‘The unexamined life
is not worth living.’
Socrates
The Greek Gods
Zeus:
King of the Gods
Ares:
god of War
Poseidon: God of the sea
Hades:
god of the
Underworld
Apollo:
god of the
Sun and the
Music
Aphrodite: goddess of Love and Beauty
Socrates: a biography
• Born 469BCE in Athens, Greece.
• No recorded works yet one of
history’s most influential
philosophers.
• We know of Socrates through
the writings of his student Plato.
• Often described as rotund and
ugly, he was known for talking to
anyone and engaging them in
philosophical debate.
• His commitment to philosophy
meant that personal hygiene
came second place- he was often
barefoot and dirty and had very
few possessions.
Socrates: a biography
Socrates aim was not to tell
others the truth – he often
claimed to be ignorant of it
himself – but rather to help
them discover it for
themselves as best they
could.
Socrates and Euthyphro
We are going to be learning
about a very famous argument
in moral thinking between
Socrates and Euthyphro. We
know about it from Plato’s
writing in The Last Days of
Socrates. It is a made up
conversation.
It all kicked off when
Socrates asked Euthyphro
what he thought was ‘right’ (or
‘holy’ which was one way of
describing it in those days).
Euthy-who?
• Euthyphro was taking his
father to court for the
mistreatment of a slave
• Socrates was on trial for the
‘crime’ of stirring up trouble in
the city’s youth – he could face
the death penalty for this.
• Socrates was going to be
executed for doing something
‘wrong’ so wanted to find out
what ‘wrong’ actually meant.
The Euthyphro Dilemma
• During the debate Euthyphro suggests
that what is right is what the gods
would be pleased with.
Socrates ends the argument by asking
Euthyphro do the gods command what
is right because it is right or is it
right only because the gods command
it?
Or to put in another way........
• Is torture wrong because God
prohibits it, or does God
prohibit torture because it
is already wrong?
The Dilemma
 Should religious people do things
their god(s) commands them to do
even if they otherwise think what
they’re being asked to do is wrong?
 Or, should they doubt that the
command has come from their god(s)
if they believe that the command is
wrong?
Euthyphro’s Problem
• Suppose Euthyphro was hanging
about and hears a godlike voice
telling him to kill the next person
who passes him. He is convinced he
has heard the voice of god(s) and he
has been brought up always to obey
the commands of god(s), because
they only command what’s right.
Should he kill?
• Even if he thinks it is wrong (which
he does) surely god(s) wouldn’t
command it if it was wrong?
Discussion
• If there was such
a thing as god(s) do
you think
he/she/it/they
would command you
to do something
which was wrong?
Morality and Killing
Is killing right or wrong?
Would god(s) command it?
This depends on who you ask…
Some people say that ‘no killing’ is an absolute rule
– it never wavers and always applies.
Other people say that ‘no killing’ depends on lots
of things and so it is a relative rule – it depends on
the situation.
Time Out: Think, Pair and Share
Is there anything
which you think is
always wrong no
matter what?
Or, is what’s right
and wrong related
to the situation?
Time Out: Think, Pair and Share
What makes
something good?
Outcome?
Intention?
Something else?
Some possible responses!
 It is wrong in theory to kill, but sometimes
the situation demands it.
 It is wrong in theory to kill and so it is wrong
to do it no matter what the situation.
 It is theoretically right to kill in certain
situations and so right to actually do so.
 It is theoretically right to kill in certain
situations but is actually wrong to do so.
• NB: this also applies to those who have
viewpoints independent from religious beliefs.
Divine Command Theory
 Divine Command Theory: you should follow all
commands you are given from god(s) without
question.
 Euthyphro’s dilemma raised the issue of how
god(s) are linked to right and wrong.
Most religions today think their god(s)
are perfectly good meaning that they
always do what is good and expect the
same from followers (often with use of
the carrot and stick).
1. Actions are ‘good’ simply because the
gods command them
 This
suggests that the gods can call
anything good!
 They
get to pick and choose
 Remember,
the Greek Gods were pretty
difficult to trust!
 Therefore
humans may not agree with
what the gods decide upon
The Christian Response
A Christian may read this dilemma and say: “Yes, statement 1 is correct. Something
is good because God commands it. But God
is Himself is perfect goodness – it is his
character. Therefore He would only ever
command us to do that which is good. He
would never ask us to do evil or go against
our consciences”
2. The gods command certain actions because
they are already ‘good’?’
• If certain actions are already good then even the
gods can't disagree with them
 This means even the gods are subject to this
higher law
 This means morality is fixed (absolute) by some
standard independent of the gods
 This discredits the gods as they are subject to
this higher law themselves
 It also means that we don’t need to consult the
gods when making moral decisions
So how do religious people ‘hear’ from
their god(s)?
 Directly as a voice/vision or a sense of presence.
 Indirectly through the interpretation of something
that happened.
 An answer to a prayer.
 The study of sacred texts.
 The teachings of a member of the faith group.
 Historical teachings.
And can these ways be trusted?
No easy answer
• For religious people finding out what’s ‘right’
and ‘wrong’ is a complex matter. Some choose
to cross-check a few features of their faith
together to find answers.
• What religious people do with what they think
god(s) is telling them is related to two
further key ideas in moral-decision making
we’ll be learning about: Autonomy and
Heteronomy.
Copy the following...
• The Divine Command Theory (DCT) refers to
the belief that Euthyphro held - that actions
are good because the gods command them. The
problem some people have with this is that
followers of a religion may commit evil acts “in
God's name”, because they believe they are
hearing from God.
• Christians would respond by saying that this is
impossible as they believe goodness is intrinsic
to who God is. God is goodness himself, God
doesn't pick and choose what goodness is at
random. Therefore he would never ask anyone
to do evil or act in a way that violates their
conscience
• So in summary - a discussion between
Euthyphro and Socrates (we know
about it from Plato)
• Euthyphro’s position: whatever the
gods (God) command is obligatory just
because they command it
• Socrates position: there is a standard
of goodness independent of the gods
(God). The gods (God) are no longer
the standard of morality.
• Is a thing (eg murder) wrong because
God says it is wrong, or is it wrong in
itself, independent of God?
• Basic gist of the Dilemma :
• Do morals come from God
• If not, where do they come from?
The Last Days of Socrates
• Socrates never found a
solution to the
Euthyphro dilemma and
what makes something
‘right’ or ‘wrong’.
• The Athens court could
not explain what ‘right’
or ‘wrong’ were either,
but nevertheless
Socrates was
sentenced to death.
• Socrates was condemned
to death by drinking
hemlock, he refused a
chance to escape and,
surrounded by his
friends, embraced death
with great dignity.
• Socrates died in
399BCE, Athens.
The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787).
Plato
Following the execution of
Socrates Plato left Athens in
disgust. He travelled in Italy,
Sicily and Egypt before
returning to Athens to found
his Academy in 377BCE.
 The Academy was the
Western’s world’s first
university. Many great
intellectuals were schooled
there, including Aristotle.
Absolute and Relative Viewpoints
Any viewpoint, religious, philosophical ,or
otherwise, can be either absolute or relative:
Absolute
Relative
•Some things are always right
and others are always wrong
•Moral rules would be stuck to,
regardless of consequences
•E.g. if it is ‘wrong to lie’ you
would always be honest, even if
it hurt someone’s feelings or
got you into trouble.
•Each situation is different, so
should be handled differently.
•Moral rules are a guide to be
interpreted.
•E.g. If it is ‘wrong to lie’ then
you would be honest most of
the time, but might tell a ‘white
lie’ if it would make someone
feel better and cause no real
harm.
To Do
• Explain the Euthyphro dilemma and
outline flaws in the argument. 6AE
• Summarise the Divine Command Theory
and the modern approach to it. 6KU