Imperialism in Asia:
China and Japan
“The Japanese willow bent with the winds
of western imperialism and survived; the
Chinese oak stood fast against the winds
from the west and fell.”
China’s Response to
Pressure from the West
Canton System
Emperor Qianlong restricted foreign trade to the factory
(warehouse) district of Canton. Trade was limited to a
chartered group of 7 or 8 Chinese merchants, called the
Cohong, who were granted a monopoly on foreign trade.
Attempts at Diplomacy
Canton System was odious to the British and other
trading countries. WHY???
The British sent three embassies to Peking in an
effort to negotiate changes:
Charles Cathcart (1787)
George Macartney (1792-3)
Lord Amherst (1816)
All attempts to achieve diplomatic contact were
rejected. A fourth attempt was made by Lord
Napier in 1834. He died without ever being
permitted to deliver his credentials.
Chests of Opium Brought Into China
The Opium Wars 1839-1842
Britain refused to stop their very profitable
trade in opium with China.
Treaty of Nanking
Conditions of the Treaty of Nanking
I Lasting peace between the two nations.
II The ports of Canton, Amoy, Fuchau, Ningpo, and Shangai to be opened to British
trade and residence, and trade conducted according to a well-understood tariff.
III It being obviously necessary and desirable that British subjects should have some
port whereat they may careen and refit their ships when required,î the island of Hong
Kong to be ceded to her Majesty.
IV Six millions of dollars to be paid as the value of the opium which was delivered up
as ransom for the lives of H.N.M. Superintendent and subjects,î in March, 1839.
V Three millions of dollars to be paid for the debts due to British merchants.
VI Twelve millions to be paid for the expenses incurred in the expedition sent out to
obtain redress for the violent and unjust proceedings of the Chinese high authorities.
VII The entire amount of $21,000,000 to be paid before December 31, 1845.
VIII All prisoners of war to be immediately released by the Chinese.
IX The Emperor to grant full and entire amnesty to those of his subjects who had aided
the British.
X A regular and fair tariff of export and import custom and other dues to be established
at the open ports, and a transit duty to be levied in addition which will give goods a free
conveyance to all places in China.
XI Official correspondence to be hereafter conducted on terms of equality according to
the payments of money.
XII Conditions for restoring the places held by British troops to be according to the
payments of money.
XIII Time of exchanging ratifications and carrying the treaty into effect.
Treaty of Nanjing: An Unequal
Treaty
Chinese are humiliated and defeated
British get the port of Hong Kong
5 Chinese ports opened to British trade
Chinese must pay 21 million
Opium trade continues
Extraterritorial rights for foreign citizens
Foreigners are exempt from legal jurisdiction of a country
British were free from following the laws of China within
their spheres of influence.
Growing Chinese resentment against the foreign
“barbarians”
Taiping Rebellion 1850-1864
CAUSES
Hunger & starvation among the Chinese because of
China’s inability to feed its growing population
Increasing opium addiction
Growing poverty
Christian missionaries’ message of a “Heavenly
Kingdom of Peace” inspires Hong Xiuquan to lead
a 14 year rebellion against the corrupt Qing
Dynasty
Taiping Rebellion
EFFECTS
Combined Br., Fr, & Qing forces crush the
peasant rebellion and the Qing dynasty is
restored to power
Fertile farmland is destroyed by the hungry
armies
At least 20 million (some estimate 40
million) die.
Self-strengthening Movement:
1860s
CAUSES
Conservative Chinese clung to traditional ways
and resist change starting at the top, but
provincial leaders saw the need to reform and
modernized education, diplomatic services and
the military.
Slogan, “Learn the superior technology of the
barbarian, in order to control him.”
Self-strengthening Movement
EFFECTS
 Produced warships & ammunitions
Boosted Chinese morale
Generally unsuccessful because of lack of
government support.
Sino-Japanese War, 1894
-Fought between Qing
and Meiji Japan for
control of Korea.
-Demonstrated the
failure of the selfstrengthening
movement.
-Major power shift in
East Asia.
-Qing were humiliated;
set in motion chain of
events that culminated
in the 1911 Revolution
that overthrew Qing.
100 Days’ Reform
A failed 104-day national
cultural, political and
educational reform movement
in 1898.
Undertaken by the young
Guangxu Emperor and his
supporters.
Ended in a coup led by the
conservative Empress
Dowager Cixi.
Open Door Policy 1899
CAUSES
China has a weak military, as well as
economic and political problems.
China is being divided up into more Western
spheres of influence.
U.S. fears that China would be divided into
formal colonies and American traders would
be shut out.
Open Door Policy 1899
EFFECTS
This policy would protect American trading
rights in China.
Keep China free from colonization
But China was still at the mercy of economic
imperialism by foreign powers.
1900 Boxer Rebellion
CAUSES
 The young Emperor’s 100 Days of Reform fails
when the Dowager Empress Cixi arrests him &
executes his leaders.
The Chinese people’s long standing frustration with
poor conditions & the gov’t failure to reform
increases.
The Chinese are angered by the special privileges
given to foreigners
They resent Chinese Christians.
Boxer Rebellion
EFFECTS
In spring , “Society of Harmonious Fists”
aka Boxers surround the European section.
In August they are defeated by 20,000
multinational forces.
China’s humiliation continues
A new sense of Chinese nationalism
emerges.
Qing court begins steps to reform-promises
a full constitutional gov’t by 1917.
1911 Revolution
 Revolutionaries in southern China
successfully overthrew Qing dynasty.
Republic was established
Sun Yat-sen (Yixian) became the
provisional leader of the Republic of
China.
Japan’s Response to the
West
The Opening of Japan
 On July 8, 1853, Commodore
Matthew C. Perry (USN)
entered Edo Bay with his
“black ships” to demand that
Japan open its ports to the
U.S.
 Under the Tokugawa
Shogunate, Japan had
enforced a policy of selective
contact for almost 250 years.
 The bakufu was thrown into a
panic. Its inability to expel the
foreigners brought its
legitimacy into question.
Matthew C. Perry (1794-1858)
U.S. Objectives
Commodore Perry’s task was to present a letter
from President Millard Fillmore to the
Emperor of Japan. It was signed, “Your Good
Friend, Millard Fillmore.”
America sought:
A coaling station on the great circle route to China
at which provisions could be obtained.
Assurance of good treatment for shipwrecked
sailors.
Trade.
Japanese Response
The Japanese were awed by the speed and size of
Perry’s ships.
The Japanese made an unsuccessful attempt to
intercept Perry’s ships as they entered Edo Bay.
The large amounts of black smoke led some Japanese to
think that Perry’s ships were on fire.
The letter was delivered to representatives of the
bakufu at a hostile but correct meeting. The letter
was to be transmitted to the Emperor. Perry would
return in the Spring for an answer.
Perry’s delegation returned to their ships with a
small Marine band playing Yankee Doodle.
Treaty of Kanagawa
 Perry returned in February of 1854 with eight ships.
The bakufu decided it had little choice but to follow a
conciliatory policy.
 The Treaty of Kanagawa:
Opened two ports for provisioning American ships,
Shimoda and Hakodate.
Provided for humane treatment shipwrecked sailors.
Established diplomatic but not commercial
relations. (Townsend Harris was chosen to negotiate
a separate commercial treaty. He arrived in 1856.)
 By 1860 Japan had given many foreigners permission
to trade at treaty ports and granted extraterritorial
rights.
Meiji Restoration
The opening of
Japan precipitated a
crisis which
eventually led to the
fall of the shogun
and the restoration
of imperial power in
1868.
Emperor Meiji (1852-1912)
1867 Meiji Emperor established
a new gov’t
Emperor Mutsuhito ended the Tokugawa
shogunate military dictatorship and established
a new gov’t.
Selectively adapted aspects of foreign culture that
they admired, such as American education system
and Germany’s centralized gov’t & military
discipline
Followed the Western path to industrialization &
developed modern industry(shipbuilding, weapons,
banking) by utilizing the prestige of the Samurai
families (Mitsubishi)
Meiji Reforms
 Feudalism dismantled
The daimyo received lucrative financial settlements,
but the samurai lost their status as hereditary elite.
Satsuma rebellion in 1877 of the samurai
Lands held by lords returned to emperor.
 A modern national army with conscription created
 Occupations were opened to all
Iwakura Mission
 Members of the mission: Iwakura Tonomi, plenipotentiary
and ambassador (center), Kido Koin, Ito Hirobumi and
Okubo Toshmichi, vice ambassadors (left to right) .
Iwakura Mission Objectives
The two year mission left in 1871. The 48
members plus 60 students toured the world and
the west in particular with two objectives:
To renegotiate unequal treaties signed with the west. In
this, they completely failed.
To gain knowledge to be used in the modernization of
Japan. In this, they achieved great success. The impact
of the trip was almost immediately felt.
The members examined everything from iron
foundries to stock exchanges and prisons to
telegraph offices.
Modernization of the Military
Models were sought and followed.
The Army: A French model was first used, but later
changed to the German model.
The Navy: The British model was followed.
Initially, success was illusive.
The Formosa Expedition of 1874 proved a disaster.
Satsuma Rebellion of 1877, the government only won
thru the weight of superior numbers and resources.
But then . . .
Sino-Japanese War of 1894, Japan easily won.
Russo- Japanese War of 1904, Japan easily won.
Education
Education was another area of early emphasis
and borrowing.
Professor David Murray of Rutgers University was
appointed superintendent of Schools and Colleges. He
founded the Japanese education system.
Many students were sent abroad for education. One of
them, Mori Arinori, studied physics in England and at
the age of 25 became Japan’s first envoy to the U.S.
Kaneko Kentaro came to the U.S. with the Iwakura
Mission to attend Harvard where he was a classmate of
Theodore Roosevelt. He later influenced him to mediate
the settlement of Russo-Japanese War.
Education
In spite of a few missteps, by 1902 Japan could
boast:
Two Universities.
222 intermediate schools.
27, 076 elementary schools.
Of all the things the Japanese learned from
America, baseball was the most fascinating. A
missionary, Horace Wilson, taught the game to
students at Tokyo University in 1873. In 1896, the
Japanese beat the American Athletic Club of
Yokahama 29 to 4.
The Economy
To industrialize the country, an infrastructure
of transportation and communication was
needed.
The British were hired to introduce the telegraph.
Within 10 years, a national network was in place.
Maejima Hisoka, a former samurai, introduced the
postal system to Japan in 1871 using a British
model. By 1880, 76 thousand kilometers of postal
routes were operated at a profit. By 1900, a billion
items a year were being carried.
The Economy
A major investment was made in railroads. The first
line was between Tokyo and Yokohama in 1872. By the
mid 1890’s, there were 2,000 miles of track.
The government took the lead in many areas:
cement, glass, tiles, textiles, shipyards, mines,
munitions, etc. The objective was to demonstrate
profitability, privatize and subsidize, if necessary.
The Zaibatsu (conglomerates) resulted.
The Japan Steamship Company is an example of this
philosophy in action. The government backed a poor
samurai with a couple of ships in 1873. By 1879, he
had beat out the foreign competition. The company
became the foundation of Mitsubishi and Mitsui.
The Meiji Constitution
 Ito Hirobumi drafted the Meiji Constitution along
German lines after two years study in Europe.
 The Diet (legislature) was composed of a House of
Representatives and a House of Peers.
 The single greatest weakness of the Meiji
Constitution was the cabinet system. The military
was represented by active duty officers.
 If either the army or navy became dissatisfied with
the cabinet, it could simply withdraw its
representative. When this happened, a new cabinet
had to be formed.
 The cabinet was responsible to the emperor, not
the legislature.
 The emperor retained sole authority to declare
war, conclude treaties, command military forces,
open and close the legislature, veto decision of the Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909)
legislature and issue ordinances independent of the
legislature.—BUT. . . Was usually passive &
seldom expressed a clear opinion.
1894 Sino-Japanese War
Rebellion broke out against Korea’s king
who then asked Chinese gov’t. for
military help.
Chinese troops marched into Korea.
Japan protested Chinese violation of a
mutual agreement of non-aggression and
then sent Japanese troops to fight the
Chinese.
Sino Japanese War
The war led to the following
consequences:
The destruction of the Chinese navy.
The beginning of Japanese empire
expansion.
A change in the world’s balance of power
Emergence of Russia & Japan as major
powers –and enemies- in East Asia
1904 Russo-Japanese War
CAUSE:
Russia refused to stay out of Korea because
Russia still wanted a warm water port for
trade.
Japan launched a surprise attack on the
Russian navy anchored off the coast of
Manchuria.
Russo-Japanese War
Consequences
Russian navy was defeated by Japan and
destroyed.
Japan occupied Korea and Manchuria
Russia was forced to withdraw from
Manchuria & Korea
SHOCK AROUND THE WORLD!!
1910 Japan annexes Korea
Japanese rule of Korea is harsh, one of
the most brutal in history.
They establish a repressive gov’t that
denies rights to Koreans but modernizes
the country.
Inspires a Korean nationalist movement.
And now…
“The Japanese willow bent with the winds
of western imperialism and survived; the
Chinese oak stood fast against the winds
from the west and fell.”
Why was Japan like a willow
tree?
Discuss with your partner.
Then answer part B
Why was the Meiji era in Japan viewed
as a period of “enlightenment rule?”