Session 13: Cultural Icons/Iconology

• Part I: Icons – Terminological Clarification
• Part II: Cultural Icons – Examples
• Part III: The Civil Rights Movement – A Walk through
History

• Audrey Hepburn, Grace Kelly, Jackie “O” … icons of style
• Icon of pop music...
• Icon of rock music…
• Icons of a decade, or a generation
• Icons of sports…
• Icons of a social movement…
• Iconic hairstyles…
• Iconic brides…
• Icons, Icons, Icons…
• There are “icons“ on the Apple iPhone
• are icons and iconic images a 20 th century cultural phenomenon?

Etymology:
• Greek: eikōn, from eikenai, to be like, seem, “image“
• Byzantine religious paintings; you may want to take a look at:
– Weitzmann, Kurt. The Icon: Holy Images- Sixth to Fourteenth Century.
New York: George Braziller, 1978.
– Onasch, Konrad, and Schneiper, Annemarie. Icons: The Fascination and
the Reality. New York: Riverside Book Company, 1995.
– http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon
– usually depicting Jesus or Mary but also sometimes saints,
– function of icons/ iconic images: e.g. tool for instruction; object of veneration (worship); becoming aware of God’s presence through the senses (e.g. the visual)
• Icon = sign?!

–
–
–
–

• iconic signs, indexical signs, symbolic signs
• an icon is any sign that “may represent its object mainly by its similarity”
symbolic: arbitrary and (or) conventional; relationship must be learned, example: traffic lights or traffic signs
"Signs and their Objects“ (1910): “If the Sign be an
Icon, a scholastic might say that the "species" of the Object emanating from it found its matter in the Icon. If the Sign be an Index, we may think of it as a fragment torn away from the Object, the two in their Existence being one whole or a part of such whole. If the Sign is a Symbol, we may think of it as embodying the "ratio", or reason, of the Object that has emanated from it. These, of course, are mere figures of speech; but that does not render them useless.)
indexical: (“causal“) relationship or connection between signifier and signified; example natural indexical signs: e.g. smoke: index of fire
iconic: signifier perceived as resembling signified – looking, sounding, tasting, feeling, smelling like it – e.g. a portrait

Iconic image: “a visual image resembles in appearance that of which it is a likeness.”

• Something which is readily recognized
• Something with significance
• Repetition (and proliferation) – e.g. the crashing planes and the cascading towers of the terrorist attacks in September 2001 – in different formats:
– in the news,
– visual and other media,
– in popular culture […]
• Dangers (sth. to reflect on…)
– Commodification – turning an event into a good-selling commodity
– De-contextualization of an event/person
– Instrumentalization of certain images; e.g. white-washing (re-inventing a story/event/tragedy…)
– Influencing perceptions and receptions; thereby also: influencing processes of memorization
– Creating a “visual” – cultural or even global – memory
– Creating a – hegemonic – discourse

• “people identify with cultural icons and often rely on [them] in their everyday lives.” (Holt)
• “anchors of meaning“ (Holt)
• Replication – cultivating and monetizing icons (marketing strategies)
– e.g. Che Guevara (advertisement/marketing strategies); Mona Lisa
– Assigning a story to a certain figure: .g. James Dean = rebel of the 1950s
• “cultural texts” – films, newspapers, magazine articles and ads, political speeches, photographic images…– help build (“stitch”) a story
• As an aside: early death is good for making and selling a legend:e.g. James Dean, Marilyn Monroe, Elvis Presley, JFK,
Lady Di...

• Coke, Budweiser, Nike, Adidas,
Barbie, Jack Daniel‘s, Harley,
Marlboro, Gucci, Prada, Louis
Vuitton, [...]
• Advertisement strategies (e.g. sponsoring, sporting events, films...
• Spinning a compelling myth
• “Most iconic brands have been built through mass media” (Holt)
• Audience: learns to recognize, for example, a Marlboro ad or Nike spot by how the ad is composed

• the “epitome” of “simple, natural elegance”…; her
“unpretentious” style; her “sophisticated” look
• Hollywood film industry; e.g.: Rear Window (1954),
– wardrobe for the film; concatenating of stardom and fashion (common strategy today)
– Oscar winning actress – celebrated as the “fresh type of natural glamour”
• the “original fairy-tale” (climax: the wedding 1956)
• Merchandising (strategic proliferation of a “sign”);
– the “Kelly” bag (Hermès); the Kelly “gloves”
– selling a product, selling a lifestyle and story, selling an image, selling a value, selling a (sexual) identity – in short: the icon-production business…
Cover of Time magazine, 31. Jan.
1955
Titled:
“Grace Kelly:
Gentlemen prefer ladies”

• In office: January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963
• “We stand today on the edge of a new frontier—the frontier of the 1960s—a frontier of unknown opportunities and perils—a frontier of unfulfilled hopes and threats.” (John F. Kennedy)
• “charismatic”
• early death, the mystery, the conspiracy… tales of intrigue
• His widow Jackie Kennedy: “There’ll be great presidents again […] but there’ll never be another Camelot.“
• The myth: JFK, the shining knight, and lone hero, promising peace; Americans robbed of a great president
• by assassins; the common belief: he would have withdrawn from Vietnam had he lived
Icon of political freedom?
Critical Assessments:
Noam Chomsky‘s Rethinking Camelot
John Hellmann‘s The Kennedy Obsession:
The American Myth of JFK

• “The crux of iconicity is that the person or the thing is widely regarded as the most compelling symbol of a set of ideas or values that a society deems important.” (Holt)
• OED: cultural icon can be “a person or thing regarded as a representative symbol, especially of a culture or a movement [...]“
• The role of the media…
• “Who will dress Michelle Obama for the inauguration?”
• “First ladies' inaugural dresses set the tone for presidency”
• “The Michelle Obama inaugural dress secrecy: What will she wear?”
• “Obama girls, style icons in the making”
• http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/gallery/2008/12/19/GA2008121902831.html?sid=ST20
09011603043

Presidential Wives...

• The “icon“ Barack
Obama
• JFK and Barack
Obama?
• “Obama's election: a turning point in the perception of blacks?”
(LATimes)
• Barack Obama: the culmination of Civil
Rights Movement?
Titled „Obama lässt den
Geist von John F.
Kennedy aufleben“

• Civil Rights…Where to start? 1215: Magna Carta recognizes the right to liberty in England ...
1)
• Civil Rights movement commonly associated with the movement of the 1960s, in particular with the African-
American experience and history in the US.
• “Textbooks traditionally designate the landmark 1954
Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education as the beginning of the civil rights movement.” (Birnbaum/Talyor 1)
• Yet: why then 1954, and not 1934 or 1904?
• Historical time frame

2)
• Images, people, symbols, events…
• “Ask any American what image the words civil rights movement conjure up, and she or he will probably answer with a statement about Martin Luther King Jr. leading a march in the 1950s and 1960s” (Schneider 3)
• What else?
• “The story of the civil rights movement is not over.”
• Segregation and discrimination prevented African Americans from enjoying the same life chances as whites. (see
Ling/Monteith 1)

Initial Considerations:
• How define the “Black experience”?
• Time frame
• Who are the primary “actors”?
• Participants and opponents…
• Objectives – key concerns/issues
• Textbooks and historians
• “Black experience” – knowledge formation:
– race, racism,
– racist historiographies
– developments; revisions
– Diaspora studies…
“Should States Apologize for Slavery?“
By Jeninne Lee-St. John
Tuesday, Mar. 27, 2007
Time.Inc 2009

Overview:
• interest in race: “grown in popularity in the United States following the success of the Civil Rights Movement during the
1950s, 1960s, and 1970s.”
• Franz Boas’ The Mind of the Primitive Man (1911)
• Margaret Mead (1928)
• Ruth Benedict: Race: Science and Politics (1940)
• Asd
– Elton, Anderson Jeffrey. “Ethnicity, Nationality, and Race in Colonial
America.” A Companion to African American History. Ed. Alton
Hornsby, Jr. Malden, MA et al.: Blackwell Publishing, 2005. 89-104.

• West Africa and slavery system
• Slavery – as a form of forced labor
• Purchase of Africans – transport to the “New
World”, forced labor in the fields, manufactories, and homes
• transatlantic slave trade
• Differences between slavery in Africa and European/
American slavery
Paul Finkelman & Joseph C. Miller eds. MacMillan Encyclopedia of
World Slavery: Volume II (Macmillan Reference USA - Simon and
Schuster Macmillan New York, 1998), p. xiii.

• English migration across the Atlantic
• 1584: Walter Raleigh founded Virginia
• 1607: first English settlement in America
(Jamestown)
• 1619: first Africans appear in North
America – slavery from the beginning?
• 1620: Puritans journey to Massachusetts (“Mayflower”)
• Colonists struggle to develop social and economic institutions

• Planters gradually substituted black slaves for white indentured servants
• 1640 in Virginia – Africans were not allowed to carry arms
• 1661: Virginia legally instituted the condition of slavery on
Africans; other colonies followed suit
• Colonial Laws prohibited interracial marriage; early discrimination against Africans
• skin color becoming the marker for difference; alleged inferiority – explanation/justification: race, and also religion
• Frantz Fanon (1952), Black Skins, White Masks:
– “[W]hen European civilization came in contact with the black world, with those savage people, everyone agreed that the Negroes were the principle of evil symbolizing the lower emotions, the baser inclinations, the dark side of the soul.”

• “Europeans tended to set the African apart as a foil, conceiving of themselves as the perfect epitome of civility, Christianity, and morality, as they posited the African as barbaric, heathen, and lascivious.” (Young 149)
• Slavery: system for blacks and Indians (children inherited status)
• In 1696: SC adopted restriction of Barbados slave code
• By 1705 strict legal codes defined the place of salves in society
(see Boyer)
• 1724: Code Noir issued (techniques of racial control in the
English West Indies – adopted in the mainland colonies’ plantation societies (see Boyer)

•
– Article I. We desire and we expect that the Edict […] be executed in our islands. […]
– Article II. All slaves that shall be in our islands shall be baptized and instructed in the Roman, Catholic, and Apostolic Faith. […].
– Article XII. Children born from marriages between slaves shall be slaves, […].
– Article XXXVIII. The fugitive slave who has been on the run for one month from the day his master reported him to the police, shall have his ears cut off and shall be branded […]. The third time, he shall be put to death.
– Article XXXIX. The masters […] who have given refuge to fugitive slaves in their homes shall be punished by a fine of three hundred pounds of sugar for each day of refuge.

th
• 1735: law imposed a dress code for slaves (fabrics worth less than ten shillings a yard); also: prohibited them to wear their owners’ cast-off clothes (see Boyer)
• 1776: Declaration of Independence
– “We hold these truth to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness”
• Thomas Jefferson owned slaves
• Slavery justified on the basis of: habit, practice, and state laws
• 1783 Massachusetts rules slavery illegal based on 1780 constitution
• May 1790: 13 colonies finally unified to a single nation
• 1793 Fugitive Slave Act

• “About 500,000 black persons, composing one-fifth of the total population, inhabited the United States in 1776. All but 25,000 were slaves.” (Boyer)
• Available avenues to freedom during the colonial era:
– “manumission by will or deed” (manumit = to free);
– “acts of emancipation by colonial governments”;
– “conversion to Christianity”
• freedom = restricted politically, economically, and socially
– e.g. right to vote restricted, they lived under curfews, and lacked the guarantees of equal justice (Boyer)
– “most free blacks remained poor laborers or tenant farmers” (Boyer)
• Sources: e.g. colonial court records (see, for example Ross M. Kimmel,
“Free Blacks in Seventeenth-Century Maryland,” 1976)
• Phillis Wheatley – slave in Boston; gained freedom in 1773, published poems

th
• Free blacks in the North: by 1780, right to vote (for those who me property qualifications); curfews were repealed or stopped; most states guaranteed equal treatment in court
• “By 1804 all the states from Pennsylvania north, except New
Hampshire, had abolished slavery” (Boyer)
• 1807: Slave Trade Act passed by Parliament in the UK – act abolished slave trade, in the British Empire; yet: it did not end slavery itself
• By the late 1820s – slavery essentially disappeared in the
North
• No state south of Pennsylvania abolished slavery (Boyer)

th
• HOWEVER: “The Revolution neither ended slavery nor brought equality to free blacks, but it did begin a process by which slavery could be extinguished.”
• Continuation of slavery in the South – sectional animosities
• By 1830: state of Georgia imposed fines to anyone caught teaching enslaved or free African Americans (also: public whippings, and/or imprisonments)
• Segregation prevailed in northern schools, jails, and hospitals

• Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (1943)
– For a thorough analysis see, for example Stanley Harrold, “Slave Rebels and
Black Abolitionists,” A Companion to African American History, ed. Alton
Hornsby, Jr. (Malden, MA et al.: Blackwell Publishing, 2005) 199-216.
• e.g. 1712 in NYC:
– approx. 35 Africans, some Native Americans & some white supporters gathered to protest against “hard usage”
• Rev. Prince Hall (1748-1807):
– advocate of black education;
– 1787 petition for equal educational facilities – not granted!
• 1817: American Colonization Society founded (main antislavery organization of this period)
• Shipboard revolts – aboard the Spanish slave ship “Amistad” in 1839; and 1841 on the “Creole”

• Freedom’s Journal – 1827-1829; first black newspaper in the US; editors: John Russwurm and
Rev. Samuel Cornish
• William Lloyd Garrison
– launched the weekly the Liberator (1831-1865)
– founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society
– at the 1854 Independence Day gathering in a town in
Massachusetts, burned a copy of the Constitution. His words:
“So perish all compromises with tyranny.”
• White people leadership in such organizations as:
– the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS, see above);
– the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society (AFASS);
– the Liberty Party, or the American Missionary (AMA).
• Anti-slavery political parties of the late 1840s and
1850s: the Free-Soil Party and the Republican
Party!

• “Underground Railroad”
• Harriet Tubman; John Brown

• Missouri Compromise of 1820
• “Fugitive Slave Law” of 1850; declared that all runaway slaves be brought back to their masters
• Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854); same year: Republican Party was formed
• Dred Scott v. Stanford (1857)

• 1860: Abraham Lincoln elected president;
• South: agrarian society, dependent on slavery system; North: industrialist-capitalist society
• 1860-1861: several states seceded from the Union
– Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas;
– provisional constitution for the Confederate States, capital Montgomery, Alabama
(later moved to Richmond, Virginia);
– Jefferson Davis: provisional president;
– further states seceded from the Union in the following months
– Confederate forces seized control of Federal Forts
– April 1861: Fort Sumter; in May: Confederate Congress declared a state of war
• Lincoln’s “Emancipation Proclamation”; went in effect Jan. 1st, 1863
• July 1863 NY anti-draft riots
• 1865 Surrender at Appomattox, Virginia (April 9, 1865); Civil War ends

• During the first two years of the war: not allowed to enlist
• Lincoln: “save the Union”
• Emancipation Proclamation
– “[…] all persons held as slaves within any state or designated part of a state the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the executive government of the United
States […] will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom.” (1. Jan. 1863)
• Consequences:
– enlistment of African Americans in the Union armed forces
– regiments led by white officers; African Americans: no higher rank than sergeant
(few exceptions)
– Fighting a war on two fronts… against Confederacy; against fellow white soldiers and racism in policy and practice
Oscar R. Williams III and Hayward ‘Woody’ Farrar, “African Americans and the American Civil
War,” Hornsby 257-270.

Consequences of the war:
• Over 620,000 died
• Collapse of the Confederacy; by June 1865:
– offices and departments of the Confederate States were closed,
– Congress dissolved,
– the president imprisoned
– Confederate officers fled the country
• Reconstruction Era
• Reconstruction Acts and Amendment…
• 13 th Amendment:
– “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United
States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.”
• Yet…

• in 1865: Southern states passed measure called “Black Codes”:
– kept former slaves in inferior positions (economically, socially, politically);
– Codes granted blacks a legal status, but they were still not allowed to vote, or the testify against white people (among other things);
• New racial tensions; militant organizations were formed
– often led by former Confederate Army officers
– Ku Klux Klan (in Tennessee in 1865),
– others: “Knights of the White Camellia”; “the White Brotherhood” or the
“Palefaces”
• Lynching (esp. 1880s-1960s); Jim Crow (South), and the Limits of
Freedom, 1890 –
• In 2005: “If Reconstruction means African American resistance to racism, it is still going on today.” (Burton/Herr/Cheney 318)

• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): state-mandated segregation is legal as long as the statute or ordinance provided for “separate but equal” facilities
• Civil Rights Act of 1964 = outlawed discrimination in public accommodations
(e.g. restaurants, hotels, or schools)
Editorial cartoon of Plessy v. Ferguson case, which established the "separate but equal" principle
Cover of Brook Thomas's, Plessy v.
Ferguson (St. Martin's Press, 1996).

• Book learning for liberation
• Records: e.g. Frederick Douglass (escaped from slavery)
– “It is perfectly well understood at the south, that to educate a slave is to make him discontented with slavery, and to invest him with a power which shall open to him the treasures of freedom; and since the object of the slaveholder is to maintain complete authority over his slave, his constant vigilance is exercised to prevent everything which militates against, or endangers, the stability of his authority. Education being among the menacing influences, and perhaps, the most dangerous, is, therefore, the most cautiously guarded against.” (My Bondage, My
Freedom, 1855)
• 1865: a Freedman’s Bureau established (closed in 1879)
– to help the freed slaves (e.g. distributed food); helped blacks to find employment; set up
schools and provided teachers for black people of all ages
• one of the black colleges and seminaries founded after the war was Atlanta University

• Up From Slavery (1901) – autobiography
– called for an emphasis on self-help through manual labor; argues that blacks should stay in the South, accept segregation and abandon efforts to win civil rights
– stressed the need to gain wealth and education as prerequisites for equal treatment;
• Interpretation: he accepted second-class political status; black survival and prosperity depended on assuming a subordinate role in society
• only later recognized the need for blacks to protest against inequality;
• gives Atlanta Compromise speech in 1895

• educated in several institutions, including Harvard
• Publications (selection):
– PhD dissertation “The suppression of the African slave trade to the United
States, 1638-1870” (1896)
– Black Reconstruction in America, 1860–1880 (1934; reprint, New York:
Atheneum, 1992).
– "Strivings of the Negro People." Atlantic Monthly 80 (1897): 194-198.
– "Of the Training of Black Men." Atlantic Monthly 90 (1902): 289-297.
• difference/similarities to Washington: agreed on the educational issue, but argued that Washington was too agriculturally oriented in the face of industrialization
• criticized Washington for ignoring the “talented tenth” of blacks who could and should enter professions (e.g. teachers)

• W.E.B. DuBois, “The Talented Tenth” (excerpts):
– “The Negro race, like all races, is going to be saved by its exceptional men.
The problem of education, then, among Negroes must first of all deal with the Talented Tenth; it is the problem of developing the Best of this race that they may guide the Mass away from the contamination and death of the
Worst, in their own and other races. [...]
– Men we shall have only as we make manhood the object of the work of the schools—intelligence, broad sympathy, knowledge of the world that was and is, and of the relation of men to it—this is the curriculum of that Higher
Education which must underlie true life. On this foundation we may build bread winning, skill of hand and quickness of brain, with never a fear lest the child and man mistake the means of living for the object of life. . . .
– See: TeachingAmericanHistory.org
• “[…] the quest for learning was part and parcel of the larger struggle for real freedom and equality.” (Span/Anderson 301)

Organizational forces:
• The “black” church (institutional center of the modern civil rights movement)
• NACW: National Association of Colored Women (founded 1896)
• NAACP: National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (founded in 1909);
• NNBL: National Negro Business League (organization founded in
1900 by Booker T. Washington)
• NBA: National Bar Association (founded in Little Rock, Arkansas in
1909)
• [...]
• The Great Migration…

• Carter G. Woodson:
– founder of the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History
– Journal of Negro History
• “The South Lingers On” short story by Rudolph
Fisher (1925)
• Civic Club dinner organized by Charles S. Johnson of the National Urban League
• Writers, intellectuals, artists, musicians …
• Alain Locke’s The New Negro
• Influences and legacies:
– e.g. “Négritude” (French Caribbean)
Augusta Savage
(1892- 1962); she was a famous African-
American sculptor

• CORE (Congress of Racial Equality): a civil rights organization, founded in 1942
• Brown vs. Board of Education (1954)
• Bus boycotts in Montgomery and elsewhere
• Emergence of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Rosa Parks (1931-) photographed by Alabama cops following her February 1956 arrest during the Montgomery bus boycotts

• 1961: “Freedom Rides”
• 1962: the SDS convention; Port Huron Statement
• 1963: Birmingham bombings; March on Washington
• 1965: Voting Rights marches – e.g. Selma (Alabama)
• 1968: assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Voices of Protest & Resistance…
• Sit-ins
• Freedom Riders
• The “Port Huron” Statement and the student movements
• Anti-War movements
• Women’s liberation movement
• Black Panther movement
(1968, summer Olympics – salute)
• […]

• “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character.” (Martin Luther King, Jr.), 28 August,
1963
• Civil Rights Act, 1964:
– “An Act to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States of America to provide relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the
Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil
Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes.”
• Voting Rights Act, 1965 (signed August 6, 1965)

• “The goal of the Black Freedom Struggle was never, simply, federal legislation. Rather than fighting solely for unfettered access to public accommodations and the ballot box, African Americans in the middle decades of the twentieth century agitated for full civil and human rights, much as their forebears had immediately after emancipation.” (Jeffries 505)

Things I left out… (selection process)
– Role of African American women
– Issues of gender in the Civil Rights Movement
– Slavery in the other colonies…
– Role of African Americans in wars
– Women’s Liberations… e.g. from Seneca Falls to today…
– Socio-historical contexts of, for example, the 1950s
– Other movements, as for example, the anti-war movements in the 1960s; the Chicano movement; the Gay and Lesbian movement, etc.
– The Nation of Islam, Elijah Muhammad, and Malcolm X
– The legacies of the 1960s, 1970s…
– What about civil rights today?
– Other countries…
– African Diaspora(s)
– […]

• What (time) parameters would you give with respect to the
“Civil Rights Movement”? What implications does your framing generate?
• How did African American intellectuals respond to the constitutional, economic, and cultural changes during the
Reconstruction era?
• How have American novelists, historians, dramatists, filmmakers and/or songwriters perceived and interpreted the
African American – slave – experience from the 17 th century to contemporary times?

• Bouissac, Paul, Michael Herzfeld and Roland Posner, eds. Iconicity. Essays on the
Nature of Culture. Festschrift for Thomas A. Sebeok. Tübingen: Stauffenburg, 1986.
• Burton, O. Vernon, David Herr, Matthew Cheney. “Defining Reconstruction.” A
Companion to the Civil War and Reconstruction. Ed. Lacy Ford. Malden, MA:
Blackwell, 2005. 299-322.
• Edkins, Diana and Annette Tapert. The Power of Style. New York: Crown Publ., 1994.
• Holt, Douglas B. Holt. How Brands Become Icons: The Principles of Cultural
Branding. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School P, 1999.
• Hornsby, Alton, Jr., ed. A Companion to African American History. Malden, MA et al.: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.
• Ling, Peter J. And Sharon Monteith, eds. Gender and the Civil Rights Movement.
New Brunswick, NJ & London: Rutgers UP, 1999.
• Molloy, John T. The Woman's DRESS FOR SUCCESS Book. New York: Warner, 1977.
• Rogers, Mary F. Barbie Culture. Core Cultural Icons. Series Ed. George Ritzer. London et al.: Sage, 1999.
• Schneider, Mark Robert. “We Return Fighting”: The Civil Rights Movement in the
Jazz Age. Boston: Northeastern UP, 2002.