 1971 1980 1981 1981 1984 1985 Original title The French Connection The Shining The Elephant Man The Evil Dead The Terminator The Breakfast Club French title Director(s) French Connection Shining Elephant Man Evil Dead Terminator Breakfast Club William Friedkin Stanley Kubrick David Lynch Sam Raimi James Cameron John Hugues 24 1994 1995 1995 1996 1999 1997 1997 1997 1999 1999 2003 2003 2006 2006 2009 2010 The Last Seduction The Crossing Guard The Usual Suspects The Rock The Matrix The Butcher Boy The Ice Storm The Postman The Ladykillers The Virgin Suicides The Matrix Reloaded The Matrix Revolutions The Da Vinci Code The Last Kiss The Girlfriend Experience The Wolfman Last Seduction Crossing Guard Usual Suspects Rock Matrix Butcher Boy Ice Storm Postman Ladykillers Virgin Suicides Matrix Reloaded Matrix Revolutions Da Vinci Code Last Kiss Girlfriend Experience Wolfman John Dahl Sean Penn Bryan Singer Michael Bay A. and L. Wacowsky Neil Jordan Ang Lee Kevin Costner Joel and Ethan Coen Sofia Coppola A. and L. Wacowsky A. and L. Wacowsky Ron Howard Tony Goldwyn Steven Soderbergh Joe Johnston The principle is to remove "The" from the beginning of the original title. No translation is done thereafter. They are mostly accessible and rather short titles. This method may be used in order to simplify the titles' alphabetical classification. II.1.2.2. Other: Year 1984 1995 2000 2004 2004 2009 Original title This Is Spinal Tap Beyond Rangoon O Brother, Where Art Thou? Finding Neverland A Love Song for Bobby Long Up in the Air French title Spinal Tap Rangoon O’Brother Neverland Love Song In the Air Director(s) Rob Reiner John Boorman Joel and Ethan Coen Marc Forster Shainee Gabel Jason Reitman One or several words were truncated from the original title. We can notice several functions concerning these truncations: - A simple shortening There is a deletion of some words that do not affect the meaning of the title: This Is Spinal Tap was released in France with the title Spinal Tap and Up in the Air under the title In the Air. 25 - One word deletion Out of two words, the French title keeps the main one which is also the easiest to understand (Beyond Rangoon becomes Rangoon; Finding Neverland becomes Neverland). - Deletion Only the main idea is kept in the French title, everything else is judged as being useless (O Brother, Where Art Thou? Was entitled O’Brother; A Love Song for Bobby Long was changed to Love Song). II.2. Lengthening out (two titles in juxtaposition, English and French) Examples: Year Original title French title 1932 1933 Freaks King Kong Freaks - La monstrueuse parade King Kong, la huitième merveille du monde 1944 1978 1979 1985 1986 1986 1986 1990 1991 1993 1994 1995 1995 1999 2000 2001 2002 2002 2002 2004 2005 2005 Lifeboat Halloween Alien Out of Africa Aliens Down by Law Stand by Me Miller's Crossing Fisher King Short Cuts Clerks Babe Get Shorty Sleepy Hollow Snatch. The Man Who Wasn't There Analyze That Anything Else Punch-Drunk Love Jarhead Closer Land of the Dead Lifeboat - les naufragés Halloween, la nuit des masques Alien - le huitième passager Out of Africa - Souvenirs d'Afrique Aliens - Le retour Down by Law - Sous le coup de la loi Stand by me - Compte sur moi Miller's Crossing - Un cadavre sous le chapeau Fisher King - Le roi pêcheur Short Cuts - Les Américains Clerks, les employés modèles Babe, le cochon devenu berger Get Shorty (Stars et truands) Sleepy Hollow - La légende du cavalier sans tête Snatch - Tu braques ou tu raques The barber - L'homme qui n'était pas là Mafia blues 2 - La rechute! Anything else, la vie et tout le reste Punch-drunk love - Ivre d'amour Jarhead - la fin de l'innocence Closer, entre adultes consentants Land of the Dead - Le territoire des morts Director(s) Tod Browning Merian C. Cooper, Ernest B. Schoedsack Alfred Hitchcock John Carpenter Ridley Scott Sydney Pollack James Cameron Jim Jarmusch Rob Reiner Joel and Ethan Coen Terry Gilliam Robert Altman Kevin Smith Chris Noonan Barry Sonnenfeld Tim Burton Guy Richie Joel and Ethan Coen Harold Ramis Woody Allen Paul Thomas Anderson Sam Mendes Mike Nichols George A. Romero 26 2005 2006 2006 2006 2007 2007 2007 Serenity Cars Click Inside man Diary of the Dead Live Free or Die Hard No Country for Old Men 2007 2008 2009 2009 Stardust The Dark Knight Adentureland Watchmen Serenity - L'ultime rébellion Cars - Quatre roues Click - télécommandez votre vie Inside man - l'homme de l'intérieur Diary of the dead - Chroniques des morts-vivants Die hard 4 - Retour en enfer No country for old men - Non, ce pays n'est pas pour le vieil homme Stardust, le mystère de l'étoile The Dark Knight: Le Chevalier noir Adventureland - Job d'été à éviter Watchmen - Les gardiens Josh Whedon John Lasseter, Joe Ranft Frank Coraci Spike Lee George A. Romero Len Wiseman Joel and Ethan Coen Matthew Vaughn Christopher Nolan Greg Mottola Zack Snyder The title selection includes the original title and a juxtaposed French title which is referred to as the French subtitle or the secondary title. There are however several kinds of French titles. I will discuss them through various translation methods categories. II.2.1. Faithful translation: The original titles are followed by their faithful translation. The viewers have both the original title and its French equivalent. As these titles offer the original title and its translation, I will not discuss this subclass further and thus I will only give a list of the French titles that matches this category: Down by Law - Sous le coup de la loi; Fisher King - Le roi pêcheur; Punch-drunk love - Ivre d'amour; Land of the Dead - Le territoire des morts; Inside man - l'homme de l'intérieur; Diary of the dead - Chroniques des morts-vivants; No country for old men - Non, ce pays n'est pas pour le vieil homme; The Dark Knight: Le Chevalier noir; Watchmen - Les gardiens. II.2.2. Lengthening out: The French juxtaposed title is an Etoffement translation of the original title. I will now study a few cases in point. - Clerks, les employés modèles 27 Besides the faithful translation, there's an addition of the word "modèles" which forms the expression "employés modèles". This term adds a sense of humour as it is clearly ironical. This title goes along with the genre of the movie: a comedy. - Freaks - La monstrueuse parade This French juxtaposed title can be translated by "The freaky parade" or " The freak show". This movie is about a circus composed by "freaks": people that are deformed. - Anything else, la vie et tout le reste In this case, the French title can be translated by "Life and everything else". The addition consists of the words "La vie" that becomes the key idea. One can notice the difference between "Anything else" (that is closer to the French translation "Tout sauf ça") and "everything else" (that is closer to the French translation "tout le reste"). - Cars - Quatre roues A simple French title would have been "Voitures", but the distributors chose to go with another way of naming a car: "Quatre roues" ("four wheels" in word by word English). This goes along with the protagonists (cars) as this expression is more impersonating. II.2.3. Alternative French title: This is the most important category. The French juxtaposed title is partially changed or even completely different in most of the cases. As my list displays eighteen examples that belong in this category, I will study only some of the most interesting ones. - Alien - le huitième passager The French juxtaposed title which can be translated as "the eighth passenger" refers to the Xenomorph that was planted in the body of one of the seven members of the spaceship's crew. This title was selected from one of the taglines of the film when it was released in 1979 in the United States of America: "It's Alien, the 8th passenger." - Out of Africa - Souvenirs d'Afrique 28 The original title comes from the latin locution: "Ex Africa semper aliquid novi" which means "Out of Africa always something new" (Toujours quelque chose de nouveau en provenance de l'Afrique"). It is interesting enough to note that this film is largely based on the eponymous book written by the Danish author Karen Blixen. In France, this book was entitled La Ferme africaine based on the beginning of the book and its settings: "I had a farm in Africa at the foot of the Ngong Hills". The French distributors chose to select a different subtitle, inspired by the novel's autobiographical kind that was written years after the events took place. - Aliens - Le retour James Cameron's film was entitled Aliens instead of "Alien II" which was the working title. The French juxtaposed title is used for underlining that this movie is the direct sequel of Ridley Scott's film. - Stand by me - Compte sur moi The French title undergoes a shift of point of view. Indeed, the faithful translation of the original title could have been "Soutiens-moi" or "Reste à mes côtés". The distributors decided to choose a phrase that is closer to the film's plot ("Count on me" in English). They chose to keep the original title, respecting Rob Reiner's choice, as he shifted the title from The Body (the working title from the eponymous Stephen King's novella) to Stand by Me which comes from Ben E. King's song (which is played during the credits). - Miller's Crossing - Un cadavre sous le chapeau Here, the French title consists of the original title followed by the Quebecker one. The later is inspired by the plot which revolves around the misunderstanding and thus the mystery of a dead body's identity. As the original title is the name of a place, the French subtitle is a good way to complete the title instead of translating or transposing it. - Sleepy Hollow - La légende du cavalier sans tête 29 Tim Burton's movie is based on Washington Irving's short story called The Legend of Sleepy Hollow which was translated in several French titles: La Légende de Sleepy Hollow or La Légende du Val dormant or La Légende du cavalier sans tête. The later was selected as the secondary French title. Once again in this example, the original name of the place is not translated in favour of a French alternative title. - Snatch - Tu braques ou tu raques The French distributors chose to use a title with familiar verbs that rhyme. This goes along with the genre and the characters of Guy Richie's film. - Jarhead - la fin de l'innocence The original title comes from the nickname that the new army recruits are given after their head is shaved. It can be translated literally into French by "Tête de bocal". Sam Mendes film is based upon Anthony Swofford's autobiographical eponymous novel which relates a young American Marine's arrival in the "Operation Desert Shield" in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait during the Gulf War. The French subtitle focuses on the youth of the American soldier freshly enlisted confronted with the war, as it plays a central part in the plot. - Stardust, le mystère de l'étoile Stardust can be translated faithfully into French by "Poussière d'étoile". However, Neil Gaiman's eponymous novel was released in France under its English original title. As for the movie adaptation, the French distributors chose to add a subtitle to Matthew Vaughn's film that fits the genre (fantasy, adventure). - Adventureland - Job d'été à éviter The original title is more connoted by the amusement park and the children that go along with a family and adventure genre of film. However, this film is a romantic comedy destined to teenagers and adults, and that is one of the reasons why the French subtitle diverges from the family movie genre to attract its targeted audience. 30 - Additional examples: King Kong, la huitième merveille du monde; Lifeboat - les naufragés; Short Cuts - Les Américains; Babe, le cochon devenu berger; Get Shorty (Stars et truands); Closer, entre adultes consentants; Serenity - L'ultime rébellion; Click - télécommandez votre vie. II.2.4. Alternative English title: In this category, the original title is replaced by another English title, and followed by either a French translation of the original title or an alternative French title. - The barber - L'homme qui n'était pas là The English alternative title is followed by the faithful translation of the original title: The Man Who Wasn't There. The main English title, The barber, characterizes the profession of the main protagonist played by Billy Bob Thornton (diegetic information). Besides, it is worth noticing that "The Barber Project" was the working title before its release. - Mafia blues 2 - La rechute! The original English title of Harold Ramis' film is Analyze That. This is the sequel of the film entitled Analyze This that was released in France under the title Mafia blues. The French subtitle that was chosen is inspired by the tagline of the film: "Back in therapy". Both the alternative English title and the juxtaposed French one underline the fact that this is a sequel. - Die hard 4 - Retour en enfer In France, each title of the Die Hard trilogy - Die Hard (1988), Die Hard 2 (1990) and Die hard with a Vengeance (1995) was released under an alternative French title (respectively: Piège de crystal; 58 Minutes pour vivre; Une journée en enfer). The fourth episode of the saga was released in 2007 with the title Live Free or Die Hard. As the Die Hard trilogy was a success around the world, the French distributors chose Die Hard 4 as the main title for the 2007 movie. The French subtitle insists that it is a sequel of the saga. Besides, the French juxtaposed title is clearly inspired by the third French title: Une 31 journée en enfer. II.3. Alternative titles (modification) Examples: Year 1943 1961 1963 1987 1990 1992 1995 1998 1999 2001 2001 2002 2005 2005 2005 2005 2006 2008 2008 2009 2009 2009 2009 2009 Original title The Gang’s All Here Blast of Silence The Cool World Raising Arizona Trust Strictly Ballroom Se7en Wild Things Analyze This Mulholland Dr. Not Another Teen Movie Phone Booth Flightplan Harsh Times Kiss Kiss Bang Bang Shopgirl A Prairie Home Companion Happy-Go-Lucky What Happens in Vegas Gamer Spread Staten Island The Boat That Rocked The Hangover French title Director(s) Banana Split Baby Boy Frankie Harlem Story Arizona Junior Trust me Ballroom Dancing Seven Sexcrimes Mafia Blues Mulholland Drive Sex Academy Phone game Flight plan Bad times Shane Black‘s Kiss Kiss Bang Bang Shop girl The Last Show Be Happy Jackpot Ultimate Game Toy Boy Little New York Good Morning England Very Bad Trip Busby Berkeley Allen Baron Shirley Clarke Joel and Ethan Coen Hal Hartley Baz Luhrmann David Fincher John McNaughton Harold Ramis David Lynch Joel Allen Joel Schumacher Robert Schwentke David Ayer Shane Black Anand Tucker Robert Altman Mike Leigh Tom Vaughan Mark Neveldine, Brian Taylor David Mackenzie James DeMonaco Richard Curtis Todd Phillips This method is used in order to simplify the understanding of the title. Several sorts of modifications can be described. II.3.1. Addition (Etoffement): - Trust me The original title (Trust) defines the relationship between the two protagonists. In order to avoid possible confusion, and to facilitate the understanding, the French distributors chose to add the word "me". Indeed, the word "trust" in France can have a professional meaning: "an 32 organization which controls property and/or money for another person" (from the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary3). The title Trust me is also more faithful to the genre of the film: a comedic drama. - Ultimate Game The original title is formed by the word Gamer. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, it defines "someone who likes playing computer games"4. As this term is only familiar in the gaming community, the French distributors decided to replace this term by the well-known term "game" and added the transparent adjective "ultimate" that belongs to the action genre's lexical field. - Shane Black‘s Kiss Kiss Bang Bang This example is particular as this addition is the result of too many homonyms: Kiss Kiss... Bang Bang in 1966 by Duccio Tessari; Kiss Kiss (Bang Bang) in 2000 by Stewart Sugg. These titles were based on one of James Bond's nicknames: "Mr. Kiss-Kiss, BangBang" (from Dionne Warwick's song for Terence Young's Thunderball, 1970). The distinction is made by putting the director's name expressed in possessive case before the original title, in the same way that some of Alfred Hitchcock's films appeared on the film advertisement posters. However, this is the only film directed by Shane Black to this day. He is famous for being the creator and writer of the Lethal Weapon saga, although it is not a way to promote the film since its purpose is to disambiguate. II.3.2. A word substitution: - Arizona Junior The original title Raising Arizona literally means "Elever Arizona". It was cleverly replaced by Arizona Junior in many non-English speaking countries which is the name of the kidnapped baby (Nathan Arizona Junior) that the two main characters try to raise. 3 4 http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/trust_5 http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/gamer 33 - Ballroom Dancing Baz Luhrmann's original title is Strictly Ballroom. The term "ballroom" means "salle de danse" in French. As most of the French audience loses the information that this film deals about dancing only judging by the title, the title was changed to Ballroom Dancing which can be translated into French by "Danse de salon". - Phone Booth In France, Phone Booth was substituted by Phone game. The word Booth is replaced by the word game. However, these two words do not share the same meaning. The original title can be translated into French by "Cabine téléphonique" whereas the French title's faithful translation is "Jeu téléphonique". The meaning is changed in favour of a simplified English title. - Harsh Times Harsh Times was replaced by the title Bad times in France. The word "Harsh" is substituted by the word "Bad" which is easier to understand for French viewers. It is a synonyms' substitution. II.3.3. Two words out of one (space insertion): - Flight plan and Shop girl It is the same matter for the original titles Flightplan and Shopgirl. As far as the French titles are concerned, the fact that the two words are separated, simplifies the reading and the understanding of the titles for the French audience. That being said, the difference is quite negligible. II.3.4. Minor modification: - Seven David Fincher's original title Se7en comes from The Seven Capital Vices or The Seven Deadly Sins (the later was the film's working title). The number "7" replaced the letter "v" in 34 the orthography of the word to create a visual effect. The French title cancelled this modification as it shows Seven in its proper orthography in order to facilitate the understanding of the targeted audience. - Mulholland Drive The title Mulholland Drive was selected instead of the original title Mulholland Dr., because French people are not familiar with this abbreviation. In France it only means "Docteur". The full word is given in order to avoid confusion. II.3.5. Full modification: - Wild Things The title Sex crimes was selected for the French release of Wild Things. The term "Wild" was considered too difficult, thus the original working title was preferred. Furthermore, the terms "Sex" and "Crimes" (besides the fact that they are transparent words), are more explicit concerning the movie, and certainly more enticing towards the audience. - Sex Academy Not Another Teen Movie is a parody that deals with the "teen movie" genre. As this genre is typically American, a new title was selected for the film's release in the United Kingdom: Sex Academy. This title is inspired by a parody saga: Police Academy. The word "Sex" was added because it is always the main topic of the "teen movie" genre, and also because of the marketing issue. - Jackpot The original title What happens in Vegas comes from the well-known catchphrase "What happens in Vegas, stays in Vegas". As there is no French equivalent, the selected title was chosen according to the genre of the film (a romantic comedy) and with the help of the Las Vegas' lexical field (casinos, slot machines, etc). Jackpot is an English term widely used in the French language that can also be translated by the slang terms "le gros lot" or "le pactole". 35 - Little New York This film is set in Staten Island, one of the five boroughs of New York City, which is also the original title of James DeMonaco's movie (Staten Island). As it deals with local mobsters, the French title may have been influenced by the term "Little Italy" (Italian populated neighbourhoods associated with organised crime) and the nickname of the New York mafia gang leader from the first half of the 20th century Louis Campagna: "Little New York". - Good Morning England The Boat That Rocked is about a pirate rock radio ("Radio Rock") broadcasted in the United Kingdom from a boat on the international seas in the sixties. The French alternative title, Good Morning England, refers to the first line stated each day on the radio and it is inspired by Barry Levinson's film Good Morning, Vietnam (1987). This title is more accessible to French viewers, and furthermore, they have the information that this film deals with England. It is also worth noticing that this film has a different American title: Pirate Radio, just as Italy has a different English title: I love Radio Rock. - Very Bad Trip Todd Phillips' original title is The Hangover. It can be translated into French by the colloquial expression "la gueule de bois". The English alternative title for the French release Very Bad Trip is clearly inspired by Peter Berg's Very Bad Things (1998) which also deals with a bachelor party in Las Vegas that goes wrong. Now that we know a little more about the different kinds of titles' selection in France, I will briefly compare them with another French speaking area. I will discuss the main differences between the choices of titles in France and in Quebec. 36 CHAPTER III. A comparison: France and Quebec As far as title selection is concerned, one can notice various divergences between France and Quebec. Indeed, Quebec has a strong identity and is determined to keep the French language (cultural exception) against the English speaking world that surrounds it. The English titles have to be translated into French according to the "Charter of the French language" ("Charte de la langue française5") of the "Office Québécois de la Langue Française6". Films are often released first in Quebec, after being released in France. In Quebec, films are mostly translated faithfully in French although Quebecers have a way better English language level than French people do. I will now compare several faithful translations to their French title's choice equivalent (unchanged original title and alternative French title) and briefly discuss a few of them. III.1. Faithful translation versus unchanged title The following table shows twenty five relatively recent examples of unchanged original titles at the time of their release in France that were translated in Quebec: Year 1978 1987 1993 1994 1995 5 6 Original title (same in France) Grease Dirty Dancing Last Action Hero Pulp Fiction Braveheart Quebecois title Brillantine Danse lascive Le dernier des héros Fiction pulpeuse Coeur vaillant Director(s) Randal Kleiser Emile Ardolino John McTiernan Quentin Tarentino Mel Gibson http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/charte/charte/index.html http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/ 37 1995 1996 1997 1997 1999 1999 2000 2000 2000 2000 2001 2002 2003 2003 2004 2005 2005 2006 2006 2007 Toy Story Trainspotting Men In Black L.A. Confidential Eyes Wide Shut Fight Club Chicken Run Dancer in the Dark Gladiator Scary Movie Vanilla sky Panic Room Kill Bill Love Actually Million Dollar Baby The Constant Gardener The Island Blood Diamond The Queen American Gangster Histoire de jouets Ferrovipathes Hommes en noir Los Angeles interdite Les yeux grands fermés Le club lacogne Poulets en fuite Danser dans le noir Gladiateur Film de peur Un ciel couleur vanille La chambre forte Tuer bill Réellement l'amour La fille à un million de dollars La Constance du jardinier L'île Le diamant de sang Sa majesté la reine Gangster américain John Lasseter Danny Boyle Barry Sonnenfeld Curtis Hanson Stanley Kubrick David Fincher Peter Lord, Nick Park Lars von Trier Ridley Scott Keenen Ivory Wayans Cameron Crowe David Fincher Quentin Tarentino Richard Curtis Clint Eastwood Fernando Meirelles Michael Bay Edward Zwick Stephen Frears Ridley Scott Quebecer titles consist mostly of literal translations, except for a few ones that are slightly modified. In Quebec, the title Ferrovipathes has been selected for Boyle's film Trainspotting except this title is not meaningful for most French people. The translation in order to facilitate the understanding of the title is not obvious in this case or even less effective than the English one. Contrariwise, the Quebecois title for Jarmusch's Broken Flowers is Fleurs brisées, the literal translation of an obvious title for French viewers. Joel and Ethan Coen's picture, The Big Lebowski was released under the title: Erreur sur la personne. This title informs about the diegetic and was directly taken from a line of Jeff Bridges' character. The original title is accessible and shows the key name which is the starting of the plot: Lebowski. Moreover, this film was named after Howard Hanks' The Big Sleep (1946; Le grand sommeil). 38 The translation tools that are used are mostly the same than in France when it comes to French titles' selection. The alternative title which is massively employed in France is rarely chosen in Quebec in comparison, as the closer the translation is, the better it is considered. Examples: - Etoffement: Poulets en fuite; Un ciel couleur vanille; Sa majesté la reine… - Transposition: Danse lascive; Danser dans le noir; La Constance du jardinier… III.2. Faithful translation versus modified title I selected twenty five rather recent film titles that were given an alternative or a slightly modified French title at the time of their release in France, and a faithful translation for their release in Quebec: Year Original title French title Quebecois title 1992 1996 1996 1998 HouseSitter Ghosts of Mississippi The Nutty Professor A Bug's life Fais comme chez toi Les fantômes du passé Le professeur foldingue 1001 pattes La maîtresse de maison Fantômes du Mississippi Nigaud de professeur Une vie de bestiole 1998 1998 1998 1998 1999 1999 Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas Letters from a Killer Mercury Rising There's Something about Mary Entrapment The General's Daughter Peur et dégoût à Las Vegas Lettres d'un tueur Mercure à la hausse Marie a un je-ne-sais-quoi Traquenard La fille du général 2000 Gone in 60 Seconds 2003 Finding Nemo Las Vegas Parano Lettres à un tueur Code Mercury Mary à tout prix Haute-voltige Le déshonneur d'Elisabeth Campbell 60 secondes chrono Le monde de Nemo 2004 2004 2004 2005 30 ans sinon rien La séductrice Les Indestructibles Les noces funèbres 13 ans, bientôt 30 Une femme honorable Les Incroyable La mariée cadavérique Esprit de famille La famille Stone 13 Going on 30 A Good Woman The Incredibles Corpse Bride 2005 The Family Stone Partis en 60 secondes Trouver Némo Director(s) Frank Oz Rob Reiner Tom Shadyac John Lasseter, Andrew Stanton Terry Gilliam David Carson Harold Becker B. and P. Farrelly Jon Amiel Simon West Dominic Sena Andrew Stanton, Lee Unkrich Gary Winick Mike Barker Brad Bird Tim Burton, Mike Johnson Thomas Bezucha 39 2006 Last Holiday 2006 Slither 2006 The Lake House 2007 I Now Pronounce You Chuck & Larry 2007 Superbad 2008 Righteous Kill 2008 Traitor 2008 You Don't Mess with the Zohan Vacances sur ordonnance Horribilis Entre deux rives Quand Chuck rencontre Larry SuperGrave La loi et l'ordre Trahison Les dernières vacances Wayne Wang Incisions La maison près du lac Je vous déclare Chuck et Larry Supermalades Meurtre légitime Traître James Gunn Alejandro Agresti Dennis Dugan Rien que pour vos cheveux On ne rigole pas avec le Zohan Greg Mottola Jon Avnet Jeffrey Nachmanoff Dennis Dugan There are two main categories that appear in this table concerning the French titles. The first one consists of modified translated original titles while the second deals with alternative titles. Terry Gilliam's Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas was translated faithfully into Peur et dégoût à Las Vegas in Quebec. The French distributors selected Las Vegas Parano which is a title that works well with the film's atmosphere. David Carson's Letters from a Killer was translated into Lettres d'un tueur in Quebec and Lettres à un tueur in France. The French title shifts from the point of view of the killer to the addressees, four women who correspond with him. Dominic Sena's Gone in 60 Seconds was literally translated into Partis en 60 secondes in Quebec. In France, however, the title 60 secondes chrono was selected. This title adds more speed connotation which goes along with the action genre. Jeffrey Nachmanoff's Traitor was translated into Traître in Quebec whereas it was entitled Trahison in France. The French title uses transposition. Amongst the alternative titles we have several titles such as 1001 pattes which is inspired by both Les Mille et Une Nuits and the animal commonly called "le mille-pattes" (centipede). Both Haute-voltige and Le monde de Nemo also differentiate themselves from their original title (respectively Entrapment and Finding Nemo). The later centres on the settings of the 40 underwater world instead of the plot. It could have supposedly followed the example of Spielberg's Il faut saver le soldat Ryan (Saving Private Ryan) and adopts the title "Il faut trouver Nemo". As for Brad Bird's The Incredibles, the title comes from the nickname of the father "Mr. Incredible". As it is a family name, the French title should have been "Les Indestructible" (such as the faithful Quebecois title Les Incroyable) or "Les indestructibles" if it displays an adjective. It is also worth noticing that the French transposition from "incroyable" to "indestructible" is more natural for the French audience. Concerning Tim Burton's Corpse Bride, the oxymoron is shrewdly preserved in the French selected title Les noces funèbres. Dennis Dugan's comedy I Now Pronounce You Chuck & Larry was faithfully translated by Je vous déclare Chuck et Larry in Quebec. In France, however, the title Quand Chuck rencontre Larry was selected based on Rob Reiner's romantic comedy from 1989 Quand Harry rencontre Sally... (When Harry Met Sally...). The French titles stray from the original titles when it comes to faithful translation. The French distributors also often prefer an alternative title rather than a faithful one. Generally speaking, the Quebecois titles are closer to the original titles while the French are more diversified, they can go from a close rephrasing as well as a total differentiation. As we have just seen the differences between Quebec and France as far as the film title translation into French is concerned, I will now discuss the differences and the evolution of the title selection in France throughout time. 41 CHAPTER IV. A chronological evolution The title selection has been adapted to the audience's changes through the decades. They are more and more subjected to the trends. Recently, more and more French selected titles targeted to the pre-adult audience display the word "sex". This is a way of promoting the film so as to attract the most viewers, in the same way that the advertisement has been using more and more sexual suggestion and nudity. Several examples support this statement: - Roger Kumble's Cruel Intentions (1999), adapted from Pierre Choderlos de Laclos' "Les liaisons dangereuses" (1782) was entitled Sexe intentions in France. - Michael Cristofer's Body Shots (1999) was named Sexe attitudes in France. - Jay Lowi's Tangled (2001) was given an alternative English title: Sex trouble. - Anne Fletcher's Step Up (2001) was released in France under the alternative English title Sexy Dance. In the same manner, some titles are named after a film of the same genre that was very successful. Here, the case in point is the teen movie American Pie by Paul and Chris Weitz (1999). The following year, Peyton Reed directed a film that was set in an American high school called Bring it On (2000). In France, an English alternative title was selected: American girls. Walt Becker's Van Wilder (2003), which uses the same ingredients as American Pie, was renamed American party for its French release. Nicholas Stoller's movie Get Him to the Greek, due to July 2010 in France, was entitled American Trip. We came across this phenomenon earlier with French titles such as Very Bad Trip (inspired by the title Very Bad Things) or Good Morning England (inspired by the title Good Morning Vietnam). These choices are used as a cheap promotion strategy since it indirectly refers to 42 successful movies. By selecting titles with key words or references to hit films, the movies benefit and take advantage of the trends or successes. Finally, I will study the evolution of film titles selection in France through the chronological aspect (notably with the help of Alfred Hitchcock’s films). I will highlight certain translation processes according to the periods (CHAPTER IV). IV.1. IV.2. IV.3. 43 CONCLUSION The cinema industry (mostly Hollywood cinema) has been blossoming throughout the 20th century. There was a substantial increase of the number of films each year and therefore of the film industry's competition. This can easily explain the development of the economical aspect and the marketing necessity. More and more often, the title's choice is selected foremost in accordance with the target audience. However, there are other factors that must be taken into account, notably the film's genre which can turn out to be decisive in the French distributors' selection process. There can be many constraints to comply with when it comes to the title's selection, such as titles that already exist in France (films, novels, etc...). We saw that it can also be influenced by trends. As far as the title selection process for a film's release in France is concerned, several possible choices exist. First of all, the target language can vary from French to English, and even combine two juxtaposed titles in each language. Then, one can notice that this process occurs according to a will of simplification and comprehension. In both languages, film's titles can be lengthened out, truncated, faithful (or unchanged) or alternative (substitution or modification). The effects produced by these methods aim at a "new audience" of the language through the necessity and the will of clarification and promotion. In most of the cases, this selection process is clearly a marketing choice. This issue is necessary in order to compensate for the massive competition in the film industry, maybe to the detriment of a selection that would be closer to the original title. These methods affect every single film genre without any exception and they cover the 20th century all the way to nowadays with several trends. In these recent years, one can note 44 the more and more frequent apparition of English titles in the French theatres. Those titles can be unchanged (original), modified (minor or full modification), or truncated ("The" deletion phenomenon). This trend will probably persist and increase in the next few years. Amongst the 2010 releases in the French theatres, there are movies such as Remember me (2009) directed by Allen Coulter, Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010) directed by Edgar Wright, MacGruber (2010) directed by Jorma Taccone, or Inception (2010) directed by Chistopher Nolan that are released under the same title (preserved original title). 45 BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary Sources Schneider, Steven Jay, 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die (2007). Paris: Omnibus, 2007. Fawcett, Peter, Translation and Language. Linguistic Theories Explained (1997). Manchester: St. Jerome publishing, 1997. Secondary Sources Ferro, Marc, Cinéma, une vision de l’histoire (2003). Paris: Editions du Chêne – Hachette Livre, 2003. SITOGRAPHY Primary Sources • The Internet Movie Data Base (IMDb) http://www.imdb.com http://www.imdb.fr • AlloCiné (ALLOCINE) http://www.allocine.fr • CinEmotions (Quebec): http://qc.cinemotions.com/ http://www.cinemotions.com/ Secondary Sources • Cambridge Dictionaries online http://dictionary.cambridge.org/ • Larousse French dictionaries http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais • Office Québécois de la langue française (OQLF) http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/ 46 General References • Cambridge Dictionaries online's definitions Graduate: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/graduate_1 Trust: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/trust_5 Gamer: http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/gamer • Larousse French dictionaries' definitions Lauréat: http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/lauréat • Office Québécois de la langue française (OQLF) The Charter of the French language: http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/charte/charte/index.html 47 THANKS Firstly, I would like to thank Mrs. MONACELLI-FARAUT Martine. I would also like to thank Mr. LEONCINI Stefano and Nice Sofia Antipolis University (Carlone campus). Secondly, I would like to thank all the people involved in each movie listed in this dissertation and also thank all the people that worked on the books and Websites listed on the bibliography and sitography. Lastly, I would like to thank my family and my friends for all the support. Additional thanks to: Word 20077, Google Chrome8, and Google9. 7 http://office.microsoft.com/fr-fr/word/ http://www.google.com/chrome 9 http://www.google.com 8 48
