LANGUAGE MINORITY STUDENTS
IN HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ENGLISH
CLASSES:
ISSUES AND STRATEGIES
Mark Roberge
San Francisco State University
& Vanessa Wenzell
CSUDH (Feb. 28, 2014)
INCREASE IN IMMIGRANT ESL STUDENTS IN
SCHOOLS
In 1965 the National Origins Act of 1924 was repealed.
National origin favored
 Family unification as favored criteria
Low quotas
 Higher quotas
European
 Much more varied ethnic mix
Moderately well-off
 Large socio-economic variation (esp. education)
Small # of children
 Large # of children (1/3 are children)
Indo-European languages  Mix of languages
Enclaves in North East
 Enclaves in South and West
WHERE DO IMMIGRANTS LIVE?
California 9 million
New York
4 million
Texas
3 million
Florida
3 million
Illinois
2 million
(22% of CA
population is
foreign-born)
WHY IS A COLLEGE-BOUND PATH
NECESSARY?
“Traditional” path of upward mobility
First
generation
Second
generation
Third
generation
Labor
Skilled
Professional
Minimal language
and literacy
requirements
Language
intensive
Language
intensive
Not literacy
intensive
Literacy
intensive
WHY IS A COLLEGE-BOUND PATH
NECESSARY?
“Traditional” path of upward mobility
First
generation
Second
generation
Third
generation
Labor
Skilled
Professional
Minimal language
and literacy
requirements
Language
intensive
Language
intensive
Not literacy
intensive
Literacy
intensive
WHY IS A COLLEGE-BOUND PATH
NECESSARY?
“Traditional” path of upward mobility
First
generation
Second
generation
Third
generation
Labor
Skilled
Professional
Minimal language
and literacy
requirements
Language
intensive
Language
intensive
Not literacy
intensive
Literacy
intensive
STUDENT LANGUAGE
Native-like
English
Juan 1
Juan 2
Standard
Community
Dialect
Dialect
Juan 3
Juan 4
Learner-like
English
STUDENT LANGUAGE
Native-like
English
Juan 1: “Mainstream” native speaker
Arrived before “critical period”
Exposure to standard native speakers
Probably bilingual
But may have forgotten Spanish
Standard
Community
Dialect
Dialect
Learner-like
English
STUDENT LANGUAGE
Native-like
English
Juan 2: Chicano English speaker
U.S.-born
English monolingual; doesn’t speak
Spanish
Language features look like ESL but aren’t
Standard
Community
Dialect
Dialect
Learner-like
English
STUDENT LANGUAGE
Native-like
English
Standard
Community
Dialect
Juan 3: Late arrival immigrant
Lacks oral fluency
Non-idiomatic English
Non-colloquial English
Highly variable ESL errors
Dialect
Juan 4: Early arrival immigrant
So-called “Generation 1.5”
Mixture of ESL and dialect features
Learner-like
English
STUDENT LANGUAGE
Native-like
English
Standar
d
Commu
nity
Dialect
Dialect
Juan 4: Early arrival immigrant
So-called “Generation 1.5”
Began learning English after critical
period
Fluent (but not accurate) in English
Mixture of ESL and dialect features
Learner-like
English
GENERATION 1.5
1st Generation
Generation 1.5
2nd Generation
Adult immigrants
Foreign-born
Childhood immigrants
Foreign-born
Children of immigrants
US-born
Foreign-educated
L1-dominant
Partially foreigneducated
Partially US-educated
L1- or English-dominant
US-educated
English-dominant
GENERATION 1.5
Pre-School
Arrival Age
Elementary
Arrival Age
Middle School
Arrival Age
High School
Arrival Age
College
Arrival Age
LEARNING ACADEMIC ENGLISH
Early arrival immigrants:
“Generation 1.5”
Pre-School
Arrival Age
Elementary
Arrival Age
Middle School
Arrival Age
High School
Arrival Age
College
Arrival Age
INFORMAL LANGUAGE LEARNING
Generation 1.5
1. “Aural” (listening) learners: Grammatical
structures that are difficult to hear may be
missing from their linguistic repertoire.
2.
“Oral” learners: They may have welldeveloped communicative strategies that
compensate for grammatical problems.
3.
Fossilized learners: Their pattern of errors
get “stuck” at a certain stage and become
resistant to change.
INFORMAL LANGUAGE LEARNING
Generation 1.5
1. Their language may be influenced by other
language learners.
2.
Their language may be influenced by
multiple ethnic dialects.
3.
They may have features in their speech and
writing that look like learner errors but
aren’t.
LEARNING ENGLISH IN SCHOOL
Generation 1.5
1. Many have had inconsistent instruction—a merry-goround of placements, pedagogies, teaching practices.
2. Many have been misdiagnosed—premature
mainstreaming, ESL tracking, repeated redesignation.
3. Many have been in remedial classes—where there’s a
low level of linguistic input and output.
LEARNING ENGLISH IN SCHOOL
Language input in 2 class environments
Honors English
Remedial/Low-track English
More student talk
Less student talk
Complex verbal interaction
IRE, imperatives, silence
More group work
More whole class work and
individual work
Active behaviors rewarded
Passive behaviors rewarded
Complex reading & writing tasks
Mechanical reading & writing tasks
Reading-writing-listening-speaking
connections
Isolated activities
ACQUIRING READING AND WRITING SKILLS
Generation 1.5 immigrants' difficulties as
second language readers and writers
1. Typical second language reading and writing
difficulties
2.
Special generation 1.5 difficulties:
Acquisition of second language literacy
without first language literacy
ACADEMIC LITERACY
Generation 1.5 by the end of high school
 Stronger ORAL English

Weaker ACADEMIC English

Inexperienced readers and writers
(so-called “Basic Writers,” “Developmental
writers”)
Oral composers, oral editors, speech-based
writers.

WAN

There are different ways language can be use in
communication. The language I use in school,
family, and friends are all different. In school, I
use English to talk to my instructors and fellow
classmates. At home, I speak three different
languages. I speak English to my brothers and
sister, while speaking Mandarin to my parents
and speaking Laotian with my brother-in-law.
With all these different languages I use in my
daily life, I find I am most comfortable with the
language I use with my friends.
WAN

When I speak to my friends, I always use
English. Even if some of my friends are Chinese
and can speak the same language as I can, I have
never spoke Chinese with any of my friends. I
find myself to communicate better in English
than my own language. When I speak to my
friends, I don't pay attention to my grammars.
We often talk to each other using slangs, that
others might find it weird. But to us, it's fun
because instead of saying one complete word, we
tend to say a short cut of the word. Although I
find myself speaking English, my best language,
to my friends, it has somewhat affected me in my
grammars.
#1 LEARN ABOUT YOUR STUDENTS
Use beginning-of-semester info sheets or surveys to
find out about your students’ language and literacy
backgrounds.
Sample questions:
 Do you enjoy reading for school?
 Do you enjoy reading for pleasure? If so, what kinds of
things do you like to read?
 How would you rate your reading ability?: very good /good
/OK
 How would you rate your writing ability?: very good /good
/OK
 Do you know any languages other than English?
 Can you read/write in any other languages?
 Do you think you might need/want tutoring this semester?
If so, why?
*
#2 MULTIMODAL PRESENTATION
Students need see texts, images, and visuals of all
sorts in addition to just listening. Build in
redundancy.
Use the board.
 Use handouts.
 Use an overhead projector or PowerPoint.
 Direct students to specific portions of a text.
 Use a class web site.
 Use email as a preview or follow-up.
 Create out-of-class discussion groups that
share notes.
 Create on-line discussion groups that discuss
the material.

#3 STRUCTURED PARTICIPATION
Students need many structured opportunities
to interact in class and they need to be
given the tools to participate.
 Make your expectations explicit in the course
description.
 Talk about what counts as good participation.
 Use both whole-class and small-group
activities.
 Model the skills and the language students
may need for the activity.
 Design the small group activities so that
everyone has to participate: Assign tasks or
roles, e.g. reporter, a note-taker.
#4 OPPORTUNITIES FOR PLANNING
Students need opportunities for planning their
writing. This capitalizes on their oral proficiency.
Brainstorming and planning for the essay #2: Argumentative
essay
Discuss the following with your group:
For your introduction:
Opener—What interesting fact/quote/statistic/question/statement
are you going to use to introduce the topic and catch readers'
attention? Does your group thinks it’s interest-catching?
Background information—What do readers need to know before
they hear the pro/con positions? Does your group think that’s
enough background info?
Statement of the two positions: —What are the two sides?
Does your group think you describe the 2 positions clearly?
What's your thesis? — (Remember it must state your point of
view clearly and show where you're going in the essay; it's like a
roadmap.)
#5 TEACHING PROOFREADING AND EDITING
Students need specific instructions and
training in proofreading and editing, as
well as time to edit and proofread.






Make your expectations explicit.
Model proofreading and editing strategies using a
sample paper, possibly on an overhead projector.
Teach and model questioning strategies for
proofreading. Example—“Is this past only or true
always?”
Give students a proofreading checklist.
On the day they’re going to hand in their papers, give
students time to do peer editing or a last minute
proofreading.
Have students do a separate proofreading draft that
they mark up. “Show your work.”
#6 GRAMMAR INTERVENTIONS
Save grammar instruction until students
have a draft in hand.



Focus on content, organization, and development
first; work on grammar at the final stage of the
writing process.
Since you can't assume that “generation 1.5" learners
have knowledge of grammar terms and rules, make
basic grammar information succinct and accessible.
Teach grammar points as “rules of thumb” (things that
students can actually do to their essay) rather than as
abstract conceptual systems.
 Example—“Circle the subject and underline the
verb.”
MORPHEMES
OFTEN DISAPPEAR FOR
Only 8 Inflectional Morphemes
that can cause much trouble!

-s
-ing
-ed
-s
-en
-er
-est
bird-s
crying
landed
sleep-s
fallen
higher
highest
1.5S
#7 INDIVIDUALIZED GRAMMAR
INSTRUCTION
Have students create their own reference
materials:
 Grammar reference cards w/rules in their own
words
 Vocabulary cards w/example sentences
 An editing/proofreading/grammar log
 If you’re working one-on-one with a student,
have the student write an individualized
“action plan.”
GRAMMAR REFERENCE CARD
8. SAMPLE ACTION PLAN
9. COVER MEMO FOR FINAL DRAFT
Directions:
When you turn in your essay, make sure that you include a cover memo in
which you discuss:
1. what you liked/disliked about this unit, the readings, and the essay
assignment;
2. what you found easy/difficult about this unit, the readings, and the essay
assignment;
3. a brief description of how your paper changed and developed as you revised
it;
4. a summary of advice that your peer reviewers gave you during peer
response and a brief discussion about how you used that advice;
5. a brief discussion of the current strengths of your paper;
6. a brief discussion of things you would work on more, if you had more time;
7. a list of grammar points that you focused on during proofreading and a
description of the proofreading techniques that you used to work on them;
8. any other questions that you have for me about this assignment or anything
else in the course.
Note: The cover memo is 10% of the final paper grade.
10. HANDOUT FOR GRADING RUBRIC
Essay #2
Name: ________________________
Grading Criteria
Content/Fulfilling the assignment
__ You have clearly focused on a topic and stated a point from the
reading about this topic.
__ You have provided an explanation, with details and information,
about how the reading supports your point.
__ You have illustrated this point by a description of a personal
experience (your own or someone else’s).
__ Your description of this experience is well written with clear
details. You explain ideas and information thoroughly.
__ You have made clear connections between the point related to
the reading and your personal example.
__ You successfully tie your ideas together in the introduction and
conclusion.
GRADING RUBRIC (CONTINUED)
Grammar and Editing
__You accurately use the following grammar structures. For structures
circled below, be sure to follow the editing guide for that structure next
time and mark your next editing/proofreading draft appropriately.
 articles/nouns
 word forms
 subject—verb agreement
 sentence structure (fragments, run-ons) verb tenses
__You demonstrate that you’re working on developing a system for editing
by identifying, analyzing, and correcting errors.
Mechanics
__The spelling, punctuation, and capitalization errors are minimal in your
paper
Summative Comments on what went well & what needs more work