Management 11e
John Schermerhorn
Chapter 15
Motivation Theory
and Practice
Planning Ahead — Chapter 15 Study Questions
1. How do individual needs influence motivation?
2. What are the process theories of motivation?
3. What role does reinforcement play in
motivation?
4. What is the link between job design and
motivation?
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
 Motivation—the forces within the individual that account
for the level, direction, and persistence of effort
expended at work
 Needs
 Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of
an individual
 Explain workplace behavior and attitudes
 Create tensions that influence attitudes and behavior
 Good managers and leaders facilitate employee
need satisfaction
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
 Hierarchy of needs theory
 Developed by Abraham Maslow
 Lower-order and higher-order needs affect
workplace behavior and attitudes
 Lower-order needs:
 Physiological, safety, and social needs
 Desires for physical and social well being
 Higher-order needs:
 Esteem and self-actualization needs
 Desire for psychological growth and development
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Figure 15.1 Opportunities for satisfaction in Maslow’s hierarchy of
human needs
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
 ERG theory; Developed by Clayton Alderfer
 Three need levels
 Hierarchy of needs theory
 Deficit principle; A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior
 Progression principle; A need at one level does not become
activated until the next lower-level need is satisfied
Existence
needs
Relatedness
needs
• desires for
physiological
and material
well-being
• desires for
satisfying
interpersonal
relationships
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Growth needs
• desires for
continued
psychological
growth and
development
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
 ERG theory
 Any/all needs can influence behavior at one time
 Frustration-regression principle
 An already satisfied lower-level need becomes reactivated
when a higher-level need is frustrated
 Two-factor theory
 Developed by Frederick Herzberg
 Hygiene factors:
 Elements of the job context
 Sources of job dissatisfaction
 Satisfier factors:
 Elements of the job content
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 Sources of job satisfaction and motivation
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Figure 15.2 Herzberg’s two-factor theory
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
 Acquired needs theory
 Developed by David McClelland
 People acquire needs through their life experiences
 Needs that are acquired:
 Need for Achievement (nAch)
Need for
Desire to do something better or more efficiently,
Achievement
to solve problems, or to master complex tasks
(nAch)
People high in (nAch) prefer work
that : Involves individual
responsibility for results Involves
Need for
Need for
achievable but challenging goals
Affiliation
Power
(nAff)
(nPower)
Provides feedback on performance
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Study Question 1: How do individual needs influence motivation?
 Acquired needs theory
 Need for Power (nPower)
 Desire to control other persons, to influence their behavior, or to be
responsible for other people
 Personal power versus social power
 People high in (nPower) prefer work that:
 Involves control over other persons
 Has an impact on people and events
 Brings public recognition and attention
 Acquired needs theory
 Need for Affiliation (nAff)
 Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with
other persons
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 People high in (nAff) prefer work that:
 Involves interpersonal relationships
 Provides for companionship
 Brings social approval
 Process theories of motivation …
 How people make choices to work hard or not
 Choices are based on:
 Individual preferences
 Available rewards
 Possible work outcomes
 Types of process theories:
 Equity theory
 Expectancy theory
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 Goal-setting theory
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 Equity theory
 Developed by J. Stacy Adams
 When people believe that they have been
treated unfairly in comparison to others, they
try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a
perceived sense of equity to the situation
 Perceived inequity
 Perceived equity
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Figure 15.3 Equity theory and the role of social comparison
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 Equity theory
 People respond to perceived negative inequity by
changing: Work inputs . Rewards received Comparison
points. Situation

Managerial implications of equity theory—
 Underpaid people experience anger
 Overpaid people experience guilt
 Perceptions of rewards determine motivational outcomes
 Negative consequences of equity comparisons should be minimized, if
not eliminated
 Do not underestimate the impact of pay as a source of equity
controversies in the workplace
 Gender equity
 Comparable worth
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 Expectancy theory
 Developed by Victor Vroom
 Key expectancy theory variables:
 Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of
performance
 Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be
followed by rewards
 Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work
related outcomes
 Expectancy theory
 Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are
related to one another in a multiplicative fashion:
Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence
If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low
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Figure 15.4 Elements in the expectancy theory of motivation
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
 To maximize expectancy, managers should:
 Select workers with ability
 Train workers to use ability
 Support work efforts
 Clarify performance goals
 Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
 To maximize instrumentality, managers should:
 Clarify psychological contracts
 Communicate performance-outcome possibilities
 Identify rewards that are contingent on performance
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 Managerial implications of expectancy theory—
 To maximize valence in a positive direction, managers should:
 Identify individual needs
 Adjust rewards to match individual needs
 Goal-setting theory
 Developed by Edwin Locke
 Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating
 Motivational effects of task goals:
 Provide direction to people in their work
 Clarify performance expectations
 Establish a frame of reference for feedback
 Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
Key issues and principles in
the goal-setting process:
•
•
•
•
•
Set specific goals
Set challenging goals
Build goal acceptance and commitment
Clarify goal priorities
Provide feedback on goal
accomplishment
• Reward goal accomplishment
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 Goal-setting theory
 Participation in goal setting
 unlocks the motivational potential of goal setting
 management by objectives (MBO) promotes participation
 when participation is not possible, workers will respond
positively if supervisory trust and support exist
 Self-Efficacy Theory
 a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
 Capability directly affects motivation
 higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy
 self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting
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Study Question 2: What are the process theories of motivation?
 Self-Efficacy Theory
 Enactive mastery
 person gains confidence through positive experience
 Vicarious modeling
 learning by observing others
 Verbal persuasion
 encouragement from others that one can perform a task
 Emotional arousal
 high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation
 Fundamentals of reinforcement theory
 Focuses on the impact of external environmental consequences
on behavior
 Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
 Operant conditioning:
 Developed by B.F. Skinner
 Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating
its consequences
 Operant conditioning strategies:
 Positive reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence
 Negative reinforcement
 Increases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
 Operant conditioning strategies:
 Punishment
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence
 Extinction
 Decreases the frequency of a behavior through the
contingent removal of an pleasant consequence
 Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on
 Law of contingent reinforcement —
 Reward delivered only if desired behavior is exhibited
 Law of immediate reinforcement —
 More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more
reinforcement value it has
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
Guidelines for using positive
reinforcement:
• Clearly identify desired work behaviors
• Maintain a diverse inventory of rewards
• Inform everyone about what must be
done to get rewards
• Recognize individual differences when
allocating rewards
• Follow the laws of immediate and
contingent reinforcement
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
 Schedules of reinforcement:
 Continuous reinforcement administers a reward each
time a desired behavior occurs
 Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only
periodically
 Acquisition of behavior is quicker with continuous
reinforcement
 Behavior acquired under an intermittent schedule is
more permanent
 Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by positive
reinforcement of successive approximations to it
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Study Question 3: What role does reinforcement play in motivation?
 Guidelines for using punishment:





Tell the person what is being done wrong
Tell the person what is being done right
Match the punishment to the behavior
Administer punishment in private
Follow laws of immediate and contingent
reinforcement
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Figure 15.5 Applying reinforcement strategies: case of total quality
management
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Job: A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational
objectives
 Job design: The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning
specific work tasks to individuals and groups
 Jobs should be designed so that both performance and
satisfaction result
 Job simplification
 Standardizing work procedures and employing people in welldefined and highly specialized tasks
 Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth
 Automation
 Total mechanization of a job
 Most extreme form of job simplification
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
Potential advantages of
job simplification:
• Easier and quicker
training of workers
• Workers are less
difficult to supervise
• Workers are easier to
replace
• Development of
expertise in doing
repetitive tasks
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Potential disadvantages
of job simplification:
• Productivity suffers
• Cost increases due to
absenteeism/ turnover
of unhappy workers
• Poor performance may
result from worker
boredom/ alienation
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Job rotation and job enlargement:
 Expands job scope
 Job rotation
 Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers
among jobs involving different task assignments
 Job enlargement
 Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks
previously assigned to separate workers
 Horizontal loading
 Job enrichment
 Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by
expanding its content
 Increases job depth by adding work planning duties normally
by a supervisor
Management 11eperformed
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Job characteristics model
 Satisfaction and performance are influencec by three critical
psychological states:
 Experienced meaningfulness of work
 Experienced responsibilities for work outcomes
 Knowledge of actual results of work activities
 The three critical psychological states are influenced by five core job
characteristics:
 Skill variety , Task identity , Task significance , Autonomy
Feedback
 How to improve core job characteristics:
 Form natural units of work , Combine tasks , Establish client
relationships , Open feedback channels Practice vertical loading
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Flexible working hours
 Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the
pattern of their daily work hours
 Core time — all employees must be at work
 Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal
and family responsibilities
 Potential benefits of flexible working hours:
 People have greater autonomy in work scheduling while
ensuring maintenance of work responsibilities
 Organizations can attract and retain employees who have
special non-work responsibilities
 Worker morale may be improved
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Compressed workweek
 Allows a full-time job to be completed in less than the standard
5 days of 8-hour shifts
 Benefits — more leisure time, lower commuting costs, lower
absenteeism, and potentially improved performance
 Disadvantages — increased fatigue, family adjustment
problems, increased scheduling problems, possible
customer complaints, and union opposition
 Job sharing
 One full-time job is split between two or more persons
 Work sharing
 An agreement between employees to cut back their work hours
to avoid layoffs or termination
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Potential advantages of work sharing
 Trained and loyal workers can be retained while temporarily
cutting labor costs
 Continued work  but with reduced earnings  for those who
would otherwise be laid off
 Potential disadvantages of work sharing
 Employees who might otherwise be protected by seniority may
suffer an income loss
 Telecommuting
 A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work
hours to be completed outside of the office
 Hoteling
 Virtual offices
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Potential advantages of telecommuting:
 Freedom from: Constraints of commuting , Fixed hours
Special work attire . Direct contact with supervisors
 Increased productivity , Fewer distractions
 Being one’s own boss , Having more personal time
 Potential disadvantages of telecommuting:




Working too much, Having less personal time
Difficulty in separating work and personal life
Less time for family , Feelings of isolation
Loss of visibility for promotion, Difficulties
supervising work-at-home employees from a
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Study Question 4: What is the link between job design and
motivation?
 Contingency workers
 Part-time workers who supplement the full-time workforce, often
on a long-term basis
 Part-time work
 Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour
workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee
 Implications of part-time work:
 Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labor costs and
dealing with cyclical labor demands
 Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less
productive
 Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive
important fringe benefits
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Chapter 15 Case
 The Three Doctors: Determined to
succeed