Correlation – relationships
among variables – positive or
negative
Spurious Correlations –
variables that appear to
have a relationship but
have no common causation
Conducting Sociological
Research
4 main methods
Research Methods
Ethnographies
Cross-Cultural
Research
SURVEYS
• Standardized questionnaires and
interviews that gather information from
large population samples
• May measure public opinion and societal
assumptions
• Data used to predict cultural patterns
• Especially useful to measure issues and
events that cannot otherwise be evaluated
EXPERIMENTS
• Most effective method to establish Cause
and Effect relationships
• Test hypothesis by using dependent and
independent variables
• Can be done in a Lab (Latane’s “social
loafing” - the larger the group the more
one tends to be lazy and rely more on the
group)
• Can be done in the field (Rich Voszkul’s
“work production” – painted walls pink ,
less time in the restroom
ETHNOGRAPHIES
• Social observations
• Detailed case studies over extended periods
of time
• Eye witness accounts of specific social
lifestyles
• OVERT participation observation –
observational group knows research is going
on
• COVERT participation observation –
sociologists enter social worlds without
identifying themselves to their research
projects
Research Data
• Validity is the degree
to which a study
measures what it is
attempting to
represent
– Strong correlations
yield valid data
• Reliability is the
degree to which
research data
remains accurate (or
valid) after being
repeated
CROSS-CULTURAL
• Comparative research examining 2 or
more different cultures
• Goal is to find relationships and common
ground
• Examine differences and ways to repair
relationships
• Examine comparative problems as part of
a global system (i.e. globalization)
Society – group of people who
share a culture and territory
Culture – shared norms,
values, beliefs, knowledge,
symbols, and
communication among
members of a group
Homogeneous vs Pluralistic
Society
• Homogeneous Society – culture of a
single dominate group with very few
subcultures
• Pluralistic Society – culture composed of
many (often diverse) social groups,
subcultures, and countercultures
Social Structure
• Patterns of social relationships (marriage, employment)
• Hierarchy of governing positions (president, tribal chief)
• Number of people within groups (average family size)
Social Institutions
Standardized organizations
Members can be voluntary or involuntary
Optional enrollment or assigned
Social Action
• Human behavior is dependent upon
actions within a group….an individual’s
role within their society
Transformation and Evolution of
Societies
• Phase One - Hunting and Gathering
• Phase Two - Agrarian Societies
• Phase Three - Industrial Societies
• Phase Four – Post - Industrial
Phase 1 Hunting/Gathering
•
•
•
•
•
Primitive technology
Small societies of clans and tribes
Seasonal migrations (food availability)
Very few social divisions
Basic needs, food shared, little material
wealth
• age=social prestige
Modern H&G’s found in Central South – America
(Pygmy’s), Africa (San tribes), and in the Australian
Outback (Aborigines)
H&G continued
• Horticultural/Agricultural Revolution
• Domestication of plants = fields
• Use of tools to cultivate and harvest food
• Pastoral Revolution
 Domestication of animals = livestock
• Raising and breeding of animals for food
As a result: permanent settlements
developed and food surpluses allowed
population growth!
• Agricultural Revolution –
•
•
•
•
advancements in animal and plant
domestication
Stable and Renewable food supply
Farms led to permanent settlements,
therefore civilizations
Food supporting larger populations
Key invention ! Steel plow
Phase 2 Agrarian Societies
• Family farms
• Farming technology = food surplus
• Diversified labor force (i.e. craftsmen,
blacksmiths, merchants, soldiers ) since all
people were not foraging for food
• Centers of commerce – agriculturally
based
• Cities where ideas, good, technologies,
services, and culture were exchanged
• Diversified and specialized roles (within
new religious institutions and kingships)
Agrarian Society continued
 Industrial Revolution
 Steam Engine!
 Reliance on animals and humans to run mills,
plow fields, pump water
 Fuel powered combustible engines
 Productions is faster and more efficient
Agrarian society ends with people becoming employed
in factories and on farms
Phase 3 Industrial Society
• More work in less time = efficiency = mass
production
• Factory jobs = urban migration
• Gender roles appear for the first time
• cities, social roles and culture become
more diversified and specialized
• Social inequality evident (rise of “Middle
Class” and Marx displays class conflict
theories
Industrial Societies continued
• Information/Computer
Revolution!!!!
–Microchip processors
–Computers make all forms of
commerce efficient
–Global communication making
information a most valuable product
Phase 4 Postindustrial Society
• Current U.S. phase
• From manufacturing economy to a service
economy
• Rise of Corporate CEO’s
• Current PI societies = U.S., Western
Europe, and Japan with more joining
Material culture: art, architecture,
jewelry, weaponds, machinery,
clothing, food, music, etc.
societal characteristics
shared by all members
within the group- passed
down from generations
Nonmaterial culture: shared knowledge (ed.
System), language, beliefs and values
(religion), social norms and behaviors
Ethnocentrism is the feeling
that your culture is superior to
all others and uses their
standards to measure and
compare other societies
Social values are standards by which
people define what is desirable or
undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or
ugly
Social Norms are expectations or rules
of behavior that develop from
generations of accepted values
Taboo = social norms that are
so strong that people are
shunned, banished, or executed
if violated
• “mini-cultures” within a dominant culture
– Segregation can be self-imposed or forcibly
removed
– Subcultures are usually ethnic divisions or
religious
– Examples of American subcultures…
• Amish and Mennoties, China Town, Little Italy
Social Stratification
• Divisions within a society usually based
upon relative power, property wealth, and
prestige
– Can be applied to nations on a global scale
and/or people and subgroups within a nation
– Foundation of social class systems
Social Mobility is the degree to
which people can move up or down
the social class ladder
A clique is a small cluster of
people within a larger social
group who choose to interact
exclusively among themselves
are….
• Groups with values and norms that directly
oppose the dominant culture
• Examples of American counter cultures:
– “Rebel Generation” of the 1950’s
– “Hippie” Movement of the 1960”s-1970”s