1.
2.
3.
Introducing two types of definitions of democratic
regimes.
Outlining implications of choosing different definitions
of democracy.
Clarifying some things that democracy is not.
Democracy
 Demos = people
 -cracy = “rule”
“Regime” vs. “State,”
“Government”
 “State”: territorially defined political
entity, like “country.”
 “Government”: collection of particular
leaders fulfilling governing positions at
any one time.
 “Regime”: Set of rules & institutions
defining political system.
Different types of definitions of
democracy
Procedural Definitions
Minimal electoral
definitions
Substantive, “Outcome”focused Definitions
More complex
procedural
definitions
(“liberal
democracy”)
Maximalist
definitions
Procedural Definitions
 Focus on process and rules defining
democracy.
 Most common definitions today in
study of democratization.
Procedural Definitions
Minimalist
Democracy = competitive
elections
Complex
Additional institutions
and/ or liberty
protections required
Minimalist Electoral Definitions
 Define democracy by process used to
make up governing institutions.
 Require only multi-candidate,
competitive elections.
Minimalist Electoral Definitions
 Joseph Schumpeter’s (1943)
definition: “individuals acquire the
power to decide by means of a
competitive struggle for the people’s
vote.”
 Also Przeworski, Huntington
“The fallacy of electoralism”
(Terry Karl)

The belief that elections equal
democracy.
“Electoral democracies”

Regimes that have minimal
competitive elections, but no other
democratic institutions.
More Complex Procedural
Definitions
 Institutions or guarantees of freedoms,
as well as elections, must exist to call
regime democratic.
 E.g. Liberal definitions of democracy.
“Illiberal Democracies”
(Fareed Zakaria)
 Everyone has the right to vote among
multiple candidates, but human rights
and individual liberties are not well
observed.
 Examples: Russia, other post-Soviet,
Nigeria, Venezuela.
Complex Procedural Definitions
Examples of Institutional Requirements
 Checks & balances, separation of
powers: legislative, executive, &
judicial organs separated.
 Rule of law: legal rules applied fairly
and consistently to all citizens.
 Guaranteed protection of
minorities.
Complex Procedural Definitions
Examples
 Robert Dahl’s definition of
“Polyarchy”:
1. opposition – contestation through
elections.
2. participation – the equal right of all
adults to vote and run for office.
 Includes certain civil liberties, argued
to be essential.
Complex Procedural Definitions
Examples
 Schmitter & Karl: Dahl’s requirements
plus a few more:
1. Elected leaders must not be subject to veto
from unelected officials.
2. Elected officials must be able to make
binding decisions without approval of
foreign actors.
Complex Procedural Definitions
Examples
 Larry Diamond adds many institutions
for protecting liberal democracy:
1. Constitution.
2. Civil society.
3. Independent media.
4. Independent judiciary.
Different types of definitions of
democracy
Procedural Definitions
Minimal electoral
definitions
Substantive, “Outcome”focused Definitions
More complex
procedural
definitions
(“liberal
democracy”)
Maximalist definitions
Substantive Definitions of
Democracy
 Demand that democratic regime must
succeed in providing outcomes that
promote equality among citizens.
Substantive Definitions
Examples
• Participatory democracy or deliberative
democracy.
• e.g. Benjamin Barber: “strong
democracy in the participatory mode.”
Substantive Definitions
Examples
 Equal socio-economic outcomes.
 e.g. Ann Phillips (feminist): outcomes
should allow all women to have equal
chance with men at participating.
• Social and economic inequalities prevent.
• Actual participation most important measure
of democracy.
Different types of definitions of
democracy
Procedural Definitions
Minimal electoral
definitions
Substantive, “Outcome”focused Definitions
More complex
procedural
definitions
(“liberal
democracy”)
Maximalist
definitions
Is democracy a continuous or
dichotomous variable?
 Dichotomous = 2 values or categories
 Continuous = a spectrum of infinite
measures, not separated into distinct
categories
What democracy is not – Not all
good things go together
(Schmitter & Karl)
1. Not necessarily capitalism or
economic freedoms.
2. Not necessarily more orderly, stable,
or consensual than nondemocracy.
Diamond on stability:
 Democracy depends on minimal
coercion and maximum consent.
 Results in three constant paradoxes
re: stability:
Diamond: 3 paradoxes related to
stability
1. Conflict vs. consensus. There must
be disagreements and opposition in
order to allow competition…Yet not
too much disagreement!
Diamond: 3 paradoxes related to
stability
2. Representativeness vs.
governability. Governments must be
responsive to constituencies, yet must
be able to govern effectively.
Diamond: 3 paradoxes related to
stability
3. Consent vs. effectiveness.
•
•
•
•
Democracy requires consent.
Consent based on legitimacy.
Legitimacy based on effectiveness.
Effectiveness requires unpopular
decisions.