Criminology Today
Chapters 3 and 4
Chapter 3: Where Do Theories
Come From?
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Overview
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Criminological research
Criminological theory – study of crime
Role of research and experimentation
Quantitative and qualitative methods
Study ethical considerations in research
Impact of research on social policy
Introduction
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Story of Mayor of Inglis, Florida
Official proclamation banning Satan from Inglis –
used official stationery
Police Chief says crime did not decrease
ACLU threatened suit
Town rescinded proclamation, Mayor reimbursed
for use of stationery
Mayor was reelected – still Mayor today
Concept that “the devil made them do it”
This Chapter
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Describes how criminologists make use of contemporary
social scientific research methods in the development of
criminological theories and evidence-based policies and
practices.
Evidence based – that which is built on scientific
findings; and especially practices and policies founded
upon the results of randomized controlled experiments
Experimental criminology – a form of contemporary
criminology that makes use of rigorous social scientific
techniques, especially randomized controlled
experiments and the systematic review of research
results.
For any of this to have meaning…
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The realize its ultimate promise,
criminology must become accepted as a
policy-making tool, consulted by
lawmakers and social planners alike, and
respected for what it can tell us about
both crime and its prevention.
Laub’s history of criminological
thought…
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1900 – 1930 Golden Age of Research
1930 – 1960 Golden Age of Theory
1960 – 2000 Characterized by extensive theory
testing of the dominant theories, using largely
empirical methods.
Laub: criminologists over the past century have
undertaken the task of building a scientific or
evidence based criminology vs. an armchair
criminology of earlier times
The emphasis on measurement and objectivity
gives contemporary criminology its scientific
flavor
Theory Building
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Hypothesis – an explanation that accounts for a
set of facts and that can be tested by further
investigation
Theory – a series of interrelated propositions
that attempt to describe, explain, predict, and
ultimately control some class of events
Lust murderers – men who sexually abuse and
kill women, often sadistically – theory doesn’t
help us understand their motives
The Role of Research and
Experimentation
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Theories, once proposed, need to be
tested against the real world via a variety
of research strategies, including
experimentation and case studies.
Knowledge is inevitable built on
experience and observation. Hence the
crux of scientific research is data
collection.
Research
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Research – the use of standardized, systematic
procedures in the search for knowledge
Applied research – scientific inquiry that is
designed and carried out with practical
applications in mind.
Pure research – research undertaken simply for
the sake of advancing scientific knowledge
Primary research - research characterized by
original and direct investigation
Secondary research – new evaluations of
existing information that had been collected by
other researchers
Scientific research proceeds in
stages…
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Problem identification
The development of research design
A choice of data-collection techniques
A review of findings, which often includes
statistical analysis
Problem Identification
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Choosing an issue to study
Availability of government grant monies
frequently determines the focus of much
contemporary research in the area of
crime
The bulk of research in criminology is
intended to explore issues of causality,
especially the claims made by theories
purporting to explain criminal behavior
Testing Hypothesis
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Two definitions:
An explanation that accounts for a set of facts and that
can be tested by further investigation
Something that is taken to be true for the purpose of
argument or investigation
Variable – concept that can undergo measurable
changes
Operationalization – the process by which concepts are
made measurable
Once the concepts within our hypothesis are
measurable, we can test the hypothesis itself.
Once a hypothesis has be operationalized, it is assumed
to be true for purposes of testing. It is accepted for
study purposes until proven untrue – or rejected.
Research Designs
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The logic and structure inherent in an approach
to data gathering
Confounding effects – a rival explanation, or
competing hypothesis, that is a threat to the
internal or external validity of a research design
(other reasons why things may have occurred –
Ex. Taking sugar out of diet) – 2 different types:
Internal validity – the certainty that experimental
interventions did indeed cause the changes
observed in the study group
External validity – the ability to generalize
research findings to other settings
Examples of these on page 97 and 98
Experimental and QuasiExperimental Research Designs
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To have confidence that the changes
intentionally introduced into a situation
are the real cause of observed variations,
it is necessary to achieve some degree of
control over factors that threaten internal
validity.
Controlled experiment: an experiment that
attempts to hold conditions constant
Quasi-experimental
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An approach to research that, although less
powerful than experimental designs, is deemed
worthy of use when better designs are not
feasible
The crucial defining feature of quasiexperimental designs is that they give
researchers control over the “when and whom”
of measurement, even though others decide the
“when and to whom” of exposure to the
experimental intervention.
Definitions
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Control group – a group of experimental
subjects that, although the subject of
measurement and observation, is not
exposed to the experimental intervention
Randomization – the process whereby
individuals are assigned to study groups
without biases or differences resulting
from selection
Techniques of Data Collection
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The most important question to consider when
beginning to gather information is whether the
data-gathering strategy selected will produce
information in a usable form.
Surveys – a social science data-gathering
technique that involves the use of questionnaires
Case studies – built around in-depth
investigations into individual cases – studying
one offender – or group like street gang – find
similarities for others
Collecting Data
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Participant observation – a strategy in data
gathering in which the researcher observes a
group by participating, to varying degrees, in the
activities of the group. Gang example – how far
do you go
Self-reporting – simply another form of survey
research
Secondary analysis – purposefully culls
preexisting information from data that have
already been gathered and examines it in new
ways. (saves time and expense)
Problems in Data Collection
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Intersubjectivity – a scientific principle that
requires that independent observers see the
same thing under the same circumstances for
observations to be regarded as valid.
Replicability – a scientific principle that holds
that valid observations made at one time can be
made again later if all other conditions are the
same.
Science rests its claim to authority upon its firm
basis in observable evidence
Data Analysis
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Two types of statistical methods:
Descriptive statistics – statistics that
describe, summarize or highlight the
relationships within data that have been
gathered
Inferential statistics – statistics that
specify how likely findings are to be true
for other populations or in other locales
Test of Significance
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A statistical technique intended to provide
researchers with confidence that their
results are, in fact, true and not the result
of sampling error.
The larger the sample size, the greater the
confidence we can have in our findings.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
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Quantitative methods – a research technique
that produces measurable results that can be
analyzed statistically
Mystique of quantity – is an exaggerated regard
for the significance of measurement, just
because it is quantitative, without regard either
to what has been measured or to what can
subsequently be done with the measure. The
mystique of quantity treats numbers as having
intrinsic scientific value.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
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The qualitative method in contrast to those that
are quantitative, produce subjective results, or
results that are difficult to quantify.
Qualitative methods are important for the insight
they provide into the subjective workings of the
criminal mind and the processes by which
meaning is accorded to human experience.
Introspection, life histories, case studies, and
participant observation all contain the potential
to yield highly qualitative data.
Verstehen
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The kind of subjective understanding that can be
achieved by criminologists who immerse themselves in
the everyday world of the criminals they study.
A researcher’s subjective understandings of crime’s
situational meanings and emotions – its moments of
pleasure and pain, its emergent logic and excitement –
within the larger process of research.
It further implies that a researcher, through
attentiveness and participation, at least can begin to
apprehend and appreciate the specific roles and
experiences of criminals, crime victims, crime control
agents, and others caught up in the day-to-day reality of
crime.
P. 106 – Crime in the News
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Idaho Town Arming Itself
Town Council of Greenleaf, Idaho, is
considering a recommendation that all
households keep and maintain guns
because of the crime that might come
with the encroaching growth from nearby
Boise.
Does gun ownership help to reduce
criminal opportunity?
Values and Ethics in Research
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Research, especially research conducted within
the social sciences, does not occur in a vacuum.
Values enter into all stages of the research
process, from the selection of the problem to be
studied to the choice of strategies to address it.
In short, research is never entirely free from
preconceptions and biases, although much can
be done to limit the impact such biases have on
the results of research.
The most effective way of controlling the effects
of biases is to be aware of them at the outset of
the research.
Data Confidentiality
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The ethical requirement of social scientific research to
protect the confidentiality of individual research
participants, while simultaneously preserving justified
research access to the information participants provide.
Informed consent – the ethical requirement of social
scientific research that research subjects be informed as
to the nature of the research about to be conducted,
their anticipated role in it, and the uses to which the
data they provide will be put.
NIJ – not publishing the findings of the DARE program
12 step method of AA
Pressure of expenditure of pubic funds on research
Social Policy and Criminological
Research
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The results of scientific studies in the field of
criminology should have practical implications
that can guide practice in relevant areas.
Ex. Arrests instead of warnings in DV cases departments adopted policy of arrests – some
states made it law
However, publicly elected officials are often
either ignorant of current criminological research
or do not heed the advice of professional
criminologists, seeking instead to create
politically expedient policies.
One such study and laws enacted dealt with 3
strike laws …
Three Strike Laws
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Became popular with legislatures across the country
near the end of the last century, provide an example of
the kind of dilemma facing criminologists who would
influence social policy on the basis of statistical
evidence.
Three strike laws require that felons receive lengthy
prison sentences following their third felony conviction.
Such laws are built on the commonsense notion that
“getting tough” on repeat offenders by putting them in
prison for long periods should reduce the crime rate.
Logic seems to say that lengthy prison sentences for
recidivists will reduce crime by removing the most
dangerous offenders from society.
A study in 22 states, however, concluded that such
legislation typically results in clogged court systems and
crowded correctional facilities and encourages three-time
felons to take dramatic risks to avoid capture.
Alabama’s Habitual Felony Offenders
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§ 13A-5-9. Habitual felony offenders -- Additional penalties.
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(a) In all cases when it is shown that a criminal defendant has been previously convicted of a felony and after
the conviction has committed another felony, he or she must be punished as follows:
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(1) On conviction of a Class C felony, he or she must be punished for a Class B felony.
(2) On conviction of a Class B felony, he or she must be punished for a Class A felony.
(3) On conviction of a Class A felony, he or she must be punished by imprisonment for life or for any term of not more
than 99 years but not less than 15 years.
(b) In all cases when it is shown that a criminal defendant has been previously convicted of any two felonies and
after such convictions has committed another felony, he or she must be punished as follows:
(1) On conviction of a Class C felony, he or she must be punished for a Class A felony.
(2) On conviction of a Class B felony, he or she must be punished by imprisonment for life or for any term of not more
than 99 years but not less than 15 years.
(3) On conviction of a Class A felony, he or she must be punished by imprisonment for life or for any term of not less
than 99 years.
(c) In all cases when it is shown that a criminal defendant has been previously convicted of any three felonies
and after such convictions has committed another felony, he or she must be punished as follows:
(1) On conviction of a Class C felony, he or she must be punished by imprisonment for life or for any term of not more
than 99 years but not less than 15 years.
(2) On conviction of a Class B felony, he or she must be punished by imprisonment for life or any term of not less than
20 years.
(3) On conviction of a Class A felony, where the defendant has no prior convictions for any Class A felony, he or she
must be punished by imprisonment for life or life without the possibility of parole, in the discretion of the trial court.
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(4) On conviction of a Class A felony, where the defendant has one or more prior convictions for any Class A felony, he
or she must be punished by imprisonment for life without the possibility of parole.
Part 2 – Crime Causation
Chapter 4 – Classical and Neoclassical
Thought
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The belief that at least some illegal activity
is the result of rational choices made by
individuals seeking various kinds of illicit
rewards forms the basis for the
perspectives on crime causation that are
discussed in this chapter.
Example – planning that goes in Sextourism – page 124
Major Principles of the Classical
School
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Most classical theories of crime causation make the following basic
assumptions:
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Human beings are fundamentally rational, and most human behavior is
the result of free will coupled with rational choice
Pain and pleasure are the two central determinants of human behavior
Punishment, a necessary evil, is sometimes required to deter law
violators and to serve as an example to others who would also violate
the law
Root principles of right and wrong are inherent in the nature of things
and cannot be denied
Society exists to provide benefits to individuals that they would not
receive in isolation
When men and women band together for the protection offered by
society, they forfeit some of the benefits that accrue from living in
isolation
Certain key rights of individuals are inherent in the nature of things, and
governments that contravene those rights should be disbanded
Crime disparages the quality of the bond that exists between individuals
and society and is therefore an immoral for of behavior
Forerunners of Classical Thought
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Mores – behavioral proscriptions covering
potentially serious violations of a group’s
values. Examples – murder, rape and
robbery
Folkways – time honored customs.
Although folkways carry the force of
tradition, their violation is unlikely to
threaten the survival of the group – Ex.
Body piercing – jewelry on men
Definitions
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Mala in se – acts that are thought to be
wrong in and of themselves – example –
forcing someone to have sex against his or
her will and the intentional killing of
children
Mala prohibita – acts that are wrong only
because they are prohibited – examples –
prostitution, gambling, drug use – may
not be illegal in different jurisdictions
The Demonic Era
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Since time began, humankind has been
preoccupied with what appears to be an
ongoing war between good and evil.
Cosmically based – plague, holocaust
Individual behavior – victimization
Trephinaiton – a form of surgery typically
involving bone, especially the skull. Evil
spirits residing in the heads of offenders.
Early Sources of the Criminal Law
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Code of Hammurabi – an early
set of laws established by the
Babylonian king Hammurabi,
who ruled the ancient city from
1792 to 1750 B.C. – first body of
law to survive and be available
for study.
Intended to establish property
and other rights crucial to the
continued growth of Babylon as
a significant commercial center.
Emphasis on retribution – penal
philosophy – attempt to keep
cruelty within bounds – before
code: revenge seeking victims
punished
Early Roman Law
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Early Roman Law derived
from the Twelve Tables –
written circa 450 B.C. which
regulated family, religious,
and economic life
Emperor Justinian I (A.D.
527-565) – The Justinian
Code – contained elements
of our modern civil and
criminal law and influenced
Western legal thought
through the Middle Ages
Common Law
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Common law forms the basis for much of our
modern statutory and case law. It has often
been called the major source of modern criminal
law.
Common law refers to a traditional body of
unwritten legal precedents created through
everyday practice of English society and
supported by court decisions during the Middle
Ages.
Common law is so-called because it was based
on shared traditions and standards rather than
on those that varied from one locale to another.
Today, common law forms the basis of many of
the laws on the books in English-speaking
countries around the world.
The Magna Carta
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“Great Charter” important
source of modern laws
The Magna Carta was signed
on June 15, 1215 by King
John of England at
Runnymede under pressure
from British barons who took
advantage of John’s military
defeats at the hands of Pope
Innocent III and King Philip
Augustus of France.
Forced the King to be bound
by law.
The Magna Carta, con’t
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Original purpose was to ensure feudal rights and
to guarantee that the king could not encroach
on the privileges claimed by landowning barons.
Later, it guaranteed basic liberties for all British
citizens and ruled that any acts of Parliament
that contravened common law would be void.
This formed the basis for Supreme Courts power
to nullify laws of Congress
Provision concerning not prosecuting barons
without just cause served as basis of our
concept of due process of law
It has been called, “The foundation stone of our
present liberties.”
Enlightenment
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A social movement that arose during the
eighteenth century and that built upon
ideas like empiricism, rationally, free will,
humanism, and natural law.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
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English philosopher Thomas Hobbes –
work Leviathan (1651) –
Social contract – the Enlightenment-era
concept that human beings abandon
their natural state of individual freedom
to join together and form society. In
process of forming – individuals
surrender some freedoms to society as
a whole and government, once formed
is obligated to assume responsibilities
toward its citizens and to provide for
their protection and welfare.
John Locke (1632-1704)
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English philosopher – published
Essay Concerning Human
Understanding – put forth the
idea that the natural human
condition at birth is akin to that
of a blank slate upon which
interpersonal encounters and
other experiences indelibly
inscribe the traits of personality.
He ascribed the bulk of human
qualities to life experiences.
Locke contended that human
beings, through a social contract,
abandon their natural state of
individual freedom and lack of
interpersonal responsibility to join
together and for society.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
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Swiss-French philosopher and
political theorist
Human beings are basically
good and fair in their natural
state but historically were
corrupted by the introduction
of shared concepts that joint
activities like property,
agriculture, science and
commerce.
Contributed to concept of
natural law
Natural Law
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The philosophical perspective that certain
immutable laws are fundamental to
human nature and can be readily
ascertained through reason. Humanmade laws (positive law), in contrast, are
said to derive from human experience and
history – both of which are subject to
continual change.
Natural Law and Natural Rights
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Natural rights – thoughts that individuals
retain in the face of government action
and interests
Thomas Jefferson – wrote of inalienable
rights to “life, liberty, property,” – such
rights were naturally due all men and
women because they were inherent in the
social contract between citizens and their
government
Natural Law today
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Many people today still hold that the basis for
various existing criminal laws can be found in
immutable moral principles or in some other
identifiable aspect fo the natural order.
The Ten Commandments, “inborn tendencies,”
the idea of sin, and perceptions of various forms
of order in the universe and in the social world
have all provided a basis for the assertion that
natural law exists.
Example – debate over abortion
The Classical School
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A criminological perspective of the late
1700s and early 1800s that had its roots
in the Enlightenment and that held that
humans are rational beings, that crime is
the result of the exercise of free will, and
that punishment can be effective in
reducing the incidence of crime, as it
negates the pleasure to be derived from
crime commission.
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)
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Italian – in 1764 published – Essay
on Crimes and Punishments
Distilled the notion of the social
contract into the idea that “laws
are the conditions under which
independent and isolated men
untied to form a society.”
Writings mainly consisted of a
philosophy of punishment
Purpose of punishment is
deterrence rather than retribution
– punishment should be imposed
to prevent offenders from
committing additional crimes
Adjudication and punishment
should both be swift and certain
Beccaria continued
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Punishment should fit the crime, declaring that
theft should be punished by fines, personal
injury through corporal punishment, and serious
crimes against the state (revolution) via
application of the death penalty
He wrote that oaths were useless in a court of
law because accused individuals will naturally
deny their guilt even if they know themselves to
be fully culpable
Is responsible for the contemporary belief that
criminals have control over their behavior, that
they choose to commit crimes, and that they can
be deterred by the threat of punishment
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
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Bentham’s claim rested upon
his belief, spawned by
Enlightment thought, that
human beings are
fundamentally rational and
that criminals will weigh in
their minds the pain of
punishment against any
pleasures thought likely to be
derived from crime
commission.
Definitions
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Hedonistic calculus – the belief, first
proposed by Jeremy Bentham, that
behavior hold value to any individual
undertaking it according to the amount of
pleasure or pain that it can be expected to
produce for that person
Utilitarianism – another term fir Jeremy
Bentham’s concept of hedonistic calculus
Bentham continued
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Distinguished between 11 different types of
punishment – pages 134 – 135
Suggested tattooing name on wrists for police
indentification
Panopticon – a prison designed by Jeremy
Bentham that was to be circular building with
cells along the circumference, each clearly
visible from a central location staffed by guards
Prisons should be managed by contractors
Heritage of the Classical School
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Five principles – fundamental to modern
day perspectives – page 137
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Rationality
Hedonism
Punishment
Human rights
Due process
Neoclassical Criminology
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Positivism – the application of scientific
techniques to the study of crime and criminals
Hard determinism – the belief that crime results
from forces beyond the control of the individual
Acceptance of the notion of determinism implied
that offenders were not entirely responsible for
their crimes and suggested that crime could be
prevented by changing the conditions that
produced criminality
Neoclassical criminology
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A contemporary version of classical criminology
that emphasizes deterrence and retribution, with
reduced emphasis on rehabilitation
Nothing works doctrine – the belief popularized
by Robert Martinson in the 1970s that
correctional treatment programs have little
success in rehabilitating offenders
Justice model – a contemporary model of
imprisonment in which the principle of just
deserts forms the underlying social philosophy
Rational Choice Theory
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A perspective that holds that criminality is the result of
conscious choice and that predicts that individuals
choose to commit crime when the benefits outweigh the
costs of disobeying the law.
Routine activities theory – (RAT) a brand of rational
choice theory that suggests that lifestyles contribute
significantly to both the volume and the type of crime
found in any society
Situational choice theory – a brand of rational choice
theory that views behavior “as a function of choices and
decisions made within a context of situational constraints
and opportunities”
Soft determinism – the belief that human behavior is the
result of choices and decisions made within a context of
situational constraints and opportunities
Table 4-1
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Twenty-five techniques of situational crime
control, p. 140
5 objectives are across the top of the table
Situational Crime Control Policy
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The new crime prevention effort called for a focus not on
people who commit crime but on the context in which
crime occurs
Situational crime prevention – a social policy approach
that looks to develop a greater understanding of crime
and more effective crime prevention strategies through
concern with the physical, organizational, and social
environments that make crime possible..
Target hardening – the reduction in criminal opportunity
for a particular location, generally through the use of
physical barriers, architectural design, and enhanced
security measures - (sometimes causes criminals to find
new targets - displacement)
Punishment and Neoclassical
Thought
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If a person is attracted to crime and chooses to
violate the law, modern neoclassical thinkers
argue, then he or she deserves to be punished
because the consequences of crime were known
to the offender before the crime was committed.
Example of caning of 18 year old Faye in
Singapore, p. 146
Notions of revenge and retribution are morally
based. They build on a sense of indignation at
criminal behavior and on the sense of
righteousness inherent in Judeo-Christian
notions of morality and propriety.
Just Deserts Model
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The notion that criminal offenders deserve the
punishment they receive at the hands of the law
and that punishments should be appropriate to
the type and severity of crime committed.
Deterrence – the prevention of crime
Specific deterrence – a goal of criminal
sentencing that seeks to prevent a particular
offender from engaging in repeat criminality
General deterrence – a goal of criminal
sentencing that seeks to prevent others from
committing crimes similar to the one for which a
particular offender is being sentenced
Justice is not swift! Page 147 middle
Recidivism
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Recidivism – the repetition of criminal
behavior
Recidivism rate – the percentage of
convicted offenders who have been
released from prison and who are later
rearrested for a new crime, generally
within five years following release
80-90%
Figure 4-2 on page 148
The Death Penalty
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Capital punishment – the legal imposition
of a sentence of death upon a convicted
offender
Opponents of capital punishment make 10
claims – page 148 bottom
Advocates – deserved, failure to is
injustice to victim, just deserts, never
commit another crime
CP and race – imposed disproportionately
Alabama Death Penalty or Life Without
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(a) The following are capital offenses:
(1) Murder by the defendant during a kidnapping in the first degree or an attempt thereof committed by the defendant.
(2) Murder by the defendant during a robbery in the first degree or an attempt thereof committed by the defendant.
(3) Murder by the defendant during a rape in the first or second degree or an attempt thereof committed by the defendant; or murder by
the defendant during sodomy in the first or second degree or an attempt thereof committed by the defendant.
(4) Murder by the defendant during a burglary in the first or second degree or an attempt thereof committed by the defendant.
(5) Murder of any police officer, sheriff, deputy, state trooper, federal law enforcement officer, or any other state or federal peace officer of
any kind, or prison or jail guard, while such officer or guard is on duty, regardless of whether the defendant knew or should have known the victim
was an officer or guard on duty, or because of some official or job-related act or performance of such officer or guard.
(6) Murder committed while the defendant is under sentence of life imprisonment.
(7) Murder done for a pecuniary or other valuable consideration or pursuant to a contract or for hire.
(8) Murder by the defendant during sexual abuse in the first or second degree or an attempt thereof committed by the defendant.
(9) Murder by the defendant during arson in the first or second degree committed by the defendant; or murder by the defendant by means
of explosives or explosion.
(10) Murder wherein two or more persons are murdered by the defendant by one act or pursuant to one scheme or course of conduct.
(11) Murder by the defendant when the victim is a state or federal public official or former public official and the murder stems from or is
caused by or is related to his official position, act, or capacity.
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(12) Murder by the defendant during the act of unlawfully assuming control of any aircraft by use of threats or force with intent to obtain
any valuable consideration for the release of said aircraft or any passenger or crewmen thereon or to direct the route or movement of said aircraft, or
otherwise exert control over said aircraft.
(13) Murder by a defendant who has been convicted of any other murder in the 20 years preceding the crime; provided that the murder
which constitutes the capital crime shall be murder as defined in subsection (b) of this section; and provided further that the prior murder conviction
referred to shall include murder in any degree as defined at the time and place of the prior conviction.
(14) Murder when the victim is subpoenaed, or has been subpoenaed, to testify, or the victim had testified, in any preliminary hearing,
grand jury proceeding, criminal trial or criminal proceeding of whatever nature, or civil trial or civil proceeding of whatever nature, in any municipal,
state, or federal court, when the murder stems from, is caused by, or is related to the capacity or role of the victim as a witness.
(15) Murder when the victim is less than fourteen years of age.
(16) Murder committed by or through the use of a deadly weapon fired or otherwise used from outside a dwelling while the victim is in a
dwelling.
(17) Murder committed by or through the use of a deadly weapon while the victim is in a vehicle.
(18) Murder committed by or through the use of a deadly weapon fired or otherwise used within or from a vehicle.
Gallup poll
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A Gallup poll in May 2006 found that 2/3
of Americans 18 and older support the
death penalty. But when asked which is
the better penalty for murder, roughly half
said life without parole and about half said
the death penalty
Massachusetts has long been one of the
12 states where capital punishment is not
a sentencing option for the crime of
murder.
Policy Implications –
Classical School
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Determinate sentencing – a criminal punishment
strategy that mandates a specified and fixed
amount of time to be served for every offense
category. Under the strategy, for example, all
offenders convicted of the same degree of
burglary would be sentenced to the same length
of time behind bars.
Truth in sentencing – a close correspondence
between the sentence imposed upon those sent
to prison and the time actually served prior to
prison release
Alabama’s Sentencing Guidelines
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See Internet http://filmore.net/faulknerclass/index.html
Next Class
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Chapter 5 – Biological Roots of Criminal
Behavior
Chapter 6 – Psychological & Psychiatric
Foundations of Criminal Behavior
Review information for Midterm Exam
Topics for term paper assignments