Instructional Media Selection:
Implications for Blended Learning
Dr. Jolly Holden
Associate Professor, School of Education
American InterContinental University
Introduction
Blended learning is more than just combining an online
component to the traditional classroom…it is a systematic
process of selecting the most appropriate media for a
specific learning intervention based upon the learning
objectives.
With that said, given the plethora of instructional media
available to the instructional designer today, combined with
the emergence of web-based collaborative tools, there is a
renewed focus on integrating web 2.0/e-Learning 2.0 tools
and other instructional media in meeting today’s learning
challenges.
“Blended learning represents a [fundamental] shift in instructional strategy”
North American Council for Online Learning, Blended Learning: The Convergence of Online and Face-to-Face Education, 2008
The Emergence of Blended Learning
As instructional media continues to evolve, propelled by
advances in technology and fueled by the need to increase
learning opportunities, the evolution and advancements of
instructional media will continue to accelerate as well. As a
result, blended learning will become an integral component in
developing a comprehensive learning strategy.
“The term blended learning has been redefined, from a combination of instructor
and Web-based training to a blend of many types of interactive content”
Josh Bersin, “Today’s High-Impact Learning Organization”, Chief Learning Officer Magazine, Aug, 2008
Why Blended Learning: The Challenge
Driven by the demand to increase learning opportunities and
reduce costs without impacting instructional integrity, educators and
trainers are continually challenged in searching for the for right mix
of instructional media.
Taking into consideration all of the instructional technologies
available today, selecting the right mix of live, virtual, and
constructive courseware delivery methods in meeting the needs of
our learners can be a challenging and daunting task. Consequently,
this presentation address these two basic questions:
Q1: What is the most appropriate mix of instructional media, and…
Q2: What are the variables to consider when selecting the most
appropriate media?
The Family Tree of
Instructional Media:
From the Past to Tomorrow
“Distance learning will evolve from
basic enrollment
in computer and webCorrespondence
based courses to virtual
learning
(1883-present)
environments that support online
Technology-enabled
(circa
1950s-1990s
collaboration and classes taught by
Change
is inevitable, and tomorrow will bring
both live and virtual instructors.”
newer and better technologies, accompanied by
Air Force White Paper,. On Learning: The Future of Air Force
Education and Training (2008)
a new set of challenges, but the goal is the same:
Optimize the technology without sacrificing
instructional quality. In the end, incorporating
sound instructional design principles will
Electronic-assisted
provide for a solid foundation to ensure learning
Learning
outcomes are
attained.
e-learning
(circa 1995-present)
(circa 1990-present)
E-learning
2.0:
Computer-mediated
Portability/Wireless
Learning
(circa 1970-present)
SmartPDAs
Computer-based
phones
Training (CBT)
Virtual
Learning
Environments Satellite
e-learning/ITV
Immersive
Simulation
We-based Training
Online3.0:
Learning
Web
Virtual
Worlds
Electronic
whiteboards
Virtual Learning Environments
“In this global, networked world,
several technologies
including
Video
search engines,
blogs, podcasts,
Conferencing
Web 2.0 applications and virtual
worlds such as Second Life will be
used for learning.”
Video
tape/DVD/
Ed Hoff, CLO
IBM,
Learning in the 21st Century: A Brave New
World, CLO Magazine,
April, 2008
ipods
Rules of Engagement for
Blended Learning
Blended learning allows the instructional designer the opportunity to
leverage the strengths of instructional media with the efficacy of the
instructional components to ensure the instructional goal is attained.
For a blended learning solution to be successful, it is imperative a
thorough media analysis and needs assessment is conducted
while addressing the fundamental components of the instructional
systems design process.
“Migrating to blended learning formats requires instructional design analysis that
integrates with the technologies that will be utilized to deliver it.”
The e-Learning Developers Journal (2005)
Basic Blended Learning Concepts
• Delivery media does not affect the content, but affects how you
design the content
• Asynchronous media is not adaptive to dynamic content
• Synchronous media can accommodate dynamic content
• Blended learning integrates multiple media with the appropriate
instructional strategies, and can also include
• Collaborative tools used to facilitate the transfer of learning
(wikis, discussion boards)
• Adaptive tools used for dynamic content/increased interaction
(blogs)
- Note: These Web 2.0 tools are more commonly used to
support “informal learning”
• Media attributes are important in that they may affect your
choice of instructional strategies
The Blended Learning Journey
This presentation will provide some background on blended learning
and instructional media, as well as introducing variables to consider
when developing a blended learning strategy.
Additionally, this presentation will introduce the concepts of
synchronicity (integration of learning environments) and elasticity
(integration of instructional media with instructional strategies) to
ensure the right mix is attained.
Presentation objectives:
 Define Blended Learning
 Identify Instructional Media Selection Considerations
 Discuss Instructional & Pedagogical Variables
 Define Elasticity and Synchronicity
Presentation Map
 Blended Learning Definitions
 Synchronicity
 Blended Learning Model
o Instructional Component
o Learning Environment Component
o Media Component
 Elasticity
 Market Analysis
Navigation Bar
Click on any link for direct access to that topic
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Blended Learning Definitions
Although the application of blended learning has been around for
decades, there is no universally accepted definition. While it appears the
term first appeared in the literature circa 1999, the following pages
articulate several definitions that represent different perspectives in an
attempt to define the term, but they all have one essential component in
common...an integration of instructional media. The definitions offered in
this presentation reflect different perspectives concerning the definition
of blended learning:
• General Construct
• Educational
• Pragmatic
• Training
• Logical
• Instructional Design
A rose by any other name is still a rose
More definitions of blended learning available at: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/elearning/blended.html
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Blended Learning Definitions
A General Construct
The delivery of instruction using multiple media*
• Includes the integration of instructional media into a traditional
•
classroom or into a distance learning environment.
Includes any combination of media that supports instruction,
regardless of the mix of synchronous or asynchronous media.
* Source: Distance Learning Magazine, Vol 3, Number 2, 2006, Instructional Media Selection for Distance Learning: A Learning Environment Approach
Note: This is applicable to any learning environment
that combines multiple media to deliver content.
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Blended Learning Definitions
An Educational Perspective*
Courses that integrate online with traditional face-to- face class activities in a
planned pedagogically valuable manner; and…where a portion (institutionally
defined) of face-to-face time is replaced by online activity.
Blended
Learning
Traditional
Classroom
Online
Consequently, from an educational perspective, blended learning is primarily focused on
integrating two separate paradigms…the traditional classroom [synchronous] environment
and the asynchronous online environment.
Note: Hybrid learning, vis-à-vis blended learning, is often used in higher education when
the student has a choice between an online class and the traditional class…not necessarily
the integration of the two.
•Source: Laster, S., G. Otte, A. G. Picciano and S. Sorg. Redefining blended learning. Presented at the 2005 Sloan-C Workshop on Blended Learning, Chicago, IL, April 18, 2005.
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Blended Learning Definitions
A Pragmatic Perspective
Courses that are taught both in the classroom (face-to-face) and at a distance
and that use a mix of different pedagogic strategies
(Source: edutechwiki, 2006, Available at http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Blended_learning)
More specifically…
• To combine or mix modes of web-based technology (e.g., live virtual classroom,
self-paced instruction, collaborative learning, streaming video, audio, and text) to
accomplish an educational goal.
• To combine various pedagogical approaches (e.g., constructivism, behaviorism,
cognitivism) to produce optimal learning outcomes with or with out instructional
technology.
• To combine any form of instructional technology (e.g., videotape, CD-ROM, webbased training, film) with face-to-face instructor-led training.
Source: Margaret Driscoll, n.d, retrieved Jan 5, 2007 from: http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Blended_learning
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Blended Learning Definitions
A Training Perspective
The use of multiple instructional delivery media to deliver one course or
curriculum, such as a technical training course with pre-reading,
asynchronous online knowledge acquisition, and/or synchronous lectures.
Source: e-Learning Guild’s Research Report ,Synchronous Learning Systems, June 2008
Synchronous and asynchronous media. For clarification, blended
learning is also applied to a mix of online and face-to-face training, and
more generally to approaches to course design and delivery that combine
different modalities (e.g., self-paced Web-based training, followed by
classroom instruction, accompanied by printed job aids, and
supplemented by virtual classroom follow-up sessions).
Source: e-Learning Guild Handbook on Synchronous e-Learning (2007)
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Blended Learning Definitions
A Logical Perspective
“A learning program where more than one delivery mode is being used with
the objective of optimizing the learning outcome and cost of program delivery.”
Achieving Success with Blended Learning , Harvi Singh and Chris Reed (2001). Available at:
http://www.chriscollieassociates.com/BlendedLearning.pdf
“Collaborative online learning is now recognized as a component of a mature
blended-learning strategy.” Bersin & Associates, Technology Update: Open Source e-Learning Systems, June 2007
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Blended Learning Definitions
An Instructional Design Perspective
“Blended learning is nothing more [or less] than good instructional design.”
Source: me
The difference between blended learning 60 years ago and today is the
instructional designer has more of a selection of instructional media.
However, the concept and application of instructional media into a blended
learning solution is the same as it was 60 years ago…
Attainment of the learning outcomes
“The Internet-is-going-to-eliminate-face-to-face-training paradigm has exploded and the
term blended learning was coined by the e-learning protagonists as a way of admitting
that classroom instruction is not going away. Jack Gordon, Editor-at-Large , Training magazine, July 2005
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
The Concept of Synchronicity
Although synchronicity is dichotomous, per se, either synchronous or
asynchronous, it does not mean they are mutually exclusive when considering a
blended learning solution. If viewed as being on opposite ends of a continuum,
the degree to which these two dichotomous environments can be integrated
would result in a blending of synchronicity.
Synchronous
Blended Learning
Asynchronous
Therefore, to attain the most optimum blend, one must consider the vehicle(s)
that deliver the content, the [learning environment] in which the learning occurs,
and the instructional objective(s) [which drive the development of the content
and instructional strategies]. Consequently, blended learning can include any
combination of media that supports instruction, regardless of the mix of
synchronous or asynchronous media.
Click here for note on Web 3.0 & Virtual Worlds
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Blended Learning Model Concept Map
Distance
Learning
Depicted in this concept map is the
blended learning model three main
Synchronous
Asynchronous
components and subcomponents.
The degree of integration of each of the
subcomponents is based upon evaluating
Collaborative
specific attributes of each component,
Tools
resulting in the most appropriate blend to
ensure attainment of the instructional goal.
Note: This model is based upon a set of
related components, although evaluated
separately, are viewed holistically, per se,
each component’s specific contribution
must be viewed as it relates to the sum
total of all the parts… which results in a
comprehensive blended learning solution.
Instructional
Objectives
Instructional
Component
Content
Instructional
Strategies
Media
Component
Complexity
Rapidity
of Change
Multimedia
(aural/visual)
Synchronicity
Interactivity
Symmetry
Asymmetrical
Media
Definitions
Traditional
Classroom
Learning
Environment
Component
Asynchronous
Instructional
Media
Synchronous
Instructional
Media
Symmetrical
Media
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Asynchronous
Collaboration
(P2P)
Elasticity
Didactic
Synchronous
Collaboration
(P2P)
Market Analysis
Dialectic
Blended Learning Model Components
Derived from the blended learning concept map is the tri-dimensional blended learning module.
A model can be a description of a system or phenomenon that accounts for its known or inferred
properties and used for further study of its characteristics. Therefore, a blended learning model
can be used as a guide in evaluating and integrating separate components that would result in
an instructionally sound learning situation.
Learning environment component:
Evaluates the learning environment
(synchronous/asynchronous) that
supports the instructional objectives
Learning
Environment
Component
Media component: Used to
evaluate the most appropriate
media to delivery the content
Instructional
Component
Instructional component:
Used to select the most
appropriate instructional
strategies that support
the learning objectives
Media
Component
Click on any of the model component links for detailed information for that specific component.
Click here for a summary of each component.
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Concept of Elasticity in Blended Learning
The power of blended learning is in its elasticity
Depending upon the [cognitive] level of the
learning objectives and the learning
Learning
environment (synchronous vis-a-vis
Environment
asynchronous), different combinations of
instructional media and instructional strategies
can support various levels of interactivity to
attain the most appropriate "blend".
As the blend changes, the model becomes "elastic",
allowing the instructional designer to modify the
blend to meet specific learning outcomes.
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Instructional
Media
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Elasticity in Blended Learning
What is the right mix? There may be several
“blended” solutions that can meet the
instructional objectives, so consider the
qualitative merits of all instructional media.
The ultimate goal is to increase performance
through the systematic evaluation of intradependent variables that would result in the
most appropriate integration of media.
Learning
Environment
Instructional
Media
With that said, any combination of instructional
delivery medium, including the traditional classroom,
can result in a blended learning solution, but the instructional
efficacy of the solution is most dependent upon the instructional
and learning environment components.
Click here for another view of the blend
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Survey of Chief Learning Officers (CLOs)
Use of Blended Learning
Survey from the Chief Learning Officer magazine Business Intelligence Board*
The traditional classroom is still the primary delivery media (56%) but synchronous &
asynchronous e-learning is increasing (24%), along with the use of m-learning (6%)
* Source: Chief Learning Officer Magazine. (July, 2007). Blended Learning: Mixing Modalities. Available at: http://www.clomedia.com
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Survey of CLOs Use of Blended Learning (con’t)
The greatest change in the delivery mix
will continue to come via the increased
adoption of e-learning and the increased
use of portable technologies.
IBM’s perspective on blended
learning and workforce mobility
Did you know that…click here
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Survey of CLOs Use of Blended Learning (con’t)
“[There is] an important link between content type and delivery method and that
student-instructor interaction receives strong consideration in determining which
delivery methods get employed within an organization...” and “The value of student-toinstructor interaction remains a primary driver for both classroom-based ILT and
synchronous e-learning….as well as student-to-student interaction.” CLO Magazine., July, 2007, pg. 48-49
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
So…What Does it Mean?
“The best current evidence is that media are mere vehicles that
deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more
than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in nutrition…
only the content of the vehicle can influence achievement.”
Richard.Clark, “Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media”. Review of Educational Research, Winter, Vol. 53,
No. 4, 1983, pp. 445-459
"It is likely not the ‘blendedness’ that makes the difference, but rather
the fundamental re-consideration of the content in light of new
instructional and media choices.”
Richard Voos, Blended Learning-What is it and where might it take us? Sloan-C View, Volume 2, Issue 1 – Feb, 2003.
Available at: http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/view/v2n1/coverv2n1.htm
“There’s an important point that is easy to miss in the frenzy of change. Web 2.0 is
not about technology, and neither is e-Learning 2.0. The human element is what
makes the new Web work. Without user-generated content, the new Web would be
an empty shell of fancy technologies.” e-Learning Guild, What is e-Learning 2.0? , Aug, 2008
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
Final Note: The Learning Mantra
It’s not just about technology…it’s about people
 Training/education is the process
 Learning is the outcome
 The technology is the means
Sender
(Instructor)
Receiver
(Learner)
Collaboration +
Delivery
Teamwork =System
Success
Focus on learning outcomes…the end result:
Improving human performance
Definitions
Synchronicity
Blended Learning Model
Elasticity
Market Analysis
End of
Presentation
“One only needs two tools in life: WD-40 to make things go, and duct
tape to make them stop.”
G. M. Weilacher, American humorist
“and a hammer to pound things in and a screw driver to pry them out.”
my wife
Click to go back to prior slide
Click to go back to Presentation Map
Learning Environment Component
A learning environment can either be
synchronous or asynchronous, per se,
the learning is either occurring real-time
with an instructor (synchronous), or it is
occurring without the presence of an
instructor (asynchronous). Regardless,
each learning environment has their
distinct advantages and disadvantages,
and the goal of developing a blended
learning strategy is to leverage those
specific attributes of each environment to
ensure the most optimum use of
resources to attain the instructional goal.
Back to Main Page
Asynchronous
Distance
Learning
Synchronous
Traditional
Classroom
Learning Environment Page
Synchronous
Asynchronous
The Synchronous Learning Environment
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Advantages
Disadvantages
Provides for a dialectic learning
environment with a high level of interactivity
• Encourages spontaneity of oral
responses
• Immediate reinforcement of ideas
 Supports activation learning strategies
such as idea generation (brainstorming)
 Provides for peer support (social
learning theory)
• Allows for peer-to-peer interaction
 Structured learning environment
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Limited to same time
• Required dedicated instructor
• Does not provide for self-pacing
May be limited to same place
(albeit at a distance)
High cognitive load
Learning Environment Page
Synchronous
Asynchronous
The Asynchronous Learning Environment
Different/Same
Place
Different Time
Advantages
 Provides for more opportunity of
reflective thought
• Not constrained by time
 Delayed reinforcement of ideas
 Provides for flexibility in delivery of
content
 Less structured learning environment
 Provides for flexibility in location
(home, office, etc.)
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Disadvantages
 No live interaction
• Longer completion times
• “Just-in-time” = “do-it-on-your
own-time”
• Higher non-completion rates—
pacing not optimized
Learning Environment Page
Synchronous
Asynchronous
Media Component
Some instructional media may be more appropriate than others in supporting either a synchronous
or asynchronous learning environment, but no single medium is inherently better or worse than
another. Although the delivery medium does not affect the content, the selection of certain media
may affect how you design the content based on the attributes of that specific medium. Regardless,
when the “most appropriate” media are selected based on the ISD process, then learning outcomes
will not be affected.
Media are vehicles that simply deliver
their contents. When developing a
blended learning solution, the selection
of the most appropriate media is not
based solely on the attributes of the
media, but the potential impact it may
have on the design of the instructional
components and corresponding
physical learning environment.
Click here for more on media mapped
to the distance learning environment.
Synchronicity
Asynchronous
Instructional Media
Wikis, blogs,
discussion boards
Back to Main Page
Synchronous
Instructional
Media
Portability
Media Component
Taxonomy
Portability
Taxonomy of Media for Blended Learning
The taxonomy is focused primarily on a dichotomous learning environment *
Click on the hyperlinks
for more information
Synchronous
Media
Asynchronous
Media
 Correspondence (print)
 Recorded Video
 Collaboration software/virtual
technologies (wikis, blogs,
discussion boards, etc.)
Visual Only
(includes graphics)
Aural Only
 Audio Conferencing
 Recorded Audio
Visual & Aural
 Instructional Television
 Satellite e-Learning
 Video Teleconferencing
 Web Conferencing
(synchronous learning systems)
 Audiographics
 Recorded Video
 Computer Based Instruction
 Asynchronous Web Based
Instruction (online training)
 Instructional Television
Click here for note on use of Wikis & Blogs as collaborative tools
* Source: Distance Learning Magazine, Vol 3, Number 2, 2006, Instructional Media Selection for Distance Learning: A Learning Environment Approach
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Media Component
Taxonomy
Portability
Integrating Media:
A Blended Learning Approach
Integrating any combination of synchronous/ asynchronous media with the
traditional classroom results in a blended learning solution.
Synchronous Media
Asynchronous Media
• Satellite e-learning
• Online (Web-Based Training)
• Video Conferencing
• Audio Conferencing
• Audio Graphics
• Web Conferencing/SLS
• Webinars
• Computer-based Training
• Video Tape/DVD
• Audio Tape
• Podcast/vodcast
Traditional
Classroom
Back to Main Page
Media Component
Taxonomy
Portability
Synchronous Instructional Media
Technology
Delivery
Description
Audio
Conferencing
An audio-only environment in which students in different locations use telephones or
audio conferencing equipment to communicate with each other in real time. Supports a
synchronous interactive environment between the instructor, remote students, and
multiple sites but does not support visual images and graphics, and often supplemented
by electronic or printed handouts. Can be integrated with other delivery systems to
provide synchronous audio.
Audiographics
Audiographics combines audio conferencing with personal computer text and graphics,
allowing both voice and data to be transmitted to remote sites. Typically, a site
consists of audio conference equipment, plus a large screen that serves as an
electronic whiteboard. This system allows for two-way data exchange (limited to highresolution still images only) and a synchronous interactive environment between the
instructor and students at multiple sites.
Synchronous Web-Based
Instruction (WBI)/Web
Conferencing
(Synchronous Learning
Systems)
Internet-based and delivered over the Web that enable synchronous audio and/or text
chat, video, document and application sharing, whiteboards, presentations, etc. Can
support synchronous oral interaction between the instructor and remote students at
multiple locations as well as supporting Multi-User Virtual Environment (MUVE) or
webinars. Due to bandwidth limitations (basically, low-bandwidth applications), highresolution images and video may be limited. Note: The application of web conferencing in
a learning environment is also known as synchronous learning systems (SLS).
Instructional Television
(ITV)
ITV is defined as a one-way, full motion video and audio transmission of classroom
instruction through a telecommunications channel such as satellite, cable TV, or
Instructional TV Fixed Service (ITFS), a dedicated 2.5GHz spectrum managed by the
FCC and limited to educational programming only, usually transmitted via microwave
Synchronous Instructional Media
Technology
Delivery
Description
Instructional Television
(ITV)- con’t
towers. This specific application would not be available to instructional programming
programming received via commercial cable TV). Due to the bandwidth available via
satellite or ITFS, this delivery medium can emulate the live, traditional classroom
environment but at a distance. ITV is sometimes referred to as Business Television
(BTV), Interactive Video Teletraining, or Interactive TV, and can be transmitted via
analog or digital systems.
Satellite
e-learning
Satellite e-learning represents the next generation of distributed media. Utilizing IP
(Internet Protocol) as the network layer and distribution technology, it also incorporates
the latest MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) video standard or latest version of
Widows Media. Similar in application to ITV, it allows for the live traditional classroom
to be transmitted to a remote site while synchronous oral interactivity is supported by
audio teleconferencing or student response systems integrating audio and keypad
technology (data interaction). Additionally, since satellite e-learning uses IP, video
streaming can be utilized at extremely high bandwidths (~3.0Mbps). The IP-based
video can be distributed directly to the user’s end-point and then distributed via the
LAN to either a classroom or desktop computer, or both. Also, satellite e-learning can
easily transmit large multimedia/web-based training modules (known as data casting)
without being constrained by bandwidth, as is common with a terrestrial network. This
capability allows the data to bypass the WAN by transmitting directly to the user’s endpoint and then distributed locally via the LAN, thereby effectively bypassing the
terrestrial infrastructure and the Internet. Satellite e-learning is also referred to as
BTV/IP (Business Television/Internet Protocol).
Synchronous Instructional Media
Technology
Delivery
Video
Teleconferencing (VTC)
Description
VTC systems are two-way communication systems that offer both audio and video
from local and remote sites and provide for synchronous interaction between the
instructor and remote students at multiple locations. It allows for the instructor to
observe the students at the far end (remote location), allowing the student to
demonstrate an event. These systems can be terrestrial, satellite-based, or microwavebased Instructional TV Fixed Service (ITFS). Generally VTCs transmit and receive
between 384Kbps – 1.5Mbps, with the next generation coders/decoders (codecs) IP
enabled.
When evaluating media components, wikis, blogs, and discussion boards are
primarily collaborative tools and not considered stand-alone instructional media
delivery options. However, they can be integrated into a course/learning module
in developing a social learning structure that supports active learning and
knowledge construction through peer-to-peer interaction.
In a research study investigating the interplay of synchronous and asynchronous
communication used in online courses, students seemed more satisfied with face-to-face
courses that used asynchronous discussion boards as alternative communication media
than courses that were entirely asynchronous based. Significant data were found to indicate
the effect of synchronous media in a mostly asynchronous discussion forum. The ability of
synchronous media to foster social presence is not shown or disproved by the research
Source: A Field Study of Use of Synchronous Chat in Online Courses (2002), Retrieved from: http://www.hicss.hawaii.edu/HICSS36/HICSSpapers/CLTSL03.pdf
Back to Taxonomy
Asynchronous Instructional Media
Technology
Delivery
Description
Asynchronous Web-Based
Instruction (WBI)
On-demand, online-based instruction stored on a server and accessed across a
distributed electronic network. It can be delivered over the Internet or private local area
network (LANs) or Wide Area Networks (WANs) where the content is displayed utilizing
a web browser. Student access is asynchronous, self-paced, and does not provide for
synchronous interaction between the instructor and the remote student. Highresolution images and video may be limited due to available bandwidth.
Computer Based
Instruction (CBI)
Interactive instructional experience between a computer and the learner where the
computer provides the majority of the stimulus and the student responds. The
computer is the storage and delivery device with all content resident on the student’s
computer. It provides the primary display and storage capability and can support highresolution images and video.
Correspondence (print)
Entirely print-based, asynchronous and self-paced. Can be augmented through the
use of multimedia CD-ROM. Instructor feedback can be facilitated through the use of
e-mail. Used extensively to support other media
Recorded Audio (Tape and
digital broadcast)
Recorded audio content—on tape or transmitted electronically—which can be used as
a stand-alone delivery tool or part of a blended learning approach. Can be used as the
sole means of content or as part of a blended approach.
Recorded Video (Tape and
digital broadcast)
A method of capturing learning content on tape or as a digital file for viewing ondemand. Can be used as the sole means of content or as part of a blended approach.
Often used to capture a real time event and is an effective distribution medium that
supports high-resolution images and video but does not support a synchronous
interactive environment between the instructor and the remote student.
Portability
• Refers to how portable (mobile) a specific media may be, e.g., cell
phones, ipods/Blackberry’s, personal DVD players, other similar
wireless devices.
• When evaluating portability, consider symmetry, per se, the amount of
information [digital bits] that flows to/from the sender and receiver in
either direction. For example:
◦ Asymmetrical interaction is when the flow of information is predominantly in
◦
a single direction such as in a didactic lecture or asynchronous learning
module with no interaction between the student and instructor.
Conversely, in a conferencing or collaborative learning environment, the
information flow is symmetrical, per se, the information flow is evenly
distributed between learners and instructors and equal amounts of digital
information is flowing both directions.
• A close relationship exists between symmetry and interactivity. The
more the student-instructor interaction, the greater the need for a
symmetrical delivery system.
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Media Component
Taxonomy
Portability
Symmetrical vs. Asymmetrical
Learning Environments
When articulating a blended learning strategy, considering symmetry of the learning environment
is almost as important as considering its synchronicity. If not taken into account, it may lead the
course designer to make less than optimal choices in instructional media selection.
High




Video Conferencing
Audio Conferencing
Web conferencing
Satellite e-learning
Symmetry
Click on the icon of how Merrill
Lynch use of mobile learning
 Print
 Pre-recorded audio/
video (Tape/DVD)
 ipods/vpods/personal
communication
devices
 CBT/WBT
Low
High
Interactivity
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Media Component
Taxonomy
Portability
Instructional Component:
Variables to Consider
Multimedia
(aural/visual)
Rapidity of
Change
Instructional
Objectives
Content
Complexity
Instructional
Strategies
Learning
Styles
Click for information
on learning styles
When developing a blended learning
solution, maintaining instructional quality is
paramount. Consequently, learning
objectives are never compromised when
developing a blended learning solution.
Interactivity
(strategies supporting
specific media)
Asynchronous
Collaboration
(P2P)
Collaboration
(P2P)
Didactic#
#
Dialectic*
Instructor-student
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Instructional strategies are the products of
learning objectives and serve to ensure
the learning objectives and facilitate the
transfer of learning.
Synchronous
Instructional Component
* Instructor-student-instructor
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Note on Learning Objectives
The most significant factors in student learning are quality and
effectiveness of instruction, and the most important single factor
in developing a blended learning solution is the instructional
objective. The level of cognitive objectives is a critical variable to
consider when selecting the most appropriate media for blended
learning, and generally speaking:
• Asynchronous media may be more appropriate for the lower
cognitive levels where knowledge and comprehension and
repetition/drill & practice are the primary focus, and
• Synchronous media may be more appropriate for the higher
cognitive levels (synthesis/analysis/evaluation) where a
synchronous learning environment is required to support a high
level of interaction (dialog).
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Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
What is a Learning Objective?
• A learning objective (aka behavioral objective, instructional
objective, enabling objective, or performance objective) is a
succinct statement that describes a specific learning activity
o Includes a description of a performance you want learners to be
able to exhibit in order to evaluate competency
o Expressed in terms of the student and formulated in terms of
observable behavior and the special conditions in which the
behavior is manifested.
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Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Why Developing Learning Objectives?
• The purpose of creating learning objectives is to provide
a means of clarifying the instructional goal and ensure
the training/education is successful.
• Establishes the criteria for student performance used to
assess learning
• Used to develop instructional strategies
• Basis for media selection
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Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Types of Objectives
Instructional objectives are developed from a taxonomy
known as the domain of learning objectives and includes
three overlapping domains:
• Psychomotor
• Affective
• Cognitive
− Demonstrated by knowledge recall and the intellectual
skills: comprehending information, organizing ideas,
analyzing and synthesizing data, applying knowledge,
choosing among alternatives in problem solving, and
evaluating ideas or actions
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Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives
A metaphor depicting the taxonomy of
learning objectives can be thought as
assembling blocks in building a pyramid.
The knowledge and comprehension
levels create the foundation from which
one develops higher order thinking skills
commensurate with the higher cognitive
levels (analysis, synthesis,& evaluation).
Doing
Higher
Knowing
Lower
Knowledge
The first level of learning is knowledge. Knowledge can be characterized as awareness of specifics and of the ways and
means of dealing with specifics. The knowledge level focuses on memory or recall where the learner recognizes
information, ideas, principles in the approximate form in which they were learned.
Comprehension
Comprehension is the next level of learning and encompasses understanding. Has the knowledge been internalized or
understood? The student should be able to translate, comprehend, or interpret information based on the knowledge.
Application
Application is the use of knowledge. Can the student use the knowledge in a new situation? It can also be the
application of theory to solve a real world problem. The student selects, transfers, and uses data and principles to
complete a problem or task.
Analysis
Analysis involves taking apart a piece of knowledge, and investigates parts of a concept. It can only occur if the student
has obtained knowledge of and comprehends a concept. The student examines, classifies, hypothesizes, collects data,
and draws conclusions.
Synthesis
Synthesis is the creative act. It’s the taking of knowledge and the creation of something new. It is an inductive
process—one of building rather than one of breaking down. The student originates, integrates, and combines ideas into
something new to him/her.
Evaluation
Evaluation is judgment or decision-making where the student appraises, assesses or criticizes on a basis of specific
standards/criteria.
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Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Instructional Strategies
The dissemination of content through the use of instructional media is
only as effective as the design of the instruction
• Instruction is designed to transfer knowledge from the instructor to
the learner to the real-world environment.
• The transfer of learning is facilitated by the development of
instructional strategies
o Certain synchronous instructional technologies may be best
suited for instructional strategies that require a live and dialectic
learning environment.
o Conversely, there are asynchronous instructional technologies
that are best integrated with strategies that require
asynchronous learning environment.
Click here for an explanation of the difference between
instructional strategies and cognitive learning strategies.
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Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Table of Instructional Strategies
Instructional
Strategies
Description
Narration/Lecture
Allows for transfer of learning through mere declaration and explication of knowledge. When
interaction is available, it allows for reinforcement of behavior, spontaneous questioning,
dialogue, and social interaction with immediate feedback. Note: Lecture is a very efficient
strategy to transfer large amounts of content but has a high cognitive load.
Demonstration
Skill transfer through the depiction of procedural tasks, events, processes, etc.
Role Playing
Involves recreating a situation relating to a real-world problem in which participants act out
various roles. Promotes an understanding of other people’s positions and their attitudes as
well as the procedures that may be used for diagnosing and solving problems. Learners may
assume the role of a particular character, organization, professional occupation, etc.
Guided
Discussion
Supports a synchronous, dialectic learning environment through the spontaneous and freeflowing exchange of information. Encourages active, participatory learning that supports
knowledge transfer through dialogue. Students may discuss material more in-depth, share
insights and experiences, and answer questions.
Simulation
Replicates or mimics a real event and allows for continual observation. A simulation creates a
realistic model of an actual situation or environment.
Illustration
Depicts abstract concepts with evocative, palpable real-world examples.
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Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Table of Instructional Strategies
Instructional
Strategies
Description
Imagery
Imagery is the mental visualization of objects, events, and arrays. It enables
internalized visual images that relate to information to be learned. Imagery helps to
create or recreate an experience in the learner’s mind. Imagery involves all the
senses: visual, kinesthetic, auditory, and tactile.
Modeling
A contrived, simplified version of an object or concept that encapsulates its salient
features.
Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a valid and effective problem-solving method in which criticism is
delayed and imaginative ways of understanding a situation are welcomed, where
quantity is wanted and combination and improvement are sought. Brainstorming
can occur with individuals or in a group setting, and involves generating a vast
number of ideas in order to find an effective method for solving a problem.
Case Studies
A problem-solving strategy similar to simulation that works by presenting a realistic
situation that requires learners to respond and explore possible solutions.
Drill & Practice
Repetition of a task or behavior until the desired learning outcome is achieved.
Allows for transfer of knowledge from working memory to long-term memory.
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Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Instructional Strategies Supporting
Asynchronous Media
Media
Appropriate Instructional Strategy
Asynchronous Web-Based
Instruction (WBI)
- Narration/Description (Lecture)
- Demonstrations
- Simulations
- Illustrations
- Drill and Practice
Computer Based Instruction (CBI)
- Narration/Description
- Case Studies
- Role Playing
- Demonstration
Correspondence (print)
- Narration/Description
- Drill and Practice
- Case Studies
- Narration
Recorded Audio
(Tape and digital broadcast/RSS)
- Narration/Description (Lecture)
Recorded Video
(Tape and digital broadcast)
- Narration/Description (Lecture)
- Case Studies
- Illustrations
Back to Main Page
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
- Tutorials
- Case Studies
- Modeling
- Role Playing
- Illustrations
- Simulation
- Drill and Practice
- Tutorials
Instructional Strategies
Instructional Strategies Supporting
Synchronous Media
Media
Appropriate Instructional Strategy
Audio
Conferencing
- Narration/Description (Lecture)
- Guided Discussion
- Brainstorming
Audiographics
- Narration/Description (Lecture)
- Guided Discussion
- Brainstorming
- Illustrations
Synchronous Web-Based
Instruction (WBI)/Web
Conferencing
- Narration/Description (Lecture)
- Discussion
- Simulation
- Case Studies
- Demonstration
- Illustrations
Video
Teleconferencing (VTC)
- Narration/Description (Lecture)
- Guided Discussion
- Brainstorming
- Case Studies
- Role Playing
- Panel Discussion
- Simulation
- Demonstration
- Drill and Practice
Instructional Television (ITV)/
Satellite e-learning
- Narration/Description (Lecture
- Guided Discussion
- Brainstorming
- Case Studies
- Role Playing
- Panel Discussion
- Simulation
- Demonstration
- Drill and Practice
Back to Main Page
Instructional Component
Instructional Objectives
Instructional Strategies
Summarizing: The Media Component
While media does not affect the content, it can affect
how you design the content for a specific medium
Variables to consider:
• Media richness (motion handling, visual clarity/pixel
resolution)
• Dispersion of workforce/distribution of content
• Ability to update content quickly
• Technological infrastructure
• Capital & recurring costs
• Bandwidth
• Hardware end points
• Portability
• Simplex (one-way) data vis-a-vis
duplex (2-way data)
 Click here for more on distance learning environments
 Click here for e-learning 2.0 technologies & definitions
 Click here for an introduction to Media Synchronicity Theory
Learning
Environment
Component
Instructional
Component
Media
Component
Symmetry
Asymmetrical
Media
Synchronicity
Asynchronous
Instructional
Media
Symmetrical
Media
Portability
Synchronous
Instructional
Media
Summarizing: The Learning
Environment Component
Synchronicity: Is the learning
environment primarily synchronous or
asynchronous or a combination of both?
Variables to consider:
• Time & space
• Live interaction
• Collaboration
• Pacing
• Flexibility in content delivery
• Timeliness of completion
• Reinforcement of ideas
(immediate vs. delayed)
• Reflection of ideas
Asynchronous
Distance
Learning
Traditional
Classroom
Synchronous
Learning
Environment
Component
Instructional
Component
Media
Component
Summarizing: The Instructional Component
Learning
Environment
Component
Instructional
Component
Instructional
Strategies
Instructional
Objectives
Content
Media
Component
Complexity
Multimedia
(aural/visual)
Interactivity
Asynchronous
Collaboration
(P2P)
Didactic
Synchronous
Collaboration
(P2P)
Dialectic
Rapidity
of
Change
Asynchronous media may be more
appropriate for the lower cognitive levels
whereas synchronous media may be more
appropriate for the higher cognitive levels.
Variables to consider:
• Level of interactivity
• Spontaneity
• Collaboration
• Peer-to-peer
• Instructor-student (didactic)
• Instructor-student-instructor (dialectic)
• Cognitive load
• Reinforcement of ideas/thoughts
(immediate/delayed)
• Rapidity of content change
• Complexity of content
• Level of cognitive objectives (click here for
a brief over of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Cognitive Objectives)
• What about learning styles (click here)?
Synchronous Instructional Media
Mapped to Instructional Strategies
Instructional TV/Satellite e-Learning
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Narration (Lecture)
Guided Discussion/Panel Discussion
Idea Generation (Brainstorming)
Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling
Demonstration
Case Studies
Simulations
Web Conferencing
• Narration (Lecture)
• Guided Discussion/Panel
Discussion
• Idea Generation (Brainstorming)
• Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling
• Case Studies
• Simulations
Video Teleconferencing
• Narration (Lecture)
• Guided Discussion/Panel Discussion/
Group Discussion
• Idea Generation (Brainstorming)
• Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling
• Demonstration
• Case Studies
• Simulations
• Role Playing
Audio Conferencing
• Narration (Lecture)
• Guided Discussion/Panel
Discussion
• Idea Generation (Brainstorming)
• Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling
Audio Graphics
• Narration (Lecture)
• Guided Discussion/Panel
Discussion
• Idea Generation
(Brainstorming)
Asynchronous Instructional Media
Mapped to Instructional Strategies
Pre-recorded video
(CD/DVD, vodcast, tape)
Webinars
• Narration (Lecture)
• Guided Discussion/
Panel Discussion
• Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling
• Demonstration
• Simulations
• Role Playing
•
•
•
•
•
•
Narration (Lecture)
Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling
Demonstration
Case Studies
Simulations
Drill & Practice
Correspondence
• Narration (Lecture)
• Case Studies
• Drill & Practice
Computer-based Instruction
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Narration (Lecture)
Illustrations/Imagery/Modeling
Demonstration
Case Studies
Simulations
Role Playing
Drill & Practice
Pre-recorded audio
(podcast, cassette, CD)
• Narration (Lecture)
Portability: An IBM Workforce Mobility Perspective*
Blended learning allows
companies to mix scheduled
and unscheduled training
modules and structured and
unstructured learning
experiences, as well as provide
self-paced material to keep
today’s learners engaged.
Return to previous page
* Source: On demand learning: blended learning for today’s evolving workforce, IBM Learning Solutions, September 2005, Available at:
http://www-935.ibm.com/services/us/imc/pdf/gw510-6396-on-demand-learning.pdf
Mobile Learning: Merrill Lynch Compliance
Training Delivered via BlackBerry’s*
Background. With a population of 60,000 employees, Merrill Lynch has more
than 21,000 BlackBerry devices in use globally, with 500 new devices being
added monthly. One of the primary advantages of using BlackBerries to delivery
m-learning is that the devices are integrated within the corporate network.
Goals. Enable learning outside the office during naturally occurring downtime;
leverage existing BlackBerry usage habits; allow employees to complete
learning in small bursts, regardless of time and place with no need for network
coverage.
Results. Offered 3 compliance training courses via BlackBerry for a 2 month
period and achieved:
• Increase of 1.21% in average competency score to the control groups
• Attained a 12% higher completion rate at the 45-day milestone
• Attained an average of 45% less time in training, with some completing the
training in <80% with no loss of comprehension
* Source: Chief Learning Officer magazine, Merrill Lynch: Bullish on Mobile Learning, April, 2008.
Return to previous page
What Might Go in the Blend*
Return to previous page
* Source: Allison Rossett and Rebecca Vaughan Frazee, Blended Learning Opportunities, American Management Association Special Report, 2006
Delivery Media Mapped to the
Distance Learning Environment
Distance Learning Classroom
Since media are vehicles that simply deliver their
contents, the selection of the most appropriate
media is not based solely on the attributes of the
media, but the potential impact it may have on the
design of the instructional components and
corresponding physical learning environment.
For example, the group centric distance learning
classroom is best supported by media that can
provide for a dialectic and collaborative
environment, but is limited by time and place,
whereas portable media best supports the
individual learner anytime/anyplace but with
limited peer support and interaction.
• group centric (classroom environment)
• primarily synchronous
• dialectic & collaborative
• constrained by time & place
Supporting Media
• Satellite e-learning
• Video Conferencing
• Audio Conferencing
• Audio Graphics
Virtual Classroom
• individual centric (office environment)
• synchronous & asynchronous capability
• mostly didactic but can support interaction
• constrained by time not place
Supporting Media
• Web conferencing tools
Virtual Learner
Return to previous page
• Individual centric (portable to any location)
• primarily asynchronous
• primarily didactic with little/no interaction
• not constrained by time & place
Supporting Media
• Mobile devices
Delivery Media Mapped to the
Distance Learning Environment
Distance Learning Classroom
In a group centric distance learning
classroom, the most appropriate media
are those that can provide for a dialectic
and collaborative environment but maybe
constrained by time and place. However,
portable media best supports the
individual learner anytime/anyplace but
with limited peer support and interaction.
• group centric (classroom environment)
• primarily synchronous
• dialectic & collaborative
• constrained by time & place
Supporting Media
• Satellite e-learning
• Video Conferencing
• Audio Conferencing
• Audio Graphics
Virtual Classroom
• individual centric (office environment)
• synchronous & asynchronous capability
• mostly didactic but can support interaction
• constrained by time not place
Supporting Media
• Web conferencing tools
Virtual Learner
Return to previous page
• Individual centric (portable to any location)
• primarily asynchronous
• primarily didactic with little/no interaction
• not constrained by time & place
Supporting Media
• Mobile devices
Teaching with Instructional Television (ITV)-Did you Know…
There is a tendency to regard the future of distance learning as belonging
solely to online or web classes. However, some researchers have found
that courses offered in ITV were sometimes preferred by students even
when the same course was offered online. Also, the visual and interactive
nature of instructional television benefited students and that student
satisfaction with ITV has been generally confirmed.
Teaching with ITV (Jan, 2008). International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning: http://www.itdl.org/Journal/Jan_08/index.htm
Return to previous page
Media Synchronicity Theory*
Media synchronicity theory is primarily focused on groups and proposes that a set of
media capabilities are important to group work, and that all tasks are composed of two
fundamental communication processes (conveyance and convergence).
Communication effectiveness is influenced by matching the media capabilities to the
needs of the fundamental communication processes, not aggregate collections of
these processes (i.e., tasks) as proposed by media richness theory. The theory
postulates it is possible for one medium to possess different levels of a communication
capability depending upon how it is configured and used. Media possess many
capabilities, each of which may be more or less important in a given situation. The
"richest" medium is that which best provides the set of capabilities needed by the
situation: the individuals, task, and social context within which they interact (Note:
richness applies to the message/content, not the richness of the visual media). Thus,
concluding that face-to-face communication is the "richest" media is inappropriate.
“Communication effectiveness is influenced by matching the media capabilities to the needs of the
fundamental communication processes, not aggregate collections of these processes as tested in
examinations of media richness theory.”
* Source: Alan R. Dennis, Alan R., Valacich, Joseph S., (1999), Rethinking Media Richness: Towards a Theory of Media Synchronicity, Retrieved
from: http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/1999/0001/01/00011017.PDF
Return to Summarizing
the Media Component
Media Synchronicity Theory: Dimensions of Task Functions,
Communication Processes, and Media Characteristics
“Communication effectiveness is influenced by matching the media capabilities to the needs of the
fundamental communication processes, not aggregate collections of these processes as tested in
examinations of media richness theory.” *
Source: Alan R. Dennis, Alan R., Valacich, Joseph S., (1999), Rethinking Media Richness: Towards a Theory of Media Synchronicity,
Return to Summarizing
the Media Component
e-Learning 2.0 Technologies
•
•
•
•
•
Wikis
Blogs
Podcasts
Vodcasts
Immersive learning environments, e.g., multi-user virtual environments
(MUVEs)
Note: Wikis & blogs are primarily collaborative tools and not instructional
media used to deliver content
Definitions*
Web 2.0: The stage of the WWW where the Internet has become a platform
for users to create, upload, and share content with others, versus simply
downloading and consuming content.”
e-Learning 2.0: “The idea of learning through digital connections and peer
collaboration enhanced by technologies driving Web 2.0. Users/learners are
empowered to search, create, and collaborate in order to fulfill intrinsic
needs to learn new information.”
*Source: e-Learning Guild Research Report on e-Learning 2.0—Learning in a Web 2.0 World, Sep 2008
Return to
previous page
Virtual worlds are online, computer-generated simulations of simulated
environments where users guide their "avatar," or digital representation
of their physical selves, to accomplish various goals. Typical virtual
world activities include meeting and socializing with other avatars,
buying and selling virtual items, playing games, etc. Virtual worlds
combine both synchronous capabilities (audio, text chat, whiteboards),
as well as asynchronous capabilities (static text, embedded learning
modules, learning objects, etc.). Within the context of the evolution of
the Internet from Web 1.0 to Web 3.0, Virtual worlds--especially the 3D
kinds--are classified under the Web 3.0 category because of their
profound ability to integrate multiple types of content, information
sources, and feeds into one highly engaging and interactive format.
Return to previous page
For information on virtual worlds used in the Federal Government: Federal Consortium on Virtual Worlds. Hosted by National
Defense University (NDU), Information Resources Management College (IRMC): http://www.ndu.edu/IRMC/fedconsortium.html
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives
Doing
A metaphor depicting the taxonomy of learning objectives can be
thought as assembling blocks in building a pyramid. The
knowledge and comprehension levels create the foundation from
which one develops higher order thinking skills commensurate
with the higher cognitive levels (analysis, synthesis,& evaluation).
Knowing
Knowledge
The first level of learning is knowledge. Knowledge can be characterized as awareness of specifics and of the ways and means of
dealing with specifics. The knowledge level focuses on memory or recall where the learner recognizes information, ideas, principles
in the approximate form in which they were learned.
Comprehension
Comprehension is the next level of learning and encompasses understanding. Has the knowledge been internalized or
understood? The student should be able to translate, comprehend, or interpret information based on the knowledge.
Application
Application is the use of knowledge. Can the student use the knowledge in a new situation? It can also be the application of theory
to solve a real world problem. The student selects, transfers, and uses data and principles to complete a problem or task.
Analysis
Analysis involves taking apart a piece of knowledge, and investigates parts of a concept. It can only occur if the student has
obtained knowledge of and comprehends a concept. The student examines, classifies, hypothesizes, collects data, and draws
conclusions.
Synthesis
Synthesis is the creative act. It’s the taking of knowledge and the creation of something new. It is an inductive process—one of
building rather than one of breaking down. The student originates, integrates, and combines ideas into something new to him/her.
Evaluation
Evaluation is judgment or decision-making where the student appraises, assesses or criticizes on a basis of specific
standards/criteria.
Continuum of Cognitive Domain Objectives
Lower
Higher
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Return to prior page
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Cognitive
Objectives Mapped to Instructional Media*
Learning
Environment
Synchronous
Instructional Media
Web Conferencing
Audiographics
Satellite e-Learning
Audio/video teleconferencing
Bloom’s Revised
Taxonomy
Creating
Complex
(Evaluation)
Evaluating
(Synthesis)
Analyzing
(Analysis)
Asynchronous
Web-based Training (WBT)
CBT
Instructional TV (ITV)
Pre-recorded audio/video (CDs/DVDs,
video/audio tapes/iPods)
Correspondence
Applying
(Application)
Understanding
(Comprehension)
Remembering
(Knowledge)
* Adapted from John Lasseter’s media selection table
Return to prior page
Simple
What are Learning Styles/Cognitive Styles?
• Cognitive style is viewed as a bipolar dimension representing a person's typical or
habitual mode of problem solving, thinking, perceiving and remembering; considered
stable over time, and related to theoretical or academic research.
• Learning style entails many elements, are related to practical applications, and usually not
“either-or” extremes. Learning styles are characterized by how information is preferentially
perceived (sensory or intuitive), organized (inductive or deductive), and processed (active
or reflective), and modality is preference (visual, aural, or kinesthetic).
• What cognitive science has revealed is learners differ in their abilities with different
modalities, but teaching to a learner’s best modality doesn't affect his/her educational
achievement. What does matter is whether the learner is taught in the content's best
modality. All students learn more when content drives the choice of modality.
• Learning styles vis-à-vis learning modalities: Learning/cognitive styles are habitual ways
of processing information to memory, per se, they are ways one senses, thinks, solves
problems, and remembers information. On the other hand, learning, or perceptual
modalities, are sensory based and refer to the primary way our bodies take in information
though our senses: visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), kinesthetic (moving), and tactile
(touching). Note: Since neuroscience has revealed 90% of what the brain processes is
visual information, one’s primary learning modality is visual.
Return to
Sharp, J. G., Byrne, J., & Bowker, R. (2008). The trouble with VAK. Educational Futures Vol.1(1) August 2008. Retrieved from
http://www.educationstudies.org.uk/materials/sharp_et_al_2.pdf
Prior Page
Different Learning/Cognitive Styles & Impact
• Research has identified over 71 different types of learning styles
categorized into 13 major learning styles models .
• The majority of research does not support a significant statistical
relationship between learning/cognitive styles and learning outcomes,
and postulates learning/cognitive styles have <5% affect on the variability
in learning (Note: Prior knowledge and motivation account for ~70% of the
variability in learning).
Source: Willingham, Daniel. Do Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Learners Need Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Instruction? American Educator, Summer
2005. Available at: http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/american_educator/issues/summer2005/cogsci.htm
• Low validity and reliability scores of the instruments used to identify
specific learning styles raise serious doubts about their psychometric
properties.
•Sources: Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. The Learning and Skills Research Centre, Learning and Skills
Council, Department for Education and Skills, UK (2004). Available at http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1543.pdf;
•Cognitive Styles and Distance Education, Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, Volume II, Number III, Fall1999. Available at:
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/liu23.html
Return to
Prior Page
What are Learning Styles/Cognitive Styles?
• Cognitive style is viewed as a bipolar dimension representing a person's typical or
habitual mode of problem solving, thinking, perceiving and remembering; considered
stable over time, and related to theoretical or academic research.
• Learning style entails many elements, are related to practical applications, and usually not
“either-or” extremes. Learning styles are characterized by how information is preferentially
perceived (sensory or intuitive), organized (inductive or deductive), and processed (active
or reflective), and modality is preference (visual, aural, or kinesthetic).
• What cognitive science has revealed is learners differ in their abilities with different
modalities, but teaching to a learner’s best modality doesn't affect his/her educational
achievement. What does matter is whether the learner is taught in the content's best
modality. All students learn more when content drives the choice of modality.
• Learning styles vis-à-vis learning modalities: Learning/cognitive styles are habitual ways
of processing information to memory, per se, they are ways one senses, thinks, solves
problems, and remembers information. On the other hand, learning, or perceptual
modalities, are sensory based and refer to the primary way our bodies take in information
though our senses: visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), kinesthetic (moving), and tactile
(touching). Note: Since neuroscience has revealed 90% of what the brain processes is
visual information, one’s primary learning modality is visual.
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Sharp, J. G., Byrne, J., & Bowker, R. (2008). The trouble with VAK. Educational Futures Vol.1(1) August 2008. Retrieved from
http://www.educationstudies.org.uk/materials/sharp_et_al_2.pdf
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Different Learning/Cognitive Styles & Impact
• Research has identified over 71 different types of learning styles
categorized into 13 major learning styles models .
• The majority of research does not support a significant statistical
relationship between learning/cognitive styles and learning outcomes,
and postulates learning/cognitive styles have <5% affect on the variability
in learning (Note: Prior knowledge and motivation account for ~70% of the
variability in learning).
Source: Willingham, Daniel. Do Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Learners Need Visual, Auditory, and Kinesthetic Instruction? American Educator, Summer
2005. Available at: http://www.aft.org/pubs-reports/american_educator/issues/summer2005/cogsci.htm
• Low validity and reliability scores of the instruments used to identify
specific learning styles raise serious doubts about their psychometric
properties.
•Sources: Learning styles and pedagogy in post-16 learning: A systematic and critical review. The Learning and Skills Research Centre, Learning and Skills
Council, Department for Education and Skills, UK (2004). Available at http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1543.pdf;
•Cognitive Styles and Distance Education, Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, Volume II, Number III, Fall1999. Available at:
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/liu23.html
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Difference Between Instructional Strategies
and Cognitive Learning Strategies
Instructional strategies
• focus on the delivery of knowledge, while cognitive strategies focus on how the
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learner processes the knowledge;
are developed in support of the instructional goal and specific learning
(instructional) objectives;
is a product that can be used to develop instructional materials, student/group
exercises/activities, and media selection.
Cognitive learning strategies
• are methods used to help learners link new information to prior knowledge in
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facilitating the transfer of learning and focuses on how the learner processes the
knowledge;
are mental strategies which occur in the minds of people and employed by the
instructional designer to facilitate the activation and retention of prior knowledge;
can be represented based on the information presented, and are used as tools to
construct knowledge in new concepts.
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