Language
Chapter 5
Language is:
A structured system of symbols used for
communicating meaning
Language is Symbolic
Each word represents a particular
object or idea, but it does not
constitute the object or idea itself
Meaning is also defined by culture:
 The symbolic nature of language
is never static; meaning
perpetually evolves
Language is (mostly) Arbitrary
o All meaning behind a word is assigned by
the user of the language
o Language can be arbitrary simply because it
is symbolic
o One major exception is onomatopoeia
o Word that sounds like it’s spelled—buzz, splash
o Ex.—sound of chicken in English/Spanish
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Language is Governed by Rules
 Phonological rules: the correct pronunciation of a
word
 Syntactic rules: the ordering of words within
phrases
 Semantic rules: the meaning of individual words
 Pragmatic rules: implications or interpretations of
statements
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Language Has Layers of Meaning
 Denotative meaning: the literal meaning of a word
Formal definition (if you looked up word in dictionary)
 Connotative meaning: the implications that a word
suggests in addition to its literal meaning
Based in your personal experience with the word
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Semantic Triangle
 The symbol is the word being communicated
 The referent is the word’s denotative meaning
 The reference /thought is the connotative meaning
Language Varies in Clarity
o Abstract vs. Concrete Language
o Hayakawa’s Ladder of Abstraction
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
o Language influences the ways that members of a culture see
the world
o Principles
 Linguistic Determinism: the structure of language determines
how we think
 Linguistic Relativity: because language determines our
perceptions of reality, people who speak different languages
will see the world differently
o Criticisms
Naming Defines and
Differentiates Us
 Naming and Identity
 What our name communicates to others
 Modern vs. older-sounding names
 Can convey info re: ethnicity
 Name Practices
 Varies based on history, culture, religion, etc.
 Your name tells your story
We Use Words to Persuade
o Persuasion is the process of moving people to think
or act in a certain way
o Aristotle’s rhetorical proof:
 Logos—logic
 Ethos—ethics
 Pathos—emotion (think “pathetic”)
APPEALING TO ETHOS
(respectability, trustworthiness,
moral character)
 Demonstrate knowledge and expertise
 Demonstrate that you care about the
effects on others
 Behave ethically
APPEALING TO PATHOS
(emotional response)
 Appeals to the other person’s emotions.
 Generally, appealing to joy or gratitude is more
effective than fear.
 Use the appeal successfully by:
 Identifying your own feelings and describing them to
the listener.
 Selecting information that is likely to solicit the
desired emotion from the listener.
TYPES OF EMOTIONAL APPEALS
 Appeal to Fear
 Appeal to Shame
 Appeal to Guilt
 Appeal to Anger
 Appeal to Joy
 Appeal to Sadness
 Appeal to Disgust
APPEALING TO LOGOS
(reasoning)
 Appeals to the person’s sense of reason.
 Features logic.
 Select reasons:
 That are designed to be most relevant to our
listeners.
 That support your argument well.
 That you can provide specific facts to support.
CREDIBILITY EMPOWERS US
Credibility is the extent to which others
perceive us to be competent and
trustworthy.
 Clichés
 Overused terms
 “Think outside box.”
 Dialects
 Lang. variations shared by region or social class
 Equivocation
 Strategically ambiguous—avoid a bind
Credibility Empowers Us
 Weasel Words
 Mislead listeners by implying something they don’t
actually say—broad generalizations
 “People say…” “Researchers claim…”
 Allness Statements
 A claim is true without exception
 “All pit bulls are vicious dogs.”
 Choosing Credible Language
 Using any of the negative strategies creates negative
impression of speaker
Expression of Affection and
Intimacy
 Language has profound ability to
communicate affection and create/enhance
intimacy
 Affection
 Emotional experience including feelings of love
and appreciation
 Intimacy
 Characteristic of close, supportive relationships
 Significant emotional closeness experienced in a
relationship
LANGUAGE EXPRESSES AFFECTION AND INTIMACY
Using language to Comfort Other People
Acknowledge the loss.
Express sympathy.
Offer a positive reflection.
Offer assistance.
Clip: Reagan—Challenger Disaster
Using Language to Comfort
Ourselves
 Journaling
 Can reduce stress hormones, strengthen immune
system
 Holding negative emotions requires effort we
could direct toward supporting our health
 Putting feelings into words is very powerful
USE AND ABUSE OF LANGUAGE
 Humor: What’s So
Funny?
 Euphemisms: Soft
 Defamation: Harmful
Words
 Libel—in print or some
medium
 Slander—verbal, others
hear
Talk
 “Passed away”
 “Sleep together”
 Slang: The Language
of Subcultures
 Profanity: Offensive
Language
 Hate Speech
 Profanity meant to
degrade, intimidate,
or dehumanize
people
Improving Your Language Use
o The effect you wish to create
o Shared knowledge error
o Presume your listeners have info they don’t have
o Shared opinion error
o You assume listeners share your opinion
o Monopolization error
o One speaker dominates
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Improving Your Language Use
o Separate opinions from factual claims
o Speak at an appropriate level
o Own your thoughts and feelings
Own Your Thoughts & Feelings
Good communicators use “I” statements
o “I” statements
oClaim ownership of what we are feeling or thinking
o “You” statements
oShift the responsibility to the other person