DRA - 1
CHAPTER 4: DIAGNOSTIC READING ASSESSMENTS
Sunday, 7.27.2014 –11:26 a.m.
A pig doesn’t get any heavier by weighing it. A house doesn’t get any warmer by adding
thermostats.
As the farmer once said, “The pig don’t get any heavier by weighing it.” Meaning that,
in education in general, and special education in particular, there tends to be too much emphasis
on assessment and not enough emphasis on teaching.
*[Andy note, 7.27.14 -- I’d like to create a DRA with graded word lists and leveled reading
passages on a website for use with this chapter.-7.26.2014-]
DIAGNOSING THE PROBLEM
Here’s the problem: You’ve got a student named Billy who is struggling to learn to read.
You look at his IEP and it tells you that Billy can’t read. On his IEP you see bunch of numbers
from standardized tests. These numbers show you how much Billy can’t read in comparison to
everybody else. Percentages and percentile rankings are used to describe Billy in terms of his
distance from average. But then what? Billy still can’t read. You still don’t know why Billy
can’t read and you don’t know what specifically you should do about it. Percentile rankings and
standardized test scores won’t give you this type of information.
Limitations of Standardized Tests
There’s nothing inherently wrong with standardized tests. They are one of many types of
tools that can be useful in helping struggling readers; however, with any tool, you must
recognize the limitations. For reading, most standardized tests are insufficient for (a) diagnosing
the possible cause of a reading disability, (b) identifying student strengths as well as specific
areas for remediation, and (c) informing your planning and instruction. To do this, you need
another type of tool. I recommend some form of a Diagnostic Reading Assessment (DRA).
Diagnostic Reading Assessments
A common term for Diagnostic Reading Assessments (DRA) is an Informal Reading
Inventory (IRI). However, the term, ‘Informal Reading Assessment’ may imply to some that it is
haphazard or that it is somehow less valuable than other “formal” types of measures. In the
hands of a knowledgeable teacher, a DRA provides valuable data than cannot be obtained on
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standardized tests. Thus, I prefer the term, Diagnostic Reading Assessment. With the DRA, the
examiner is not simply following a formula and list of sequential steps. Instead, the knowledge
and experience of the examiner becomes an integral part of the assessment (cite).
Figure 4.1 contains a list of common commercially-prepared DRA’s. The information in
this chapter will enable you to use any of these. I will also show you how to design and
implement your own DRA’s.
Figure 4.1. Common Diagnostic Reading Assessments
• Qualitative Reading Inventory, 5th edition, (Leslie and Caldwell)
• Reading Inventory for the Classrooms,5th edition, (Flynt and Cooter)
• Classroom Reading Inventory, 12th edition, (Silvaroli and Wheelock)
• Basic Reading Inventory, 10th edition, (Johns)
• Analytical Reading Inventory, 9th edition, (Woods and Moe)
• Ekwall/Shanker Reading Inventory, 6th edition, (Shanker and Ekwall)
• Informal Reading Inventory, 8th edition, (Roe and Burns)
The DRA is used to determine students’ approximate independent and instructional
reading levels (see Figure 4.2), as well as their strengths and deficit areas related to word
identification, fluency, and/or comprehension. The basic elements include (a) graded word lists,
(b) graded reading passages, and (c) comprehension questions or a maze. Each of these is
described below.
Figure 4.2. Independent, instructional, and frustration levels.
• Independent level. At this level students can read unassisted. They are generally able to
identify 98% or more of the words. Comprehension scores are 90% or higher. When students
read independently for pleasure, you want them to be reading at this level or BELOW.
• Instructional level. At this level students can read with some assistance. They are generally
able to identify 90-97% of these words. Comprehension scores are between 75% and 89%.
This is the level of reading material that should be used for reading instruction. Here you will
need to provide some assistance such as a story map, vocabulary help, scaffolded oral
reading, or a story preview.
• Frustration level. At this level students cannot be successful even with a lot of the teacher’s
help. They are able to identify 89% or less of these words. Comprehension scores are less
than 75%. Avoid any type of reading at this level. Challenging students with frustration level
material will NOT help them progress faster. Reading at this level results only in frustrated
students who learn that they can’t learn to read and that they don’t like reading.
GRADED WORD LISTS
Graded word lists provide a very general estimation of students’ reading grade level.
These are used to inform the next part of the DRA. An example of graded word lists can be
found in Figure 4.3. As well, graded word lists are included in Appendix A.
Figure 4.3. Graded word lists for Primer through Grade 4.
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Primer
1. was
2. could
3. children
4. know
5. what
6. saw
7. around
8. mother
9. now
10. old
11. fly
12. very
13. have
14. into
15. yellow
16. tree
17. what
18. about
19. went
20. cake
21. all
22. way
23. hold
24. your
25. over
First Grade
1. please
2. flower
3. snowman
4. brown
5. children
6. father
7. drop
8. birthday
9. men
10. kind
11. story
12. cry
13. tell
14. street
15. buy
16. why
17. rabbit
18. ball
19. walk
20. paint
21. behind
22. give
23. her
24. again
25. laugh
Second Grade
1. beautiful
2. everyone
3. should
4. write
5. sorry
6. people
7. instead
8. breakfast
9. cupcake
10. eyes
11. love
12. reach
13. people
14. save
15. strong
16. carry
17. first
18. together
19. friend
20. present*
21. write
22. hurt
23. fall
24. until
25. does
Third Grade
1. magic
2. beginning
3. thankful
4. crawl
5. museum
6. reason
7. bush
8. planet
9. discover
10. enough
11. precious
12. fright
13. honor
14. several
15. unusual
16. hour
17. escape
18. wiggle
19. soup
20. enemy
21. either
22. remember
23. matter
24. inventor
25. diamond
Independent
Instructional
Frustration
25, 24, 23
22, 21, 20, 19
18 or less
Fourth Grade
1. predict
2. knowledge
3. canoe
4. vicious
5. decorate
6. windshield
7. parachute
8. official
9. dignity
10. island
11. dozen
12. exercise
13. bound
14. machine
15. experience
16. motion
17. coward
18. servants
19. legend
20. force
21. nephew
22. barrel
23. weather
24. ghost
25. weight
These are the steps for using graded word lists:
1. Record each session with an audio recorder. Start by having students say their name,
age, and grade level. This will enable you to identify the correct recording when you go back to
analyze it.
2. Start below students’ estimated reading grade level.
3. Ask the student to read the word list out loud. Have a duplicate list in front of you to
keep track of the words correctly identified. Put a ‘+’ next to words correctly identified and a ‘0’
next to those words that are not correctly identified. [sample?]
4. After completing the list check the number of errors. Keep moving up until you reach
the student’s instructional level. The number of words correctly identified for each level is
shown in Figure 4.3.
5. Based on the information from these word lists, select a graded reading passage that is
at the student’s independent reading level for the graded reading passage. This is the next part of
the DRA.
6. When you have completed the other parts of the DRA, go back and analyze the audio
recording of these graded word lists. Start by analyzing the misidentified words. Write down
exactly what the student said next to the target word. Then record your observations in regards
to how the student identified the word. How did he or she say the word? Did the student
recognize the word instantly? Did the student sound out each letter? Did the student recognize
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word parts? Did the student quickly guess? Did the student self-correct? Were there patterns of
words miscued? Record your observations directly on the word list. Your observations and
analysis provide valuable information for your diagnostic assessment.
GRADED READING PASSAGES
Graded reading passages are texts that have been normed for a particular grade level.
This means that the average student at a particular grade level could read the passage
independently. For example, RL3 (reading level 3) means that 50% or more of all third grade
students could read that passage at the independent level. Sometimes graded readers are broken
down further by month. RL 3.2 means reading level, 3rd grade, 2nd month.
The commercially prepared DRAs listed in Figure 4.1 have graded reading passages
included. However, you can prepare your own DRA by using basal readers that have been
normed for a particular level or children’s books. On the back of most children’s books you will
see RL followed by a number. This indicates the approximate reading grade level.
These are the steps for using the graded reading passages:
1. Just like the words lists, record each session with an audio recorder. Start recording at
the beginning of each graded passage. Record each section of the DRA individually because you
will often need to listen to individual passages or word lists more than once. Recording each
element separately enables you to move quickly back and forth between elements.
2. Give students a copy of a graded passage that is at their independent reading level
based on the graded word lists above. Provide the title of the passage and then ask them to read
it out loud. Tell them also that they may know some words but not others. Provide help or hints
only when absolutely necessary. Give students plenty of space to self-correct words and
sentences but use your teacher sense to avoid frustrating them. Remember, the purpose here is to
collect data. Frustrating students will affect the quantity and quality of the data you get.
3. Have copy of what students are reading in front of you. As they read, put a line
through the miscued words. A miscue is when what the student says does not match what is on
the page (see Figure 4.7). Also, make quick notes of some of your initial impressions in the
margins as the student is reading. Focus on things such as facial expression, body language,
general confidence, and word identification strategies used. Note anything that stands out here.
This is all important data that will help you understand each reader. But do not try to write too
much here. You will be going back later to listen to the audio recording in order to engage in a
more thorough and precise analysis.
4. Most commercially prepared DRAs have five or six comprehension questions
followed by a scoring guide (Figure 4.4). After reading the passage orally ask these questions
and record students’ responses. Note that the comprehension part of the DRA is optional. If you
are creating your own DRA and you want to assess comprehension, use a story re-telling rubric
(see Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.4. Example of a scoring guided for comprehension questions.
COMPREHENSION
# correct
Level
DRA - 5
5½ to 6
4½ to 5
4 or less
Independent
Instructional
Frustration
5. If students are able to identify 98% of the words or more (independent reading level),
move up to the next reading level passage. Commercially prepared DRAs will indicate exactly
what this numbers is. If you are using your own graded reading passage, count the number of
words and figure out percentages before administering the DRA. Stop when students reach their
instructional level (90% to 97% of words correctly identified). We can assume that anything
above students’ instructional level is their frustration level. For example, if 2nd grade reading
passage is at a student’s instructional level, we can assume that 3rd grade reading passages will
be at his or her frustration level.
There may be differences in word identification and comprehension levels. For example,
when reading a passage at the 2nd grade level Pat might correctly identify 98% of the words
(independent level), yet score only 75% on comprehension measures (instructional level). This
tells us that comprehension may be an area to focus on.
Qualitative Data Analysis
It usually works best to do the initial qualitative data analysis as soon as you have
finished working with the student. In this way, the experience will be fresh in your memory. In
the qualitative data analysis you are focusing on observed behaviors related to fluency and word
identification as well as students’ general demeanor and your over-all impressions. These are the
steps:
1. Before listening to your audio recordings, do a quick analysis. Write directly on the
copy of the graded reading passage you used above. Was the student able to read the passage
fairly easily and create meaning? Or did the student struggle? What type of reading behaviors
did you notice? What was your impression of that student’s attempt to create meaning with
print? Describe any interesting or important analyses, descriptions, or observations.
2. Analyze the word identification strategies used while reading. The questions in Figure
4.5 can be used to inform your analysis.
Figure 4.5. Listening for word identification strategies
1. What does the student do to identify words?
2. Does the student use context clues?
3. Does the student recognize word parts?
4. Does the student use onsets to identify unknown
words?
5. Does the student over-use phonics?
6. Does the student self-correct?
7. Are the miscues schema-related?
8. What types of miscues does the student make?
9. Does the student recognize and use morphemes
(prefixes, suffixes, and roots)?
10. Does the student correctly identify the onset or
beginnings of miscues words?
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3. Analyze students reading fluency. The questions in Figure 4.6 can be used to inform
your analysis.
Figure 4.6. Listening for reading fluency
1. Is the reading choppy, word-by-word?
2. Is the reading choppy, letter-by-letter?
3. Does the student pause at the ends of sentences?
(prosody)
4. Is the inflection appropriate to the sentence or
passage?
5. Does the student pause to check for understanding
(metacognition)?
Miscue Analysis
Now you are ready to conduct the miscue analysis portion of the DRA. A reading
miscue is anytime there is a difference between what is on the page and what students say. We
do not use the word ‘error’ because reading miscues often represent mature reading behavior.
Four types of miscues and their meanings are described in Figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7. Hierarchy of miscues.
Types of Miscues
• Meaningful miscue - sentences still retains the original meaning
• Schema-related miscue - similar concept, sentence meaning not retained
• Significant miscue - sentence meaning not retained
• Meaningless pronunciation - correctly sounding out words without meaning
There is a hierarchy of miscues, all of which tell you something different about how individual
students are creating meaning with print.
• A meaningful-miscue is one that does not change the fundamental meaning of the sentence. For
example: If the student said, “The dogs run down the road,” instead of “The dogs ran down the road,” this
would not change the meaning of the sentences. I recommend that this be counted as half a miscue.
Write a large ‘M’ with a circle around it to indicate that it was a meaningful miscue.
• A second type of miscue that is of interest, but not necessarily something you need to document is
the schema-related miscue. A schema is an organized knowledge structure in long term memory.
Schemata (plural of schema) are essential for understanding the world around us as well as learning and
comprehending. If a miscue fundamentally changes the meaning of the sentence but is still very much
related to the passage, write a large ‘S’ above it with a circle around it to indicate that it is schema-related.
It is still counted as a miscue; however, this tells us that the student is engaged in a meaningful reading
behavior: using background knowledge. An example of a schema-related miscue include the following:
In reading a passage about making roads the students said, “The truck made the road smooth” instead of
“The grader made the road smooth.” This is a significant miscue as it changes the meaning of the
sentence. A truck is much different than a grader. However, trucks and graders are both used in the
making of the road.
• A significant miscue is what we most commonly think of as a mistake. Here the miscue changes
the meaning of the sentence or does not make sentence within the sentence, the students skips the word,
or the student needs help with the word. If the sentence was, “The dogs ran down the road”, and
students said, “The dogs rammed down the road,” or “The dogs rode down the road,” these would be a
significant miscues as they fundamentally changed the meaning of the sentence.
• There is a fourth type of miscue that is not technically a miscue and should not be counted as such.
A meaningless pronunciation is when students correctly sound out the word, but it is clear that they
have no understanding of the word. You can tell by their inflection if they understand the word. It is often
DRA - 7
pronounced in the form of a question. “Fossils?” Or, the individual parts of the word may be pronounced
correctly but they are put together in a stilted way or imprecise way. This involves some judgment on
your part; however, the power of the DRA is that it provides a structure for you to use your experience
and teacher insight to understand students as meaning-makers. If you wish to document this, put an ‘MP’
with a circle around it just above the word.
The meaningless pronunciation tells you something about students’ conceptual and word knowledge.
There are three possible reasons for a meaningless pronunciation: (a) students do not have a concept to
match the word in long term memory, (b) students conception of the word does not match the context in
which the word was found, or (c) students were not able to make the link between the word and the
concept. This information can be used to design future lessons for both vocabulary and concept lessons.
[Question: Make this regular text as opposed to a figure?]
Here are the steps for conducting a miscue analysis:
1. Go back and listen to the audio recording of the graded passages. Put a line through
the miscued words and write down exactly what the student said on top of the word (include
example?). If the student made a miscue but went back and corrected it, it is not counted as a
miscue. This is called a self-correction. Self-correcting is a mature reading behavior. This
means that the student is monitoring his or her comprehension (metacognition). On your scoring
sheet write ‘SC’ with a circle around it on top of the word. SC’s are good.
2. Using the DRA Analysis Sheet in Figure 4.8, write the target word in the first column
and what students actually said in the second column. Indicate with a tally mark whether it was
a meaningful miscue in the next columns.
3. Significant miscues count as 1 miscue, meaningful miscues count as half a miscue.
Do not count proper names as a miscue. If students skip an entire line, count this as one miscue.
Add up the total number of miscues.
Figure 4.8. DRA Analysis sheet.
DRA ANALYSIS SHEET
Student:
Date:
target word
Reading level of graded reading passage:
miscue
meaningful
miscue
YES
NO
*Totals
Total miscues:_____
Analysis
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# selfcorrections
fluency
WPM
comprehension
%
ind – instr -- frust
# total
miscues
Miscues
# not
# total
miscued
words
percentage
%
Patterns or types of miscues (Use the back):
* Some reading experts count meaningful miscues as only half a miscue; others do not count them
at all. It does not matter as long as you are consistent; however, I recommend counting them as
half a miscue.
4. Under the ‘Analysis’ section, record the total number of self-corrections. If a story
retelling (below) or comprehension questions were used, record the percentage correctly
answered and indication whether it is at the independent, instructional, or frustration level.
5. Determine the reading rate or average words-per-minute (WPM). To do this, record
the time it took for students to complete the passage. Divide the time (in seconds) by 60. For
example, if you read a passage in 90 seconds, you would dive 90 by 60. 90 ÷ 60 = 1.5 minutes.
Divide this (1.5) by the total number of words. If the total number of words was119, Pat read
119 words in 1.5 minutes. 119 ÷1.5 = 79 WPM.
6. Under the ‘Miscues” section of the DRA Analysis Sheet record the total number of
miscues. Subtract the number of miscued words from the total number of words to get the
number of non-miscued words. To figure out the percentage of words correctly identified divide
the non-miscued words by the total number of words and multiple by 100. Use this percentage
to indicate general reading levels (98% or better = independent; 90%-97% = instructional; 89%
or less = frustration); however, recognize that this only represents word identification (it does not
include comprehension).
8. Review the first two columns of the DRA analysis sheet. Look for patterns in the
types of miscues students made. Was there a pattern related to beginning, middle, or ending
sounds? Vowel sounds? Did certain phonograms give the student trouble? Were they able to
identify the beginning sound but not the blend? This will inform the type of instruction needed
for word identification.
ASSESSING COMPREHENSION
In assessing students’ ability to comprehend, keep in mind that students’ ability to read
any text is influenced by (a) their familiarity with the topic and the words used, (b) whether it is
narrative or expository text, (c) the style of writing, and (d) the construction of the sentences.
Described here are two simple ways to assess comprehension. These are used if you are creating
your own DRA.
Story Retelling
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Story retelling is a simple way to get a sense of students’ ability to comprehend narrative
text. Use a graded reading passage or story that is at students’ independent level. Identify the
important characters, settings, and events in the story and write them in a Story Retelling Chart
similar to Figure 4.9 before the assessment. After reading the story, ask students to tell you
about the story. As they name each of the items in the Story Retelling Chart, give them one
point. If, after retelling the story, they have not named all, ask them directly. Example: “Can
you name any other characters in this story? Can you name any other places where this story
took place?” Give students one point for correct responses here. If they still cannot name one of
the elements, provide a simple hint. These are prompted and worth half a point. Thus far the
Story Retelling Chart contains only story details. You can include one or two inference
questions. These are questions related to something implied but not specifically stated in the
story. These should be worth two points.
Figure 4.9. Story retelling chart.
Story Retelling Chart
Name: _________________________________ Grade: _____ Date:
_______
Story Title: ___________________________________ Reading Level:
______
CHARACTERS: 1
point each
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SETTING: 1 point
each
1.
2.
3.
EVENTS: 1 point
each
1.
2.
3.
INFERENCE
QUESTIONS: 2 points
each
1.
2.
TOTAL POINTS:
___/100 = ___%
UNPROMPTED
PROMPTED
___/100
___/100
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Unprompted = 1 point
Prompted = ½ points
Independent reading level = 90%-100% accuracy
Instruction level = 75%-89% accuracy
Frustration level = 74% or lower
Maze
A maze can also be used to assess comprehension of narrative or expository text. Use a
graded reading passage of approximately 125 to 150 words. After the first sentence, delete every
5th word. Provide three alternatives from which to choose. The choices should include: (a) the
correct response, (b) an incorrect response that has the same grammatical function as the deleted
word, and (c) an incorrect response with a different grammatical function. There should be 20
total deleted words.
Figure 4.10. Example of a maze.
Prairie Dogs
Prairie dogs are small, burrowing rodents. They live in short-grass [prairies oceans - big] and the high plains [of - in - said] the western USA and Mexico.
[They - her - up] will eat all sorts [of -it - many] vegetables and fruits.
Independent level = 85% or above
Instructional level = 50% to 84%
Frustration level = 49% or less
PUTTING IT TOGETHER
At this point the data should provide you a sense of students’ independent and
instructional reading levels. This enables you to determine the level of reading material to use
for instruction and the level of books for students’ independent reading. You should also have
some diagnostic data to indicate if the student is struggling with fluency, word identification,
comprehension, or combinations of these. And finally, you should know what kinds of strategies
the student is using to identify words.
Three Deficit Areas
Readers struggle because of deficits in one or more of the three areas examined by the
DRA: fluency, word identification, and comprehension (cite).
Fluency. Fluency is the ability to process text quickly and efficiently. Figure 4.9
contains a list of very approximate fluency norms for oral reading rates. The WPM score will
give you a very general sense of where the individual student is at in comparison to other
students the same grade level; however, your qualitative analysis above will provide a better
sense of the student’s ability to read fluently.
Figure 4.9. Approximate “norms” for oral reading rates.
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At the end of that grade, students should be able to read
material at their grade level at the approximate levels below:
1st grade: 53 wpm
2nd grade: 89 wpm
3rd grade: 107 wpm
4th grade: 123 wpm
5th grade: 139 wpm
6th grade: 150 wpm
7th grade: 150 wpm
8th grade: 151 wpm
Word identification. Word Identification skills are what students’ use to identify
unknown words as they are reading. As described in Chapter 10, there are six general types of
word identification skills that students use when a word is not recognized automatically: (a)
analogy [word parts or word families], (b) morphemic analysis [prefixes, suffixes, and roots], (c)
semantics [context clues], (d) syntax [grammar and word order], (e) sight words, and (f) phonics.
Notice that word identification does not simply mean phonics. The qualitative analysis will
enable you to determine how students’ identify unknown words, their strengths, deficits, and the
types of miscues they tend to make.
Comprehension. Comprehension is the ability to create meaning with text. With
struggling readers, it is sometimes difficult to know if or to what extent deficits in the areas of
fluency and word identification are affecting comprehension. However, the DRA enables you to
separate word identification and fluency issues from comprehension. To focus only on
comprehension, read the graded reading passage to students and use the Story Retelling Chart to
assess comprehension.
Planning for Instruction
In the chapters that follow, you will be given specific strategies to develop students’
abilities in the three areas above as well as other areas. Three recommendations:
First, it is imperative that students not be frustrated or overwhelmed. Chapter 8 describes
the negative impact that these emotions can have on students’ learning. Set short, attainable
goals (books read or pages read) and make a big deal out of making goals. Instruction should be
proximal or just a little ahead of students’ independent level.
Second, struggling readers often have difficulties with phonetics. It may seem counterintuitive, but instead of focusing exclusively on what students can’t do as they read, focus on
what they can do. That is, plan instructional activities to develop their other two cuing systems
(semantics and syntax). Focusing only on letter-sound associations makes reading more-abstract
and less-enjoyable. Also, failure increases stress and reduces learning (cite). You can still
include word work that develops the phonological cuing system but do not let the other two
cuing systems atrophy.
Finally, use a comprehensive approach to reading instruction with students that includes
the ten essential elements: (a) concepts of print, (b) phonemic awareness [these first two are
discontinued once students are reading at the 1st grade level], (c) emotion and motivation, (d)
phonics, (e) word identification strategies/skills, (f) fluency, (g) vocabulary, (h) comprehension,
DRA - 12
(i) writing, and (j) literature (see Chapter 6). All these elements do NOT need to be included in
each lesson. This would be very hard to do. But in your curriculum and over the course of a
week, all elements should be addressed to varying degrees.
Reliability and Validity
Finally, with any type of educational test or measure issues of reliability and validity
must be addressed.
Reliability in statistical terms refers to repeatability or consistency. How
often will you get the same scores or results? For example, if a student scores 98% on the
measure one day and 62% on the measure on another day, we would need to consider the
reliability of the measure (or the student). Validity refers to extent the test or assessment device
measures what it says it is measuring. For example, the language arts portion of an achievement
test usually assesses discrete grammar and punctuation skills. It would not be a very valid
assessment of students’ ability to write. Just like the Presidential Physical Fitness test would not
be a very valid assessment of one’s ability to play tennis.
In educational measures there is often a trade-off between reliability and validity. With a
DRA, there is some subjectivity built into the measure. It is going to differ slightly from teacher
to teacher. However, it is a more valid assessment of students’ ability to create meaning with
print than standardized measure because you are observing directly what students are doing as
they are creating meaning with print.
Bone pile
This is why texts with a controlled vocabulary are often difficult for students to read even though they may be identified at the
appropriate reading grade level. A story with a controlled vocabulary includes only words that reinforce a particular vowel sound
or letter pattern, or texts in which the majority words are from a list of most frequent words used such as Dolch or Fry. The
problem with texts using controlled vocabularies is that the language sounds very unnatural, not what students are used to
hearing. Remember, we use what is in our head to understand what is on the page. If what is on the page does not sound
anything like the language in our head, trying to create meaning with text becomes difficult.
Sometimes Lexile levels will be included instead of a RL. The Lexile number is shown as an ‘L’ with a number after it. For example 225L is
Lexile level 250. Lexile levels were designed originally to help parents and teachers find books that match students’ independent reading levels.
Figure 4.3 contains an approximate Lexile-to-grade-level conversion chart.
Figure 4.3. Approximate Lexile-to-grade-level conversation chart.
25L - RL 1.1
350L - RL 2.0
675L - RL 3.9
50L - RL 1.1
375L - RL 2.1
700L - RL 4.1
75L - RL 1.2
400L - RL 2.2
725L - RL 4.3
100L - RL 1.2
425L - RL 2.3
750L - RL 4.5
125L - RL 1.3
450L - RL 2.5
775L - RL 4.7
150L - RL 1.3
475L - RL 2.6
800L - RL 5.0
175L - RL 1.4
500L - RL 2.7
825L - RL 5.2
200L - RL 1.5
525L - RL 2.9
850L - RL 5.5
1000L - RL 7.4
1025L - RL 7.8
1050L - RL 8.2
1075L - RL 8.6
1100L - RL 9.0
1125L - RL 9.5
1150L - RL 10.0
1175L - RL 10.5
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225L - RL 1.6
250L - RL 1.6
275L - RL 1.7
300L - RL 1.8
325L - RL 1.9
550L - RL 3.0
575L - RL 3.2
600L - RL 3.3
625L - RL 3.5
650L - RL 3.7
875L - RL 5.8
900L - RL 6.0
925L - RL 6.4
950L - RL 6.7
975L - RL 7.0
1200L - RL 11.0
1225L - RL 11.6
1250L - RL 12.2
1275L - RL 12.8
1300L - RL 13.5
Not all miscues are the same. There is a hierarchy of miscues, all of which tell you something different about how
individual students are creating meaning with print (see Figure 4.4).
• A meaningful-miscue is one that does not change the fundamental meaning of the sentence. For example: If the
student said, “The dogs run down the road,” instead of “The dogs ran down the road,” this would not change the meaning of the
sentences. If the students said, “The dogs race down the road,” this also would not change the meaning of the sentence. I
would still count it as a miscue, but I would write a large ‘M’ with a circle around it to indicate that it was a meaningful miscue.
If the students said, “The dogs rammed down the road,” or “The dogs rode down the road,” these would be a significant miscues
as they fundamentally changed the meaning of the sentence.
• A second type of miscue that is of interest, but not necessarily something you need to document is the schema-related
miscue. A schema is an organized knowledge structure in long term memory. It is like a file folder in your head used to organize
concepts and related knowledge and to make sense of new information and experiences. Schemata (plural of schema) are
essential for understanding the world around us as well as learning and comprehending (cite). If a miscue fundamentally changes
the meaning of the sentence but is still very much related to the passage, it is still counted as a miscue; however, write a large ‘S’
above it with a circle around it to indicate that it is schema-related. This tells me that the student is engaged in meaningful
reading behaviors. An example of a schema-related miscue include the following: In reading a passage about making roads the
students said, “The truck made the road smooth” instead of “The grader made the road smooth.” This is a significant miscue as
it changes the meaning of the sentence. A truck is much different than a grader. However, trucks and graders are both used in
the making of the road. Schema-related miscues are of interest as they provide understanding of the reader’s attempts to create
meaning with print. You may wish to document and quantify these on the DRA analysis sheet (see Figure 4.5), but it is not
necessary.
• A significant miscue is what we most commonly think of as a miscue. Here the miscue changes the meaning of the
sentence or does not make sentence within the sentence, the students skips the word, or the student needs help with the word.
• There is a fourth type of miscue that is not technically a miscue. It is a meaningless pronunciation. This is when
students correctly sound out the word, but it is clear that they have no understanding of the word or what they read. You can tell
by their inflection if they understand the word. It is often pronounced in the form of a question. “Fossils?” Or, they pronounce
the individual parts of the word correctly but they are put together in a stilted way or in ways in which the inflection or precise
sound it not completely accurate. This involves some judgment on your part; however, the power of the DRA is that it provides a
structure for you to use your experience and teacher insight to understand students as meaning-makers. If you wish to document
this, put an ‘MP’ with a circle around it just above the word.
The meaningless pronunciation tells you something about students’ conceptual and word knowledge. There are three
possible reasons for a meaningless pronunciation: (a) students do not have a concept to match the word in long term memory, (b)
students conception of the word does not match the context in which the word was found, or (c) students were not able to make
the link between the word and the concept. This information can be used to design future lessons for both vocabulary and
concept lessons.
Figure 4.4. Hierarchy of miscues.
1. Meaningful miscue - sentences still retains the original meaning
2. Schema-related miscue - similar concept, sentence meaning not retained
3. Significant miscue - sentence meaning not retained
4. Meaningless pronunciation - correctly sounding out words without meaning
A common term for Diagnostic Reading Assessments (DRA) is an Informal Reading Inventory
(IRI). The problem with this term is that implies that an IRI may be haphazard or that it may be
somehow less valuable than other “formal” types of measures. In the hands of a knowledgeable
teacher, a DRA provides far more valuable data than you can get on standardized tests. With the
DRA, the examiner is not simply following a formula and list of sequential steps. Instead, the
knowledge and experience of the examiner becomes an integral part of the assessment (cite).
Figure 4.1 contains a list of common commercially-prepared DRA’s. The information in this
DRA - 14
chapter will enable you to use any of these. I will also show you how to design and implement
your own DRA’s.
Again, these provide a very general sense of the approximate reading grade level of a text or
passage. However, keep in mind that students’ ability to read any text is influenced by (a) their
familiarity with the topic and the words used, (b) whether it is narrative or expository text, (c) the
style of writing, and (d) the construction of the sentences.