ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC
Aristotle
342-322 B.C.E.
 Definition of Rhetoric
 “the faculty of observing in any given case
the available means of persuasion.”
 A thoughtful, reflective activity leading to
effective communication, including rational
exchange of opposing viewpoints and
resulting in the successful resolution of
conflicts without confrontation, persuading
readers or listeners to support their position,
or to move others to action.
Aristotelian Triangle
 Aristotle taught that a speaker's ability to
persuade is based on how well the speaker
appeals to his or her audience in three
different areas: ethos (ethical appeals),
pathos (emotional appeals), and logos
(logical appeals). These areas form something
that later rhetoricians have called the
Rhetorical Triangle.
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Rhetorical Triangle
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Audience
Speaker
Subject
Rhetorical Aristotelian
Triangle
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Ethos (Speaker)
 Logos (Audience)
Pathos (Subject)
Ethos (Gut)
Argument by Character
 Ethos" refers to the writer's "ethical appeal," that is, how well the writer
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presents herself. Does she seem knowledgeable and reasonable? Does
she seem trustworthy? Does she treat her opponents, people who might
disagree, with fairness and respect, or does she take cheap shots at
them? Does she try to establish common ground with the reader? Why
do you think essays that lack this kind of appeal are likely to be
unconvincing? What effect do you think it would have if a writer included
nothing but ethical appeals?
Appeals to ethos often emphasize shared values between the speaker
and the audience.
A tone of reason and goodwill or from the type of thoroughness of
information
The speaker’s ethos—expertise and knowledge, experience, training,
sincerity, or a combination of these—gives the audience reason for
listening
Employs the persuader’s personality, reputation, and ability to look
trustworthy
To Aristotle, the most important appeal
Pathos (Heart)
Argument by Emotion
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“Pathos" refers to the argument's "emotional appeals," that is, how well the
writer taps into the reader's emotions Many times, this appeal is how a writer
will make an argument "matter" to readers. Advertisements do it all the time.
Perhaps a writer will offer an anecdote to illustrate suffering or appeal to readers
as parents concerned for their children. Does the writer appeal to your
emotions—feelings of sadness, pride, fear, youth, anger, patriotism, love, justice?
On the other hand, is the essay loaded with facts, figures, and nothing else? Is
the emotional appeal effective or overwhelming?
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Makes use of strong connotative diction
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Usually include vivid, concrete description, and figurative language
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Although an argument that appeals only to the emotions is by definition weak—it
is generally propagandistic in purpose and more polemical than persuasive.
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A successful persuader must learn how to read the audience’s emotions to
change the mood to suit your argument, using the pathetic tactic of sympathy
if necessary.
Logos (“embodied thought”)
Argument by Logic
Brain
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"Logos" corresponds with the argument's "logical appeals," that is, how well the
reader uses the "text" of his own argument and evidence. Effective arguments
will probably include facts and other supporting details to back up the author's
claims. They may contain testimony from authorities and will demonstrate the
writer's carefulness in choosing and considering evidence. They are likely to be
well organized, skillfully written, and well edited/proofread. Questions to
consider: What is being argued here, or what is the author's thesis? What points
does he offer to support this idea? Has he presented arguments that seem
logical, or does he seem to be jumping to conclusions? Can you think of kinds of
writing that rely exclusively on logical appeals? Do they bore you?
Offers clear, rational thought
Acknowledges counterarguments –antithesis, meaning “opposing idea”--,
anticipating objections and opposing view—prolepsis, meaning “anticipation”
Concedes when logically appropriate and refutes the validity of all or part of the
counterargument—syncrisis, meaning “alternative judgment”—not only do we
have this, but we also…--dirimens copulatio, meaning “a joining that interrupts,”
layering your points
Concession and refutation strengthens argument. Why?
Logos uses what the audience itself is thinking.
 How the Rhetorical Triangle Works:
 Note that this triangle is essentially equilateral. Why? Again,
the equal sides and angles illustrate the concept that each
appeal is as important as the others. It also suggests that a
BALANCE of the three is important. Too much of one is likely to
produce an argument that readers will either find unconvincing
or that will cause them to stop reading.
 Finally, note how each of the areas potentially affects the
others. An illogical argument may move us emotionally, but
only in the sense that it makes us angry at the author for
wasting our time. An overwhelming emotional argument may
make us feel that the author is relying exclusively on emotions
rather than offering solid reasoning. Finally, if an argument
contains only facts and figures and no emotional appeals, we
may simply get bored. All these defects may, in turn, affect the
author's ethical appeal: how can we trust a writer who appeals
only to our emotions? What common ground do we have with a
writer who doesn't appeal to our emotions at all?
Misc. about Rhetoric
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The most productive arguments use the future tense, the language of choices
and decisions. “The point is how are we going to keep this from happening
again?”
A productive argument makes the audience feel triumphant and, therefore,
benevolent, resulting in achieving agreement.
The height of persuasion—getting others to do your bidding. Even if the
opponent scores points, you get him to accept your choice or do what you want.
(“rhetorical jujitsu”)
One way to get others to agree with you is to agree with them—tactically, that
is. Use your opponent’s points to get what you want, throwing him off balance.
Rhetoric is the art of influence, friendship, eloquence, of ready wit, and
irrefutable logic; and it harnesses the most powerful of social forces, argument.
Mastering rhetorical tools (tricks) make an audience eager to listen.
The most effective rhetoric disguises its art.
Effective rhetoric jolts the audience into a fresh new perspective on the human
condition.
Persuasion can make “the lesser side appear the greater.” Aristophanes
More Misc. about Rhetoric
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“Emotion trumps logic.” Aristotle
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Cicero: Stimulate your audience’s emotions.
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Change its opinions.
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Get it to act.
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Three Core Issues—Aristotle
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Blame: Who moved my cheese?
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Value: Should abortion be legal?
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Choice: Should we build a plant in
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Oaxaca?
Blame=Past (deals with issues of justice—forensic rhetoric, the argument
of the courtroom)
Values=Present
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Choice=Future (best)
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If an argument spins out of control, switch the tense.
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Present-tense (demonstrative) rhetoric tends to finish with people bonding or separating.
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Past-tense (forensic) rhetoric threatens punishment.
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Future-tense (deliberative) rhetoric promises a payoff.
Key Terms in Rhetorical
Analysis
 Exigence—a gap, a need, a lack, something that needs doing
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(what’s sticking in the author’s craw)
Audience—a reader or group of readers capable of acting on this
exigence. Important distinctions: Primary and secondary
audiences, immediate and mediated audiences
Purpose—what the author intends for the reader(s) to do while
and after they read the text
Appeals—closely related ways the author aims to get the readers
to take of the purposeful action: Ethos, Pathos, Logos
Figures of Speech—schemes and tropes and their function
Imagery, syntax, diction and their functions
 David A. Jolliffe
 Audi partem alteram. --St. Augustine
 “Hear the other side.”
Aristotle’s Tools of Persuasion
 Argument by character
 Argument by logic
 Argument by emotion
 Persuasive use of decorum, argument jujitsu, and tactical
sympathy. Cicero listed decorum first among ethical tactics.
 An agreeable ethos matches the audience’s expectations through
tone, appearance, and manners. This kind of character-based
agreeability : decorum—the art of fitting in, requires the
speaker/writer sound like the collective voice of the audience, a
walking, talking consensus.
 “You persuade a man only insofar as you can talk his language by
speech, gesture, tonality, order, image, attitude, idea, identifying
your ways with his.”—Kenneth Burke, modern rhetorician
 Decorum can make the difference between persuading an
audience and getting thrown out by it.
 You cannot be indecorous and persuasive at the same time; the
two are mutually exclusive
 Hypophora- asks a rhetorical question and
then immediately answers it, allowing you to
anticipate the audience’s skepticism and nip
it in the bud. It is better to address the
opposition’s objections before they do, which
makes your audience more malleable.
 —adapted from materials by Dr. Joseph Sigalas
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 Home | Writing Resources | Regents' Exam | RGTE 0199
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 And
 Shea, Renee et al. The Language of Composition: Reading,
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Writing, Rhetoric. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008.
 Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You For Arguing: What Aristotle,
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Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us about the Art
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of Persuasion. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2007.
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Forms of Argument
Induction: Argument by induction builds from evidence and observation
to a final conclusion. Most people recognize induction as the basis for
scientific method. Simple induction moves from "reasons" and examples
to conclusion and does not require scientific observation or eyewitness
reports.
 Deduction: Argument by deduction builds from accepted truths to
specific conclusions. The syllogism and enthymeme are examples of
deductive arguments. We may also structure deductive arguments
based on cultural or social truths leading to specific conclusions.
 Narrative: Stories and anecdotes should not be considered innocent
moments of entertainment in political communication. Narrative argues
partly by denying its ability to persuade. Remember the powerful use
Ronald Reagan made of anecdotes. He perfected the form for the
modern presidency, and every president since has followed his lead.
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From Rhetorica