Unit 1 - Food
UNIT 1
FOOD
WARM UP
1 Discuss the following questions.
What role does food play in your life?
Fresh food vs. preserved food. What are the pros and cons of each of the two categories?
When does preserved food make your life easier and when is it absolutely necessary?
What methods of food preservation do you know?
READING AND EXCHANGE OF INFORMATION
2 Read the following definition of food preservation and, if there are any words you
don´t understand, ask your mates to explain them.
Food preservation is any one of a number of techniques used especially by the food industry
to stop or slow down spoilage (loss of quality, edibility or nutritional value) of food so that
the food products can be stored longer.
The main task of food preservation consists in preventing the growth of pathogens such as
bacteria, yeasts, moulds and other micro-organisms, as well as retarding the oxidation of fats
which cause rancidity. Food preservation can also include processes which inhibit visual
deterioration that can occur during food preparation; such as the enzymatic browning reaction
in apples after they are cut.
3 Work in groups. Each member will get a description of a preservation technique, read
the text for him/herself and explain the method to the others. After everyone in your
group has taken turn, you should be able to complete the following table with the most
relevant information.
Method:
DRYING
Subtype 1:
Air drying
How does it work:
What food is it applied to:
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Unit 1 - Food
Subtype 2:
Vacuum drying
How does it work:
Advantages:
Subtype 3:
Spray drying
How does it work:
What food is it applied to:
Subtype 4:
Freeze-drying
How does it work:
Method:
HEATING
Subtype:
Pasteurization
How does it work:
What food is it applied to:
Method:
CANNING
How does it work:
Method:
USE OF CHEMICAL ADDITIVES
How does it work:
Subtype:
Use of sequestrants
How does it work:
4
Search the Internet or other sources for the basic information about the following
food preservation methods:
smoking, salting, adding sugar, curing, fermentation and radiation
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Unit 1 - Food
VOCABULARY
5
Use the following expressions to fill in the gaps in the text below.
nutritious
research
flavour
processed
preserving
enhance
variety
ingredients
citric
refining
raw
mix
Food Additives
Food additives are natural or synthetic substances which are added to food to serve a certain
function.
2 The overall purpose of additives in modern food manufacture is the same as it was in the
traditional kitchen – to prepare, preserve, process and, as the case may be, cook basic
_______ ingredients to convert them into wholesome, attractive, better tasting and _______
food, ready to be consumed.
3 Every cook has his or her own techniques and knows how to transform an everyday dish
into something special. Food manufacturers should do, and mostly really do, much the same.
On the basis of _______ programmes and the results achieved, the leading manufacturers
have developed effective and economical methods of producing a wide range of foods to suit
every taste and pocket. In order to achieve this, they need at their disposal a wide range of
additives to perform a number of tasks in the process, from cleaning and _______ the raw
materials, to preserving them in optimal condition throughout further processing or
distribution, combining them with other _______ and ensuring that they appear attractive to
the consumer.
4 Food additives are used either to facilitate or complement a wide _______ of production
methods. Their two most basic functions are that they either make food safer by _______ it
from bacteria and preventing oxidation and other chemical changes, or they make food look
or taste better.
5 Antioxidant agents, such as _______ acid, may reduce the availability of metalloid ions that
can catalyse oxidation reactions. The use of the powerful synthetic antioxidants BHA, BHT
and the gallic acid ester is very restricted, while tocopherols are less restricted but are less
effective in the protection of _______ foods. The most effective use of antioxidants lies in the
maximum retardation of the oxidation process e.g. in the fats and oils used in the
manufacturing process.
6 Emulsifiers facilitate the mixing together of ingredients that normally would not _______,
namely fat and water. This mixing is then maintained by stabilisers. These additives are
essential in the production of mayonnaise, chocolate products and fat spreads, reduced-fat
substitutes for butter and margarine. They have made an important contribution to consumer
choice and, in particular, to dietary change.
7 Colourants are probably the most controversial food additives. They are not necessary for
food safety, such as preservatives, and have no health benefits for the consumer. Colourants,
often chemical substances, are used just to _______ the visual properties of foods, while
colouring foodstuffs are colourings derived from recognised foods and processed in such a
way that the essential characteristics of the food from which they have been derived are
maintained e.g. green colours from spinach leaves.
8 Sweeteners are used to sweeten foods or to mask the undesired bitter _______ . They are
permitted in foods that are either energy-reduced or have no added sugar. In particular, they
are well-known to dieters and diabetics.
1
http://www.rsc.org/ebooks/archive/BK 9781905224500 (adapted)
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Unit 1 - Food
6 Match the words with the explanations.
1 food colouring
2 flavourings
3 emulsifiers
4 antioxidants
5 preservatives
6 stabilisers
a These maintain the physical state and preserve the texture and
colour of the processed food.
b These prevent the spoilage of food on exposure to air.
c These are added to food or drink so they look more attractive.
d A lot of the taste of foods can be lost during food processing,
so chemicals are used to restore it.
e These prevent the growth of microorganisms that would cause the
decay.
f These are added to stop oil and water in the same mixture from
separating out.
1___ 2 ___ 3 ___ 4 ___ 5 ___ 6 ___
7
Look at the text again and find the synonyms of the following words:
artificial (par 1)
to change into (par 2)
to reach a goal (par 3)
to make possible or easier (par 4)
to make smaller (par 5)
kept (par 6)
properties (par 7)
unwanted (par 8)
8 Complete the missing nouns and verbs used in the text.
NOUN
VERB
manufacture
preserve
develop
produce
disposal
additive
function
reduce
retard
oxidation
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Unit 1 - Food
9
Four words from the text are hidden in the horizontal lines of the puzzle below.
Study their meaning and try to find them in the puzzle.
1. one of the substances that are combined to make something
2. a method of doing something using a special skill
3. during the whole of a period of time or an event
4. successful or achieving the results that you want
A
R
E
T
H
R
O
U
G
H
O
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T
U
R
E
R
A
I
N
G
R
E
D
I
E
N
T
I
O
N
S
I
C
T
S
T
A
I
E
F
F
E
C
T
I
V
E
S
L
A
T
E
C
H
N
I
Q
U
E
C
O
M
P
SPEAKING SKILLS - showing an interest in what other people are saying
10 Write the eight phrases under the correct headings A, B, C and D.
A Reacting with disagreement
B Reacting with agreement/understanding
C Reacting with agreement but adding an alternative viewpoint
D Reacting with agreement and adding another similar point
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Unit 1 - Food
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
11
I see what you mean.
Yes, plus you´ve got to remember that…
That´s true, and don´t forget that…
True, but don´t you think that…?
I´m not sure about that.
Yes, I hadn´t thought of that.
I don´t think I can agree with you about that because…
Well, you might be right about… but what about…?
Discuss the following questions/statements. When reacting to your partner, use
some of the phrases given in Exercise 10.
1. All additives are harmful.
2. Organic food is not any safer than normal food. The outbreak of E-coli a few years ago
proved it – organically grown cucumbers and sprouts were suspected to be the source of
the disease.
3. When you buy food, you should always study the label.
4. People are overconcerned about food safety. Healthy food obsession may result in a
mental disorder.
5. A recent survey has shown that the food sold in Czech chain stores is of a lower quality
than the same goods sold, e.g. in Austria or Germany. Why is it so?
LISTENING
12 Listen to the podcast and answer the following questions.
http://www.BreakingNewsEnglish.com/1405/140509-coca-cola.html
1. What is the Coca Cola Company changing?
2. What is BVO?
3. What is bromide commonly used for?
4. What are the highest priorities for the Coca Cola Company?
5. When did the U.S. government omit BVO from its “safe” list?
6. How old is the person who started a petition?
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Unit 1 - Food
READING COMPREHENSION
13 Read the article about genetically modified organisms and based on the text decide
whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).
1. According to the World Health Organization the consumption of GMOs is more
dangerous than the consumption of common foods.
2. Current methods can´t test a huge amount of samples.
3. The team of scientists from Shanghai used one microarray chip for recognizing
the genes.
4. Fluorescent dyes helped researchers to determine the genes.
5. It is possible to use the technique for processed foods at the moment.
6. The technique can give quantitative data.
DISCUSSION
14 Discuss the following questions concerning GMOs.
1. What do you think of genetically modified food?
2. Do you think it´s right to label GM food?
3. What´s your country´s attitude to GMOs?
4. What benefits could the GMOs have?
5. What´s next for GM food?
PRE-READING
15 Make collocations used in the article about intelligent milk packing.
1 spoilt
2 perishable
3 time-temperature
4 food
5 a low cost
6 silver
7 microbial
8 agar
a packing
b alternative
c growth
d milk
e gel
f indicators
g nitrate
h products
1 ___ 2 ___ 3 ___ 4 ___ 5 ___ 6 ___ 7 ___ 8 ___
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Unit 1 - Food
16 Explain the meaning of the following words and expressions from the article.
accidentally, to assume, stained glass, easily distinguished colours, gradually,
suspended nanorods, the growth rate, to estimate
17 Form antonyms of the following words from the text.
colourful
pleasant
gradually
to change
speed up
warmer
related
different
to improve
better
READING
18 Read the article and then give your opinion about the key ideas of the text. Try to
use as many different sentence-openings as you can.
I think (that)…/ of/about…
In my opinion/view….
I consider/I’m convinced/ (that)….
Well, I must say…....
(Personally) I believe/feel…..
From my point of view…..
It seems to me……
As far as I’m concerned, …...
19 Prepare a set of four questions relating to any item in the text to ask your colleague.
You can use the following question starters.
In what context ……........?
What exactly ………..?
Where exactly ………….?
In what way …………..?
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Unit 1 - Food
20 Express your opinion about the article. Start your sentences in the following way.
What I find surprising……..
What I find interesting……..
What I find useful……….
What I agree with………
What I disagree with……….
21 Write a short summary of the text.
DISCUSSION
22 Discuss food and beverage packing. Focus on the following points:
objectives, types, materials, labelling, shelf life, trends
LISTENING
23 Listen to the podcast about low acrylamide potatoes and answer the following
questions.
1. Why are researchers looking for new potato varieties with low acrylamide levels?
2. When and how is acrylamide formed?
3. Which amino acid is discussed in the interview?
4. How many potato varieties were tested in the project?
5. What can happen during potato storage?
6. Is there any reason for worries about acrylamide in potato products? Why?
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Unit 1 - Food
DESCRIPTION
24 Describe the main characteristics of some food, drink, additive, ingredient… and let
the others guess what it is. You can use some of the expressions below:
It is prepared by…
It is used in/for…
People drink it/eat it… when…
It contains (large/small amount of)….
It is typical for…
It´s nutritional value is very high/low, because….
SURVEY
25 Work in pairs or small groups. Prepare a short survey about some eating/drinking
habits or preferences of your colleagues. Think of 3 questions you will ask the
others. Take notes of the answers and then make a summary of your findings.
EXPERIMENT
26 Kitchen myth-busting: Chemistry in Whisking Egg Whites
Do you enjoy baking, making your own cakes and cooking fluffy soufflés? Then
you´ve probably been warned to be very careful when breaking the eggs and to
make sure you don´t get even a bit of yolk in the whites before whisking. Because
otherwise foam would not be formed and instead of a fluffy delicacy you would get a
very flat result.
Well, it´s time to confirm or negate such advice. Watch the video.
http://animoto.com/play/5wGootw8171ANrajUZzk0A and describe the experiment.
GRAMMAR LINKS
Grammar File – Quantifiers
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Unit 2 - Drugs
UNIT 2
DRUGS
Pharmacology
http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/res00000926/challenging-medicines-physiochemicalproperties#!cmpid=CMP00001228
Figure 1 Pharmacologist working in a laboratory.
WARM UP
1
Work in pairs
Define the words pharmacy and pharmacology. What are the words for people working
in the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy?
READING
2
Read the text
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics
Pharmacology can be divided into two main areas:
Pharmacokinetics is about what the body does to a drug. It is the study of the effects of
biological systems on the drugs: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of
chemical compounds from the biological systems. It also includes toxicity studies.
•
Liberation: release of a drug from its administered form
•
Absorption: movement of a drug from where it is liberated into the bloodstream
•
Distribution: process by which a drug passes from the bloodstream to body tissues and organs
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•
Metabolism: chemical reactions that change drugs into compounds which are easier to
eliminate
•
Excretion: elimination of unchanged drug or metabolite from the body
•
Toxicity: harmful side-effects a drug may have
These have the acronym LADMET
Understanding this is key in drug discovery and development.
Pharmacodynamics is the study of what a drug does to the body – how it affects chemical
reactions and chemical pathways – and what it does to micro-organisms such as bacteria in
the body. It is concerned with the way a drug interacts with receptors in the body.
Pharmacodynamics also describes relationship between the concentration of a drug and its
pharmacological effect.
3
An example: aspirin
Figure 2 The molecular structure of aspirin.
VOCABULARY
4
Fill in the missing words
Antipyretic, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, analgesic, anti-inflammatory,
metabolite, metabolites
The difference between pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics can be illustrated using
aspirin. The chemical name for aspirin is 2-ethanoyloxybenzoic acid (old name:
acetylsalicylic acid).
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Unit 2 - Drugs
Aspirin is a weak organic acid. It is absorbed mainly in its unionised form in the stomach and
upper small intestine. It is metabolised and the _____________ are excreted. The main
_____________ is 2-hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid).
Aspirin inhibits the action of an enzyme. The effects it has on the body include:
o _____________ – reduces pain, stiffness and swelling caused by inflammation;
o _____________ – alleviates pain;
o _____________ – lowers body temperature during fever.
Administering drugs
Figure 3 Different ways to administer a drug.
5
Fill in the missing words
Intravenous, nasal, inhalation, ocular, otologic, topical
Drugs may be administered in different ways. Here are some of the main methods.
Oral administration: tablets, capsules and liquids taken by mouth into the gastrointestinal
(GI) tract.
_____________, _____________ and _____________ administration: nasal spray, eye
drops or ear drops.
_____________ administration: injections and drips into the bloodstream.
_____________: inhaling fine powders or sprays through the mouth.
_____________: administration: creams ointment, lotions and balms applied to the skin.
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6
Match the words and their meanings (consider the context above)
1.
2.
intestine
to excrete
3.
stiffness
4.
inflammation
5.
to alleviate
6.
fever
7.
drip
8.
ointment
9.
to administer
10. drops
7
a. a piece of equipment used in a hospital for putting a liquid such as
medicine slowly and continously directly into your body (into a vein)
b. a state when you cannot move your muscles easily
c. a medical condition in which the temperature of your body is very high
and you feel ill
d. an area in your body that is swollen, red and painful because of an
infection or injury
e. the long tube in your body that processes food and carries waste out of
your body
f. to give someone or apply a drug or medical treatment
g. to make something less painful, severe or serious (to relieve)
h. a fatty or oily medicated formulation applied to the skin to heal or
protect
i. to get rid of liquid, solid, or gas waste from your body
j. liquid medicine that you put into your eyes, ears, or nose
Fill in the missing words
effective, stable, resistant 2x, pass, excreted, bind, administered, ranges, meets
Taking tablets and capsules
Many drugs are formulated as tablets or capsules to be taken orally.
To be 1._____________ a medicinal drug taken by mouth should:
• dissolve and be 2. _____________ in solutions with differing pH values; the pH of liquids
in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, for example, 3. _____________ from 1.5 to 8;
• be 4. _____________ to bacteria in the intestine and 5. _____________ to metabolism in the
liver;
• avoid active transport to bile and not be 6. _____________ by kidneys;
• be able to 7. _____________ through cell membranes; the most common mechanism, is
passive transport;
• move into the target organ;
• 8. _____________ to a receptor site, often an enzyme or other protein molecule.
How well a drug 9. _____________ these requirements depends on its physical and chemical
properties. These properties determine the pharmacokinetic processes that a drug undergoes in
the body.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
The physiochemical properties of drugs 10. _____________ in other ways, such as inhalation
or injection, are equally important. The effectiveness of all drugs is linked strongly to their
physiochemical properties.
SPEAKING
8
Discuss the following questions.
1. What´s your experience with administering drugs? Is there any way of drug
administration you don´t particularly like? Was it different when you were a child?
2. Do you know anybody who has to take medicinal drugs regularly?
3. Have you ever had any side effects when taking drugs?
4. Do you take any food supplements?
VOCABULARY - GRAMMAR
9
Some words of Greek or Latin origin have irregular plural. Can you find any
patterns within this irregularity?
bacillus
bacilli
analysis
bacterium
bacteria
thesis
criterion
diagnosis
spectrum
formula
crisis
nucleus
equilibrium
basis
10 Use the words above and complete the sentences. Use the singular or plural form
appropriately.
1. When reversible reactions reach ________________ the forward and reverse reactions are still
happening but at the same rate, so the concentrations of reactants and products do not change.
2. Faster ________________ are not necessarily more accurate.
3. Clostridium difficile is a natural resident in the gut for ca 3% of the adult population, but
many patients acquire the ________________ if they spend more than two weeks in hospital.
4. Broad-________________ antibiotics are antibacterial medications designed to work against
many types of ________________.
5. The proposed method of this study allows to define strictly the concentration of the
studied chemical element or compound by using a quantitative ________________.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
From discovery to clinical trials
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2013/04/salvarsan-podcast
Salvarsan – Part I
LISTENING
11
Listen to the recording and fill in the gaps
This week, we start with quite a dismal scene, set by Phil Robinson.
A black and white movie; the scene is a ____________ office. A young man is slumped
dejectedly in his chair, head in hands, while the doctor impotently attempts consolation. 'You
mustn't be disheartened,' he offers, 'there are many as badly off as you.' Exactly what afflicts
the ____________ remains unsaid but the young man's shame and his grief at the
impossibility of a future with his girl obliquely suggest the stigma and nature of the
____________. When the young man asks 'Has anyone ever been ____________?' the doctor
has no words of comfort.
Played today, this scene might suggest to its audience a diagnosis of ____________ or
____________. But this is the opening sequence of a film made in 1940 and the scene itself is
set over 100 years before today. The diagnosis is in fact ____________ and the film is Dr
Ehrlich's Magic Bullet: a biopic of Paul Ehrlich and the story of the first chemotherapeutic
drug: Salvarsan, also known as arsphenamine.
____________ was the 19th century version of today's ____________ epidemic - an
____________ sexually transmitted disease, infecting millions worldwide and with a similar
mortality rate. Those who were infected were effectively helpless – no ____________ existed
that could successfully halt its progress through the stages of infection, ultimately leading to
tumorous, necrotic growths, damage to the brain and heart, and eventually ____________.
Although ____________ had been known since at least the 15th century, the treatments
available were at best ____________ and at worst harmful: they principally consisted of
____________, administered as ointments, injections and even vapour baths. So in the early
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Unit 2 - Drugs
20th century, when a successful treatment finally emerged, it rapidly became the most
____________ drug in the world and it made a hero of its inventor.
12
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Listen to the recording and answer the questions
What illness does the young man in the film suffer from?
What ‘modern’ epidemic is this illness compared to?
Was there any effectual treatment of this illness in 19th century?
What did this illness lead to?
Was the illness mortal?
How was the illness treated before the discovery of Salvarsan?
Was this treatment effectual?
Salvarsan – Part II
VOCABULARY
13
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Match the words with their definitions
dye
treatment
physician
tissue
cell
target
side-effect
benign
a. an effect of a medicine that is not intended and could be unpleasant
b. doctor
c. the substance that animal and plant organs are made of (e.g. muscle/nerve
tissue)
d. a substance used for changing the colour of something such as clothing or
hair
e. the smallest part of a living structure that can operate as an independent
unit. The middle of it is called nucleus
f. something that you try to achieve; goal/objective
g. not malignant, not dangerous to health
h. medical care
LISTENING
14
Guess the missing words. Then listen to the recording and fill in the gaps.
The magnificent success of Salvarsan is but one episode in the humblingly prolific life of the
German Paul Ehrlich - a Nobel prize-winning scientist and physician. Over the course of his
_____________ Ehrlich contributed to immunology, haematology and pharmacology but
Salvarsan's story begins with Ehrlich's work on dyes.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
In the late 19th century, the growing knowledge of bacteria and the infections they
_____________ was a fertile field of medicine. As a young physician, Ehrlich was fascinated
with the staining techniques employed in bacteriology to colour and highlight samples. And
what particularly drew his _____________ was the selectivity of the process - dyes would
preferentially accumulate in certain tissues, or stain only certain bacteria.
This led Ehrlich to the realisation that would become his ambition: if a molecule could target
only a certain cell, a toxin added to that molecule would act as a precision agent of medicine,
_____________ only the disease-causing infection and leaving the patient's own cells
unharmed. Until that point, pharmacology had focused largely on the symptoms of disease.
Ehrlich longed for a curative - a specific chemical agent that would act only where
_____________. Borrowing a term from German folklore, Ehrlich called his concept
a magische Kugel: a magic bullet.
His first success involved using methylene blue to treat patients suffering from malaria (but
not as effectively as quinine) and in the 1900s Ehrlich began to systematically
_____________ dyes as therapeutics, testing them for efficacy in infected animals. One of
these was atoxyl - an arsenic-based dye that was already used to treat sleeping sickness.
Atoxyl was rather more toxic than its name suggests and Ehrlich and his team
_____________ hundreds of derivatives in the hope of finding a more benign candidate, with
some success.
When the bacterial cause of syphilis - a spirochete called Treponema pallidum- was
_____________ in 1905, its similarity to the sleeping sickness pathogen prompted Ehrlich to
aim his arsenal of arsenicals at this new target. His assistant, Sachahiro Hata, methodically
tested the compounds on syphilis-infected mice and compound number 606 turned out to be
startlingly effective.
Compound 606 became Salvarsan and it quickly became the first choice _____________ for
syphilis across the globe. It was a huge success but it was not quite the magic bullet of
Ehrlich's ambition; the drug carried a range of _____________ and although a later
development, neosalvarsan, was an improvement, it was eventually superseded by penicillin
in the 1940s.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
15
Listen to the recording and answer the questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Who was Paul Ehrlich?
What was particularly interesting for Paul Ehrlich in his work on dyes?
What hypothesis did this lead him to?
What was his first success?
What is atoxyl?
Is it toxic?
What is Treponema pallidum?
What is Treponema pallidum similar to?
What was the disadvantage of Salvarsan?
What was the new drug that superseded Salvarsan?
VOCABULARY
16
17
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Find the opposites of the words in the context above (Part I + Part II)
effectual
_____________________
harmless (1)
_____________________
malignant
_____________________
unproductive
_____________________
infertile
_____________________
harmless (2)
_____________________
Match the words to make collocations
to contribute
to cause
to draw
to accumulate
to suffer
to synthesize
to long
to focus
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
on symptoms
sb´s attention
from malaria
derivatives
in tissues
an infection
for the best treatment
h. to pharmacology
1 ___ 2 ___ 3 ___ 4 ___ 5 ___ 6 ___ 7 ___ 8 ___
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Unit 2 - Drugs
18 Find the right words according to their definitions and fill in the crossword.
(You can find all the words in the texts above – Salvarsan – Part I and II)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
the number of deaths within a particular area, group or time is called a __________ rate
if a doctor __________ you a drug or treatment, they say you should have it
a substance used to color materials
the identification of diseases by the examination of symptoms and signs and by other
investigations
AIDS is a sexually __________ disease
a widespread occurrence of a disease
a compound obtained from another and containing essential elements of the parent
substance, a structurally related compound
a fatty or oily medicated formulation applied to the skin to heal or protect
9. the long tube in your body that processes food and carries waste out of your body
Salvarsan – Part III
LISTENING
19
Try to guess the missing words and write them into the gaps. Then listen to the
recording and check.
Salvarsan is notable not only for being the first man-made chemotherapy ___________, but
for the process that created it, which elaborated the principles of drug discovery that remain
largely unchanged to this day. Ehrlich's three-figure compound library seems modest
compared to the colossal numbers used in modern pharmaceutical ____________, but
although the process has since been refined and is better informed, the principles remain the
same: optimising a lead compound by synthesising and screening derivatives.
Ehrlich's complaint of his experience with Salvarsan as 'seven years of misfortune with one
success' is sure to resonate with anyone working in pharmaceutical R&D. As will his four Gs
for success: Geld, Geduld, Geschick and Gluck; or money, patience, skill and luck.
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Even after it had lost its top spot in the ____________ against syphilis, Salvarsan continued to
interest chemists because of uncertainties regarding its ____________. Ehrlich originally
proposed that Salvarsan's ____________ was of two double-bonded arsenic atoms, each
bonded to an aminophenol group. This became the subject of much debate over the years,
particularly because of this unlikely double bond between the arsenic atoms. In fact, the
hundred-year-old debate was only resolved at last in 2004, when ____________ found that
Salvarsan is in fact is a ____________ of three- and five-membered cyclic arsenic species.
With Salvarsan, Ehrlich established the foundations of chemotherapy - designing a chemical
specifically to target a ____________. Generations of scientists have followed Ehrlich's lead
to create an incredible range of drugs, but his dream of a completely selective drug a chemotherapia specifica - remains ____________.
20
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Listen to the recording and answer the questions
Have the principles of drug discovery changed since the discovery of Salvarsan?
What do four Gs mean?
What was according to Ehrlich the structure of Salvarsan?
Was he right?
What was Ehrlich´s dream?
Drug discovery and development
21
Look at he decription of the stages of the dicovery phase and match the correct
headings in the box
The discovery phase
Target identification, Drug discovery, Pre-discovery, Target validation,
Lead optimisation, Early safety tests
1. ______________________________
Gather as much information as possible about the disease and try to understand its
nature.
(Increasingly, the starting point for the design of new drug is an understanding at the
molecular level of the disease to be treated).
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Unit 2 - Drugs
2. ______________________________
Choose a target molecule in the body.
(It is a molecule that the drug needs to find and act upon. Often it is a protein molecule
such as an enzyme).
3. ______________________________
Test the target and confirm its role in the disease.
4. ______________________________
Find a promising molecule (a ‘lead compound’) that could become a drug.
(With the target identified, thousands of compounds are made using a technique called
combinatorial chemistry. These are narrowed down to one compound to be studied
further. This is the lead compound).
5. ______________________________
Initial tests on lead compounds, including pharmacokinetics, by experiment and/or
computer modelling.
6. ______________________________
Alter the structure of lead candidates to improve properties.
(The lead compound is chemically modified to produce a number of structurally
similar compounds. This is done by parallel synthesis. From these the most likely one
is chosen for pre-clinical testing. This is followed by scaling up, through pilot scale to
manufacture.)
The development phase
1. Pre-clinical testing - In vitro and in vivo testing to determine if the drug is safe
enough for human testing.
2. Clinical trial exceptions (CTX) applications - File CTX with appropriate authorities
before clinical testing can begin.
3. Phase 1 clinical trial - Initial human testing in a small group of healthy volunteers.
4. Phase 2 clinical trial - Test in a small group of patients.
5. Phase 3 clinical trial - Test in a large group of patients to show safety and efficacy.
6. Marketing authorisation application - Apply to appropriate authorities for approval.
7. Manufacturing - Begin full-scale production.
8. On-going studies and Phase 4 trials - Continuing monitoring and checking of the
drug in use.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
Clinical trials - video
22
Listen to the recording or watch the video and answer the following questions.
1. Although anybody can take part in a clinical trial, there are some limiting factors. What
are they?
2. What are the advantages of participating in a clinical trial?
3. What are the possible disadvantages of participating in a clinical trial?
4. What are people´s most common worries about participating in a clinical trial?
5. What are the counterarguments?
6. What question does the man recommend asking before participating in a clinical trial?
7. Would the man participate in a clinical trial? Why (not)?
DISCUSSION
23
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Answer the following questions
Would you participate in a clinical trial? Why (not)?
Do you know anybody who participated in a clinical trial?
What do you think will be the greatest medical breakthrough in the next ten years?
If you could contribute something to science or medicine, what would you do and why?
Do you feel uncomfortable using medicine from a foreign country?
Do most people in your country prefer traditional medicine, modern medicine, or a
combination of the two?
Why are "prescription drugs" only available on prescription?
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Unit 2 - Drugs
VOCABULARY – REVISION
24
Do the crossword
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Across
3. relating to the eyes
9. to give someone a drug or medical treatment
10. to breathe air or other substances into your lungs
Down
1. put directly into a vein
2. the blood that moves around your body
4. opposite of benign
5. the long tube in your body that that processes food and carries waste out of your body
6. a state when you cannot move your muscles easily
7. causing or capable of causing damage, synonym: bad
8. to let a substance or a chemical spread into the area
VOCABULARY - FALSE FRIENDS
25
Some English words look similar to those in Czech, but they have a completely
different meaning. One example was provided in the article above:
…the bacillus is a cause for concern…
Can you remember any other false friends? Explain their meaning in English.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
26
Choose the correct option
1. I know you told me it was expensive, but could you tell me what the actual/current price
was?
2. If the container is not isolated/insulated properly, the liquid inside may freeze when the
outside temperature drops well below zero.
3. You have analysed the problem, so what´s your meaning/opinion?
4. This is an OTC (over-the-counter) drug. It means you don´t need a
receipt/recipe/prescription to buy it in the pharmacy.
27
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Odd man out
eventually
sensible
to control
extra
gymnasium
in the end
practical
to check
best quality
fitness centre
possibly
sensitive
to manage
supplementary
grammar school
LISTENING AND REPHRASING
28
Listen to the podcast and fill in the gaps in the rephrased text below
More than 50.000 people over the world
from sleeping sickness. Without
they die.
Currently there are
drugs available. Melarsoprol, the one
arsenic, is
very dangerous and has serious side effects. The disadvantage of the other one,
fluoromethane, is the time you
could be a
in hospital, taking infusions for 2 weeks. This
in the developing world.
The researchers hope to stop the parasite from
by attacking the target
protein NMT.
They have
in attacking the parasite while it is in the bloodstream and now their
is to solve how to
They will also have to
the drug through the blood brain barrier.
on the possibility of the parasite becoming
.
Chemistry World Podcast - May 2010; 17:42 – 20:35
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Unit 2 - Drugs
WARM UP
29
Discuss in pairs.
Do you ever take pills? In what situations? Do you believe that the pills prescribed by
your doctor actually help you? Or could it be a placebo effect?
PREDICTING AND READING
30 The article you are going to read is about Prozac. Which of the following statements
do you think are true and which are false?
a Prozac is an antidepressant.
b It seems that Prozac and other 3 antidepressants help patients suffering from any form
of depression.
c If you have too much serotonin, you are likely to suffer from depression.
d Prozac may lead to violent and suicidal behaviour.
e The manufacturers informed the regulator and the public immediately when they
found out about the potential dangers of the drug.
31 Look at the article. Do you know the meanings of the highlighted words and
expressions? If not, ask your colleagues or consult your dictionary.
32 Read the article and check your answers in exercise 29.
Soundbite molecules
Simon Cotton, teacher at Uppingham School, takes a look at those compounds that find
themselves in the news or relate to our everyday lives. In this issue: depressing news
about Prozac
What's the problem with Prozac?
It has been claimed that Prozac (fluoxetine, 1) and other antidepressants do not do their job.
Didn't clinical trials prove they work?
The results of some clinical trials were positive, yes. However, in April analysis by Irving
Kirsch of the University of Hull and colleagues on the results of 47 clinical trials involving
four different antidepressant drugs showed that a lot of unpublished research indicated these
drugs were little more effective than a placebo in treating patients with mild to moderate
depression. Only in the case of severe depression were these drugs shown to have a marked
effect on patients' condition compared to placebo groups.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
Why did Prozac become so important?
The drug was discovered in 1972, and was brought onto the market by Eli Lilly in 1986-7.
Prozac revolutionised the treatment of depression.
Until ca 40 years ago depression was a relatively rarely treated condition. Early drug
treatments, for example, monoamine oxidase inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants, tended
to target a number of receptors, so they came with a variety of side effects. Prozac and
its successors are more selective, so there are fewer side effects.
How does the drug work?
Prozac is one of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class of drugs. Serotonin (5hydroxytryptamine, 2) is a signalling molecule (neurotransmitter) in the brain. Levels of
serotonin in the brain affect mood. People suffering from depression tend to have low
serotonin levels.
How does an SSRI help treat depression?
In the brain, messages are passed between two nerve cells (neurones) via a synapse, a small
gap between the cells. Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, are released by the transmitting
neurone into the gap. These chemicals diffuse across the gap and are recognised by receptors
on the receiving (postsynaptic) neurone, initiating a nerve impulse. Only a fraction of the
neurotransmitters are lost in this process; the majority are released from the receptors and
taken up again into the transmitting neurone (reuptake). An SSRI inhibits the protein involved
in the reuptake of serotonin, thus increasing the levels of the neurotransmitter in the synaptic
gap and so the molecule is more readily recognised by receptors on the postsynaptic neurone.
Any more depressing news?
I'm afraid so. One accusation levelled against Prozac and other SSRIs is that, in some cases,
they lead to violent and suicidal behaviour. Recently, the UK's Medicines and Healthcare
products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) investigated claims that GlaxoSmithKline (GSK)
withheld information on the dangers of young people using its SSRI drug, Seroxat. The
regulator concluded that GSK could have disclosed, much earlier, data relating to the risk of
suicidal tendencies in under-18s using the drug.
So these antidepressants should not be seen as 'instant happiness' pills. People suffering from
mild depression may get better without drugs, given better diet and lifestyle, as well as good
advice on their approach to life. Yet there are many people who say that Prozac and other
SSRIs are the only treatments that have worked for them, enabling them to carry on living
normal lives.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
ROLE PLAY
33 Student A is a manager of a big international pharmaceutical firm, student B is
critical about what the firm is doing.
Discuss the following – drugs are too expensive and often don´t help, testing on
animals, gifts to drug prescribers…
DISCUSSION
34 Answer the following questions.
Who is number one in the pharmaceutical industry in the Czech Republic?
What do you know about the company? Would you like to work there? Why (not)?
Is the behaviour of pharmaceutical companies ethical? Why (not)?
What do you think about the statement “Drugs are so expensive and often unavailable to some
people (especially in developing countries) because of the cost of research and development,
clinical trials etc.”
Which is the most important drug in the history of mankind?
Do you know any drug developed by a Czech person/team?
What do you think about homeopathy?
TEAM WORK
35 In groups, think of a pill you would like to discover. Imagine that you have
succeeded and now you are to present it to the public – e.g. at a press conference.
Prepare a mini presentation with your colleagues, describing the following: what is
the drug, what does it do, who is it designed for, what marketing campaign will you
choose… Think of a TV commercial to promote sales.
VOCABULARY
36 Fill in the appropriate adjectives.
Bacteria are unicellular microorganisms. There are approximately ten times as many
(bacterium) cells as human cells in the human body, with large numbers of bacteria on
the skin and in the
(digestion) tract. Although the vast majority of these bacteria
are
(harm) thanks to the
(immunity) system, and a few are
(benefit), some are
(pathogen) bacteria and cause
(infection) diseases,
including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy and bubonic plague. The most common
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Unit 2 - Drugs
(fate) bacterial diseases are
(respiration)
infections,
with
tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people a year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. In
developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and in
(variety) agricultural processes, so antibiotic resistance is becoming common. In industry,
bacteria are important in processes such as sewage treatment, the production of cheese
and yoghurt, and the manufacture of antibiotics and other
(?) chemicals.
37 What are the antonyms to the following words?
rare
successor
majority
mild
to disclose information
superior
38 Divide in two groups. Each group will be given a different set of words. Define your
word and let the other group guess what it is. Then swap roles.
TEXT BUILDING
39 Take the pieces of the text given to you by your teacher and put together a guide to
mind-altering drugs by linking the headlines to the paragraphs. Work in pairs or
small groups.
A concise guide to mind-altering drugs
http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9923-glossary-drugs-and-alcohol.html
(Glossary: Drugs and Alcohol 11:09 04 September 2006,NewScientist.com news service)
1
A
B
C
Alcohol
What is it?
What does it do?
How does it work?
4
A
B
C
Hallucinogens/psychedelics
What are they?
What do they do?
How do they work?
2
A
B
C
Amphetamine-type stimulants
What are they?
What do they do?
How do they work?
5 Opiates
A What are they?
B What do they do?
C How do they work?
3
A
B
C
Caffeine
What is it?
What does it do?
How does it work?
6
A
B
C
Tobacco
What is it?
What does it do?
How does it work?
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Unit 2 - Drugs
WRITING
40 Describe one of the following drugs: cannabis, cocaine or ecstasy. Write down what
it is, what it does and how it works.
PAIRWORK
41
Discuss in pairs the following questions and statements.
1.
Have you had any personal experience with mind altering drugs? Why/why not? If yes,
describe it.
All mind altering drugs should be banned.
If you grow your own marihuana, it’s only your business.
Some people take a trip at a weekend party just to relax and then they function normally
during the week - they are not addicts. So what’s the problem?
Sentences for drug dealing should be as strict as in some Asian countries, i.e. life prison
or death penalty.
Any school (primary, secondary, university) or employer have the right to require drug
tests from their pupils/students/employees.
Drug addiction? Can’t happen to me.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
VOCABULARY
42
Explain the following expressions.
overdosing – heart failure – respiration rate – fatigue – dose – to account for –
to boost brain activity – to suppress appetite – lethal dose – potent – to alter
43 Fill in the table.
Noun
Adjective
Verb
Synonym/definition Antonym
Collocation
colourless
liquid
nervous
synthetic
direct
impure
long
deficient
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Unit 2 - Drugs
GUIDED WRITING
44 Make sentences by putting the expressions in the correct order.
a The bandages/ until the damaged area heals/ work by covering/the wound
b and the depth of the wound/depends on the type of liquid bandage/ How long that
takes
c can also/ Doctors and veterinarians/use these materials /to repair some cuts to internal
organs
d
than stitches/ Liquid bandages / are less traumatic for patients/ because they do not
require anaesthesia
e In the 1960s, researchers were thinking/ the Vietnam War./ about using
ethylcyanoacrylate superglue/ for closing up wounds and soldiers used it during
f But ethylcyanoacrylate has never been approved/ should not be/ used on the skin for
two main reasons: /for civilian medical use and
g and release toxic compounds / or monitored to prevent impurities /The short ethyl
chains degrade in the body/ and the manufacturing process is not sterile
h
approved for medical use first in Canada and Europe /Long-chain octylcyanoacrylatebased glues / were / and then in the U.S. by 1998
EXTRA ACTIVITIES
45 Story telling.
Divide in groups of 3 – 4. Each group will get a set of words. In your group, make up
a bed time story. You must use all the words given to you! Tell the story to the class.
Set A hamster, injection, pill, headache, operation
Set B clinical trials, dose, to block, bacteria, patient
Set C blood pressure, research, guinea pig, deficiency, effect
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Unit 2 - Drugs
VOCABULARY
46
Do the crossword. In case of doubt, the sentences in part b should help you.
Across
3. balance
4. lack
6. to stop from happening
7. a red liquid in human body
Down
1. another way of doing something
2. often
4. nutrition
5. causing death
b. Fill in the gaps by using the words from the crossword above.
It´s always good to have an (1) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ solution in case the one you´re working
on fails.
Antibiotics may cause problems to children if they are applied too(2) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.
(3) _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ is the condition of a system in which competing influences are
balanced.
AIDS is the acronym of acquired immune (4 across)_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ syndrome.
Patients with hepatitis must be on a strict (4 down) _ _ _ _.
In neurosurgery, one wrong cut could be (5) _ _ _ _ _ for the patient.
The supervisor should give safety instructions to the lab workers in order to (6) _ _ _ _ _ _ _
accidents.
She faints very easily. Her (7) _ _ _ _ _ pressure is too low.
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Unit 2 - Drugs
Solution of exercise 38
1A Ethanol produced by the action of yeast on sugars.
1B Ethanol is a biphasic drug: low doses have a different effect to high doses. Small amounts
of alcohol (one or two drinks) act as a stimulant, reducing inhibition and producing feelings of
mild euphoria. Higher doses depress the central nervous system, initially producing relaxation
but then leading to drunkenness - characterised by poor coordination, memory loss, cognitive
impairment and blurred vision. Very high doses cause vomiting, coma and death through
respiratory failure. The fatal dose varies but is somewhere around 500 milligrams of ethanol
per 100 millilitres of blood.
1C At low doses (5 milligrams per 100 millilitres of blood), alcohol sensitises NMDA
receptors in the brain, making them more responsive to the excitatory neurotransmitter
glutamate, so boosting brain activity. These effects are most pronounced in areas associated
with thinking, memory and pleasure. At higher doses it desensitises the same receptors and
also activates the inhibitory GABA system.
2A A class of synthetic drugs invented (and still used as) appetite suppressors. Includes
amphetamine itself and derivatives including methamphetamine and dextroamphetamine.
2B Amphetamines are powerful stimulants of the central nervous system, producing feelings
of euphoria, alertness, mental clarity and increased energy lasting for 2 to 12 hours depending
on the dose. The downsides are increased heart rate and blood pressure, nausea, irritability
and jitteriness, plus fatigue once the effects have worn off. Overdosing can lead to
convulsions, heart failure, coma and death. The fatal dose varies from person to person, with
some reports of acute reactions to as little as 2 milligrams and others of non-fatal
500-milligram doses. Most deaths from overdose have been among injecting users.
2C Their principal effect is to block dopamine transporters, which leads to higher-than-normal
levels of the pleasure chemical dopamine in the brain.
3A An alkaloid found in coffee, cocoa beans, tea, kola nuts and guarana. Also added to many
fizzy drinks, energy drinks, pep pills and cold and flu remedies.
3B It stimulates the central nervous system. Pure caffeine is a moderately powerful drug and
is sometimes passed off as amphetamine. In small doses, such as the 150 milligrams in a
typical cup of filter coffee, it increases alertness and promotes wakefulness. Caffeine also
raises heart and respiration rate and promotes urine production. Higher doses induce
jitteriness and anxiety. The fatal dose is about 10 grams.
Caffeine raises heart and respiration rate and promotes urine production.
3C Caffeine blocks receptors for the neurotransmitter adenosine, which is generally inhibitory
and associated with the onset of sleep. Also raises dopamine levels, and stimulates the release
of the fight-or-flight hormone adrenalin.
4A A broad class of natural and synthetic compounds that profoundly alter perception and
consciousness. The most widely used are the LSD group, including LSD (lysergic acid
diethylamide), LSA (d-lysergic acid amide), DMT (dimethyltryptamine, found in ayahuasca)
and psilocybin (the main active ingredient of magic mushrooms).
4B LSD produces experiences far removed from normal reality, including visual and auditory
hallucinations, synaesthesia, time distortion, altered sense of self and feelings of detachment.
Surfaces undulate and shimmer, colours are more intense and everyday objects can take on a
surreal and fascinating appearance. The experience can be extremely frightening. After effects
include fatigue and a vague sense of detachment.
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LSD is one of the most potent psychoactive substances known. Only 25 micrograms are
required to produce an effect; 100 micrograms will induce 12 hours or more of profound
psychedelia.
4C No one really knows. LSD stimulates three subtypes of serotonin receptor, 5-HT2A,
5-HT2C and 5-HT1A, though it is not clear that this alone can account for its effects.
5A Any compound that stimulates opioid receptors found in the brain, spinal cord and gut.
The word "opioid" derives from opium, the narcotic resin extracted from unripe seed pods of
the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). The opiates include naturally occurring alkaloids
such as morphine (the main active ingredient of opium), derivatives of these such as heroin,
and entirely synthetic compounds such as methadone.
5B Heroin, the most commonly used opiate, can induce euphoria, dreamy drowsiness and a
general sense of well-being. The effects of injecting the drug have been described as a
"whole-body orgasm", though some users experience no pleasurable effects at all. It also
causes nausea, constipation, sweating, itchiness, depressed breathing and heart rate. Higher
doses lead to respiratory failure and death. The fatal dose depends on tolerance and how the
drug is taken but a naive user would probably die after injecting 200 milligrams.
5C By activating any of the three subtypes of opioid receptors. These normally respond to the
body's natural painkilling chemicals including endorphins, which are released in highly
stressful situations where pain would be disadvantageous.
6A Dried leaves of the tobacco plant Nicotiana tabacum, a native of South America. Usually
smoked but can also be snorted as snuff or chewed. The main active ingredient is the alkaloid
nicotine.
6B Nicotine is a mild stimulant which increases alertness, energy levels and memory function.
Paradoxically, users also report a relaxant effect. It also increases blood pressure and
respiration rate and suppresses appetite. Larger doses cause hallucinations, nausea, vomiting
and death. The lethal dose is about 60 milligrams; a typical cigarette delivers about 2
milligrams of nicotine into the bloodstream.
6C Nicotine's principal effect is to stimulate nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the brain,
which leads to increased levels of the fight-or-flight hormone adrenalin. Also increases levels
of dopamine.
GRAMMAR LINKS
Grammar File – If Clauses
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Unit 3 - Materials
UNIT 3
MATERIALS
WARM UP
1 What do proteins, silk, wool, DNA and polystyrene have in common?
2 What do you know about this group of materials (i.e. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _)?
PRE-READING
3 How would you define smart materials? Discuss in pairs/groups, giving examples of
application of such materials.
4 Compare your definition with the statements taken from Wikipedia. Do you agree?
Smart materials are designed materials that have one or more properties that can be
significantly changed in a controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, temperature,
moisture, pH, electric or magnetic fields.
Smart materials have properties that react to changes in their environment. This means that
one of their properties can be changed by an external condition, such as temperature, light,
pressure or electricity. This change is reversible and can be repeated many times. There is a
wide range of different smart materials, including self-healing materials.
Self-healing materials have the intrinsic ability to repair damage due to normal usage, thus
expanding the material's lifetime.
5 Look at the title of the article below and discuss the following questions with your
partner.
1.
2.
Have you heard about any self-healing materials?
Where could such materials be used? Give some examples.
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6 Match the words with their definitions.
1. leakage
A temporary platform used to elevate and support workers and
materials during work on a structure (e.g. when building a house)
2. scaffold
B process in which material is lost through holes or defects of their
containers
3. to release
C liquids and gases
4. fluids
D to let go
5. to set
E to close hermetically
6. to seal
F to become solid or thickened
1 ___, 2 ___, 3 ___, 4 ___, 5 ___, 6 ___
Polymer sets new self-healing record
Chemistry World, 8 May 2014Tim Wogan
A new self-healing polymer that can repair holes far larger than any material before –
more than 3cm wide – has been unveiled by US researchers. The polymer mimics biological
healing by first rapidly forming a gel scaffold over the hole that is then sealed by another
polymer, restoring most of the material’s strength.
1
2
They sound like science fiction, but self-healing polymers are a growing field in polymer
chemistry. Potential applications range from prosthetic skin to more robust battery anodes,
and various self-healing mechanisms have been developed. For example, Scott White's group
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign created a polymer containing capsules that
crack open and release a healing agent. But while this method and others work well if the cut
surfaces are in contact, they can't repair a hole, as healing fluids simply drop out before they
can solidify.
3
Now, White and colleagues solve this problem by embedding two channels into a
polymer. They then put in either a polyethylene glycol or a tris [(4formylphenoxy)methyl]ethane)) into each channel. The monomers of the repair polymer were
also divided between two channels, while the polymerisation initiator was confined to one
channel and the promoter to the other. They demonstrated the process using two different
repair polymers – polyhydroxyethylmethacrylate and two liquid thiol-enes.
4
In the undamaged epoxy, the contents of each channel are kept separate, and both
mixtures remain stable, low viscosity liquids. When a hole opens up in the polymer, both
channels are ruptured and the liquids mix. Within seconds, the two gel components begin to
set, with the gel stiffening as it spreads. ‘It's like a little dynamic scaffold that's able to support
its own weight against gravity,’ explains co-author Nancy Sottos. ‘The normal types of
healing agents that we've used in the past just wouldn't be able to do that.’
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Unit 3 - Materials
5
Once this gel scaffold is in place, the two monomers in the other channel can combine and
polymerise, sealing the hole tight and restoring the polymer to close to 62% of its original
strength. Testing the seal with nitrogen gas at 345kPa, for hole diameters up to 6.3mm, they
consistently found no leakage. Sealing was less consistent if they punched the hole in the
polymer rather than cutting it, as the gel did not always penetrate all the radial cracks
emanating from the impact site.
6
This design is only a proof of concept, as the polymer contained only two channels, and
the fluids had to be pumped in artificially. The team now hope to design a polymer
impregnated with a vascular network of microchannels containing pressurised healing fluids,
allowing them to flow to an arbitrary impact site and seal the hole.
Thomas Russell of Umass Amherst in the US is impressed. ‘Here you have a hole, and all
of a sudden the hole fills up and you're done,’ he says. ‘That to me is very nice.’ He cautions,
however, that the need for two separate reservoirs of pressurised liquids could be problematic
in applications like body armour. Fred Wudl of the University of California, Santa Barbara in
the US adds that the work could allow vital temporary repairs of polymers during operation.
‘An airplane's flying and gets hit by a bird or something,’ he theorises. ‘If it can fix itself until
a pilot can find a place to land, it can then be fixed permanently.’
7
REFERENCES
S R White et al, Science, 2014, DOI: 10.1126/science.1251135
READING EXERCISES
7 Read the text and find the words corresponding to the following definitions.
to reveal, to disclose, to make visible (paragraph 1)
to copy, to create the appearance or effect of somebody/something (paragraph 1)
quickly (paragraph 1)
to vary within a specified limit (paragraph 2)
to fix firmly in a surrounding mass (paragraph 3)
a substance that starts a chain reaction (paragraph 3)
a substance added in small amounts to a catalyst to increase its activity (paragraph 3)
to break (paragraph 4)
to make or become rigid, hard, difficult to bend (paragraph 4)
to distribute over a surface in a layer (paragraph 4)
to bring back to an original condition (paragraph 5)
to get through (paragraph 5)
a place (paragraph 5)
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the stage during the development of a product when it is established that the product will
function as intended (paragraph 6)
the striking of one body against another (paragraph 6)
a receptacle or chamber for storing a liquid (paragraph 7)
8 Search the letter soup for some expressions that are used in the article. They are
antonyms of the words below.
WORD
ANTONYM
temporarily
slowly
unimportant
static
naturally
O
P
E
R
M
A
N
E
N
T
L
Y
C
O
L
A
P
S
O
F
F
A
I
R
T
E
I
P
A
X
E
V
O
S
L
E
A
R
T
I
F
I
C
I
A
L
L
Y
M
H
U
D
E
L
E
T
I
N
I
G
P
A
N
L
D
Y
N
A
M
I
C
O
O
R
L
Y
C
K
O
L
E
T
E
L
9
According to the text decide whether the following statements are true or false.
Correct the false ones.
1.
The healed material is as strong as it was originally.
2.
There are two channels, each with an initiator and a promoter.
3.
When the polymer is damaged, the channels break and the liquids mix.
4.
The resulting gel solidifies in a few minutes.
5.
As the gel spreads, it connects the edges of the hole.
6.
As soon as the hole has been covered, the polymerisation of the two monomers starts,
completely filling the hole.
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7.
The results of this process were the same for all types of holes.
8.
The polymer is ready for use in airplane industry.
10 Work in groups. Group A will prepare questions for paragraphs 1 – 3 (one question
per paragraph), Group B will do the same for paragraphs 4 - 7. Answer the
questions of your colleagues.
PAIR WORK
11 Assign the materials below to the appropriate categories. Think of as many other
materials as you can for each category. You have 3 minutes to complete this task.
Metals
Ferrous
alloys
brass
glass
Inorganic
non-metals
Polymers
Composites
Biomaterials
Non-ferrous
alloys
stainless steel
bronze
semiconductors
cements
concrete
ceramics
synthetic rubber
plastic
silicon hydrogel
DEBATE
12 The class will be split into two groups to debate (for and against) the applications of
nanomaterials. Think of 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of their use in society.
Then you will be placed in a group for the debate. As a group, decide on your top 5
points to give to your spokesperson. Once the spokespersons have presented the
points to the class, you will have a chance to support your team by clarifying your
group´s points or challenging the facts and opinions delivered by the other group.
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TEAM WORK - SEARCH FOR INFORMATION & MINIPRESENTATION
13 Divide into small groups. Each group will be given a case study of a company that is
looking into the possibility of using nanotechnology. Read the scenario and prepare
a mini presentation. Make sure you cover the following points:
-
Project overview (aim of the project, overview of nanomaterial)
-
Product preparation (brief description of the preparation, including any
interesting observations/properties of the product)
-
Product analysis (what analysis will be done, what information will it provide?)
-
Costing (how much will the raw material cost?)
-
Conclusion (summarize the results and recommendations)
WARM UP
14
Which is the lightest material you know? Where is it used?
15
Have you heard of aerogel? Work in pairs or groups to put together all you know
about the material (its structure, characteristics and use).
PRE – READING EXERCISES
16
Match the words with their definitions.
1. fibre
2. insulating
3. sponge
4.
5.
6.
7.
randomly ordered
to disperse
to assemble
to align
a preventing the transfer of heat
b a long, thin and flexible piece of material. Plant fibres are
the basis of fabric such as cotton. Fibres are important in the
structure of plants and animals because they hold tissues
together.
c a piece of light natural or artificial material that becomes soft
when it is wet, is able to take in and hold liquid, and is used
for washing or cleaning; also an animal living in the sea
d to put together
e there is no pattern in the order; the order cannot be predicted
f to put in one line
g to cause to become spread widely
1___, 2___, 3___, 4___, 5___, 6___, 7___
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Plant material aligns to make tough aerogels
Chemistry World, 11 July 2014 Manisha Lalloo
1
Japanese scientists have used nanocellulose fibres extracted from plants to create a new type
of aerogel that is not only transparent and thermally insulating, but also mechanically tough.
2
Aerogels are ultralight materials, derived by replacing the liquid in a gel with gas. Most
often made of silica or carbon, aerogels have a sponge-like structure consisting of randomly
ordered nanoparticles and interconnecting pores. Known for their extremely low density,
aerogels are outstanding thermal insulators, but their brittle nature can limit their uses.
3
In an effort to create a tougher aerogel, Tsuguyuki Saito and colleagues at the University of
Tokyo have used a new building block – nanocellulose fibres. Produced by plants, these
crystalline fibres have good elasticity, strength comparable to carbon nanotubes and a fairly
homogeneous width of 3nm, thanks to their biosynthetic production.
4
By dispersing oxidised nanocellulose fibres in water the team created a hydrogel where
individual nanocellulose fibres naturally assembled into a liquid crystal arrangement. After
fixing the structure in place with acid, they replaced the water with ethanol, and subjected the
resulting material to supercritical drying, leaving behind a nanocellulose aerogel.
5
In the hydrogel, a majority of the nanofibres were aligned in the same direction. As a result
the final aerogel consists of a fairly homogeneous structure of three-dimensionally ordered
fibres. ‘Compared with conventional aerogels, our aerogels are structurally new,’ says Saito.
6
On testing, the team found that their aerogel was significantly tougher than conventional
silica or carbon aerogels. ‘When you press our aerogels – from 1cm to 1mm – they will not
break,’ says Saito. ‘You can also fold and bend the compressed aerogel; conventional aerogels
cannot do that.’ The team found they were also able to improve the aerogel’s toughness
simply by increasing the density of the fibres in the initial hydrogel. […]
7
Commenting on the work Stephen Eichhorn, an expert in cellulose materials at the
University of Exeter, UK, says: ‘This is a truly remarkable aerogel material combining
properties of high transparency, low thermal conduction and toughness. All these properties
and also from a renewable material – cellulose… The challenge is now to manufacture this
material in large quantities for bulk applications.’
8
The team now hope to use the technique to create new carbon aerogels with a similar
structure and mechanical strength.
REFERENCES
Y Kobayashi, T Saito and A Isogai, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 2014, DOI: 10.1002/anie.201405123
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READING COMPREHENSION
17 Decide whether the following statements are true or false. Correct the false ones.
1. Aerogels are very light because they contain a lot of gas.
2. Because of their high density, they do not conduct much heat.
3. Conventional silica or carbon aerogels have one problem, which is their brittleness.
18 Answer the questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
How are gels converted into aerogels?
What are their main characteristics?
What are the typical materials used for producing aerogels? What did the Japanese use?
What can be done with the compressed nanocellulose aerogel?
Can the toughness of the new aerogel be regulated? If yes, how?
What is the next step to be taken by the Japanese team?
19 Do the cross-word. The words come from the article above.
Across
1. mass per volume (paragraph 6)
5. to substitute (paragraph 4)
6. to bend and lay one part over another part (paragraph 6)
Down
2. to make better (paragraph 6)
3. to pull out (paragraph 1)
4. to change the shape from straight to curved (paragraph 6)
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WRITING INSTRUCTIONS
20 You will be given a set of instructions on how to make some aerogel yourself. Fill in
the missing verbs.
21 Watch the video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X24np30GS2o and check your
answers in ex. 20.
DESCRIBING PROPERTIES
22 Some adjectives related to the properties of materials are defined in the following
table. Match the words in the left column with their definitions given in the right
column.
DESCRIPTION
DEFINITION
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
brittle
hard
tough
soft
flexible
rigid
smooth
rough
combustible
a
b
c
d
e
F
g
h
I
10
11
transparent
flammable
J
k
that cannot be bent easily
permitting the passage of light
not firm against pressure; not stiff
having an uneven, bumpy surface
easy to set on fire
hard but easily broken
that can be bent easily
not easily cut; not easily weakened
having an even surface without sharply raised or lowered
places
that can catch fire and burn easily
that cannot easily be broken, or pressed down
1__ 2__ 3__ 4__ 5__ 6__ 7__ 8__ 9__ 10__ 11__
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23 Some words and phrases related to the properties of materials are defined in the
following table. Match the words and phrases in the left column with their
definitions given in the right column.
PROPERTY
DEFINITION
1 durability
a
2 workability
b
3 conductivity
c
4 elasticity
5 tensile strength
d
e
6 corrosion resistance
f
the ability of a material to resist degradation through
oxidation
the ability of a material that allows heat or electricity to
pass through
the resistance of a material to breaking when there is a
crack in it
the ability of a material to last a long time
the ability of a material to be shaped or consolidated in
forms easily
the ability of a material to return to its original shape after
being stretched
1__ 2__ 3__ 4__ 5__ 6__
24
Study the words that can be used to describe the properties of materials. Explain
their meanings. Find their antonyms.
PROPERTY
ANTONYM
brittle
tough
flexible
smooth
firm
transparent
natural
reactive
thick
dry
25 Decide which prefix is correct with the following words.
__ __organic
__ __ __advantage
__ __soluble
__ __ __elastic
__ __efficient
__ __ __metal
__ __ __similar
__ __use
__ __expected
__ __flexible
__ __damaged
__ __equal
__ __penetrable
__ __ __flammable
__ __correct
__ __usual
__ __pure
__ __build
__ __even
__ __accurate
__ __decorate
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26
Study the following table and complete the missing adjectives and nouns.
ADJECTIVE
NOUN
long
brittleness
weak
roughness
corrosion
thick
rigid
ceramics
strong
soft
conductivity
fragile
wide
homogeneous
27
Study the following table and complete the missing nouns and verbs.
NOUN
VERB
select
conservation
solidity
renew
resistance
renovate
penetrate
damage
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28 Find pairs of words with similar meanings. Explain them.
damage
effective
complete
consist of
damage
restore
protection
pervious
moist
artificial
damp
permanent
man-made
be composed of
penetrable
renovate
efficient
finish
harm
stable
care
-
WRITTEN VS. SPOKEN DESCRIPTION
29
Transform the sentences, using the word given.
1. A The crystalline fibres have high elasticity.
B ______________________________ (are)
2. A They exhibit strength comparable to carbon nanotubes.
B
(as…as)
3. A They improved the aerogel by making the fibres denser.
B
(density)
30
Compare each pair of sentences in the previous exercise. Which sentences are more
formal?
31
Complete the rule by choosing the correct option:
Noun structures are less/more formal than verbs and adjectives, therefore they are used
more frequently in scientific writing/spoken language.
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COMPARISON
32
Study the following pattern.
Something
is
slightly
a bit
much
a lot
considerably
far
stronger
more/less flexible
than something
else
Compare different materials using the above-given pattern.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
33
rubber / flexible / metal
wood / tough / sandstone
paper / smooth / sandpaper
stone / hard / diamond
polystyrene / poor conductor of heat / steel
glass / brittle / ceramics
copper / good conductor of electricity / iron
Look at the table and complete the sentences to make true statements.
Hardness
12
10
8
6
4
Hardness
2
0
1. Glass is much harder than chalk.
2. ___________ is slightly harder than ___________.
3. ___________ is just as hard as ___________.
4. ___________ is a bit less hard than ___________.
5. ___________ is a lot harder than ___________.
6. ___________ is by far the hardest material of the group.
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34
Complete the following statements with your own assessment of different materials
or substances.
1.
___________ is a lot ___________ than ___________.
2.
___________ isn´t nearly as ___________ as ___________.
3.
___________ is the ___________ I´ve ever ___________.
DESCRIBING SHAPE, COMPOSITION AND USAGE
35 a) Look at the drawings of basic two-dimensional shapes. Label each shape with the
correct word and write adjectives related to these shapes. How are they
pronounced?
Answer the following questions.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Which figure is curved?
Which figure has three angles?
Which figures have parallel sides?
Which figure always has equal sides?
Which figure may have equal sides?
b) Draw three-dimensional shapes from the following table. Match the correct
word with the correct shape.
pyramid
sphere
cube
triangular prism
cylinder
cone
hemisphere
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36 Study the table and fill in the gaps in sentences with from or of.
be made of
is usually used when a material has not been substantially changed
be made from
is used when a material is changed into a completely different form
1. Some plastics are
2. These vases
naturally pre-formed molecules.
cut glass.
3. Polymers can be
crude oil.
4. Glass is
sand, limestone, and salt.
5. Window frames are
plastic or wood.
6. Traditional types of porcelain are often
china clay.
37 a) Study the following patterns and fill in the gaps.
be used to do st
be used for st / doing st
be used as st
1.
Stone ____________________________ cover the facade of historical buildings.
2.
Glass ____________________________ window panels.
3.
Wood ____________________________ building material.
4.
Chlorine dioxide ____________________removing lignin from the pulp.
b) Rewrite the following sentences as shown below.
Example
Wood is used for making doors.
Wood is used to make doors.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mineral wool is used for insulating buildings.
Stone is used for facing walls.
Glass can be used for covering the entire facade of a building.
These paints are used for coating the facade.
38 Work in pairs. Choose a material and write its full description. Then read out your
description, without revealing what the material is. The rest of the class should
identify the material.
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39 Fill in the blanks in the following text by writing the word for the given definition
or expression. The first letter is written in bold.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
to be made by pouring into a shaped container
not easily moved or changed
to be made by changing shape
not naturally produced
the distance from one end to the other
a plastic that is soft and bendable when heated
to become firm or stiff
the quality of being plastic
Plastic is any of various organic compounds produced by polymerization, capable of being
moulded, extruded, c______________________ (1) into various shapes and films, or drawn
into filaments, used as textile fibres.
Plastics are materials s _____________________ (2) in normal use, but at some stage of their
manufacture are plastic and can be shaped or m __________________ __(3) by heat,
pressure, or both. Most plastics are polymers and are classified into two main groups:
thermoplastic and thermosetting materials.
A polymer is a substance, having large molecules consisting of repeated units, monomers.
There are a number of natural polymers, such as polysaccharides. S __________________ (4)
polymers are extensively used in plastics. Polymers do not have a definite formula since they
consist of chains of different l ________________ (5).
T__________________(6) materials can be repeatedly melted or softened by heating and
h_________________________(7) again on cooling without a change of properties.
Thermosetting materials are initially soft, but changed irreversibly to a hard rigid form
having been subjected to heat and pressure. They lose their p_____________________ (8).
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FACTS AND INQUIRIES
40 Complete the following paragraph with one of the words written in the box.
facade
application
caring
materials
engaged
paintings
organic
restoration
damage
research
means
monuments
The Department of Chemical Technology of Monument Conservation is ____________ (1)
in studying chemical problems associated with ________________________ (2) for cultural
historical _______________________ (3) : studies of causes of ____________________ (4),
development and application of methods and ____________________ (5) for
preservation of ______________ (6) materials (wood, paper, parchment, etc.),
inorganic ___________ (7) (stone, plaster, wall ______________________ (8) , ceramics,
etc.), studies and __________________ (9) of methods and means for _____________(10)
of historical buildings  ________________ (11) painting, preserving plasters,
etc. and application of analytical methods in _________________(12) of historical objects.
41 The word order in the following sentences is wrong. Rearrange the words and
phrases to make correct sentences about oil painting.
1.
2.
3.
4.
42
/time /is/olive oil/for/long/The drying/
/Oil painting/ with /emerged from/egg-oil/experimentation/ tempera painting /
/thinner/This/paints/the resulting/makes/
/a 20-th century/Chemistry/also/challenge/is/for/to oil painting /responsible/
Read the following paragraph about cellulose and make questions for the answers
from this paragraph.
Cellulose is a polysaccharide that occurs widely in nature in fibrous forms as the structural
material in the cell walls of plants. Its macromolecules consist of long unbranched chains of
glucose units. It is obtained from wood pulp, cotton, and other sources. It is used in the
manufacture of paper, rayon, plastics, and explosives.
1. _____________________________________________________________________?
A polysaccharide.
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2. _____________________________________________________________________ ?
In nature.
3. _____________________________________________________________________ ?
Its macromolecules.
4. _____________________________________________________________________ ?
Long unbranched chains of glucose units.
5. _____________________________________________________________________ ?
Wood pulp, cotton, and other sources.
6. _____________________________________________________________________ ?
In the manufacture of paper, rayon, plastics, and explosives.
43 Unscramble each of the following groups of letters to make a real word – verb
related to conservation. Form nouns from these verbs.
VERB
NOUN
SRETERO
LETCES
SEPREVER
TROCPET
CNORTERCUTS
44
The names of 10 materials are hidden in the puzzle below. The words may be
horizontal or vertical.
P
E
M
E
T
A
L
A
S
O
S
R
M
O
C
U
K
E
S
E
A
O
G
L
B
A
P
T
N
P
S
Y
A
G
L
A
O
M
L
U
P
Y
C
I
P
N
L
A
B
S
T
U
T
E
E
O
S
R
U
B
B
E
R
D
H
T
A
M
E
R
O
O
T
R
I
C
O
E
N
R
M
P
I
C
K
G
L
A
S
S
W
O
O
D
S
A
L
I
T
A
S
R
M
A
R
B
L
E
LISTENING
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45 Listen and decide whether the following statements are true or false.
1. The research comes out of the Queen University of Technology.
2. The nanoparticles of gold occur in the gold paint.
3. The nanoparticles of gold become catalytically active through the photoactivity.
4. The particles of gold vibrate very quickly all the time.
5. The gold paint will be used to clean up the earth’s atmosphere in the near future.
www.rsc.org/chemistryworld (podcast September 2008 - stained glass windows purify church air
24:46)
46 Listen and fill in the spaces.
Interviewer - Chris Smith
Now talking of catalysts, who would´ve believed that medieval _____________________ of
church windows would turn out to be amongst the world's first nanotechnologists, who also
have an eye for clean air Fred?
Interviewee - Fred Campbell
They are cleansing the atmosphere indeed. This is ____________________________ that
comes out of the Queensland University of Technology from a guy called professor Zhu and
what he´s found is that stained glass windows that is painted with gold paint actually contain
nanoparticles of gold within the paint and what that can do when the sun shines on it, they
become catalytically active through this photoactivity and they´re able to then decompose
volatile organic compounds sort of in the air, so these are compounds that you associate with,
sort of, with new furniture, varnishes and things like that that are inherently unhealthy to you
and in the same way as, sort of, _______________________________________is unhealthy
to you.
Interviewer - Chris Smith
How did the nanoparticles get in the paint?
Interviewee - Fred Campbell
The paint itself just contains the nanoparticles. These are particles of gold that are small
enough to act in a way that nanoparticles do so that when the sunlight hits them they vibrate
very quickly and that makes them some catalytically active and when the volatile organic
compounds hit the gold nanoparticles they just literally shape themselves up into just side
products of _____________________________________which on the scale that they´re
released are deemed to be non harmful.
Interviewer - Chris Smith
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Is this viable though? I mean admittedly it's all very well for the church window, but how
much on a big scale conversion of these volatiles is this contributing and also is this telling us
that we should be doing more of this kind of thing but scale it up in some way.
Interviewee - Fred Campbell
Well, I mean of course there´s this sort of inherent limiting factor of you don't want to go
around painting everything gold. It's a nice article that has come out that suggests that, you
know, possibly the glaziers of medieval times were the first nanotechnologists of our time and
all that, but on a practical scale, I mean it is not practical to paint everything in gold and
therefore you can never really take it on to clean
up_________________________________________ .
Interviewer - Chris Smith
But can we steal the idea and put into, say, the exhaust pipes of cars or people’s houses.
Interviewee - Fred Campbell
Well, obviously it needs to be photoactive, so it has to have the sunlight hitting at it. So to
put it in exhaust of someone's car is probably not viable. You can certainly take the idea but
you would have to change this, sort of, __________________________________, to
something much more viable, much more cheaper that you could use on a large scale.
Interviewer - Chris Smith
Thank you Fred.
www.rsc.org/chemistryworld (podcast September 2008 -stained glass windows purify church air?
24:46)
GRAMMAR LINKS
Grammar File - Modal Verbs
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