Week 5: Police in the U.S. – History
and Organization
1) Identify what “policing” involves
2) Trace the evolution of modern
police organizations (in the U.S.)
3) Summarize the organization of
policing in U.S. across different
levels of government
1) What does “police” involve?
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Policing involves maintaining the order of the
polis – which means “maintenance of civil
order” in the community
It refers to internal actions directed to the
maintenance of civil order and law within a
community
Distinguish police from the military which
deals with external actions toward outside
communities
Policing is broader than law enforcement
What does “police” refer to? (cont.)
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Policing refers to the authorized use of force
to maintain order on behalf of the entire
community;
this is in contrast to:
• Use of unauthorized force by citizen groups
to maintain order = vigilante policing
• Use of military forces by an outside power to
forcibly control an occupied population =
martial law
• Use of privately funded and controlled force
to maintain order = mercenary policing
What does “police” refer to? (cont.)
• Again: Distinguish policing from law
enforcement
• “Policing” = very general function of order
maintenance in the community or society
– Includes both proactive & reactive efforts
– Includes both positive & negative actions
– E.g., protecting, peace-keeping, helping, maintaining order,
problem-solving, resolving conflict, preventing crime
• “Law enforcement” refers to coercive efforts to
respond to apprehend and punish offenders
– It is essentially reactive, coercive, and corrective
2) The History of Policing (in U.S.)
• Police in the U.S. is mostly adapted from
English police systems and practices
– Occasional borrowing from European practices –
e.g., French & Spanish systems
• It follows certain universal patterns in the
evolution of policing (found everywhere)
• But mainly shows distinct English & American
patterns that reflect the unique political history
of Great Britain and the American colonies
The general evolutionary pattern =
3 stages or forms of policing
1. Self-policing: informal policing by citizens
2. Transitional policing: semi-organized by
semi-specialists or mercenaries
3. Modern policing: centralized control of
specialized, professionalized police officers
acting under authority of community or “the
state”
1. Self-Policing:
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informal policing by members of the community
behaving as citizens
Operation of policing in groups = Informal,
voluntary, occasional, reactive, general
May be organized by families or clans 
German/Saxon wergild system
May be organized by communities  English
Mutual pledge system:
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tithings (tithingman)  hundreds (constable)
Group must respond to “hue and cry”
Operates through collective-collaborative action by
community members
2. Transitional Policing:
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Semi-organized arrangements of citizens and private
agents  goes beyond simple voluntary enforcement
Mutual pledge system
Frankpledge system – royal appropriation of & control over
the mutual pledge system
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Watch-and-Ward systems – in middle English cities
Mercenary systems – private agents paid to do policing
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Hundreds further organized into Shires (counties)
Hundreds = financially accountable for apprehending offenders
Shire led by appointed Shire-reeve (“Sheriff”) appointed by ruler
Praetorian guard – retained to protect the Roman Emperor
Gendarmes – paid by fees to catch wrong-doers
Thief Takers – paid by reward for recovering stolen goods
Bow Street Runners – private security/detective agency
The “regulators” and early Texas Rangers in U.S. old West
Paid replacements for pledge and watch members
3. Modern Policing:
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Formally organized, paid policing by full-time
specialists in officially authorized agencies
Require stronger centralized governments
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– Authority to make and enforcement laws
– Legitimate monopoly on exercise of force
– Specialized agencies carry out specific functions
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First U.S. police formed:
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In large cities in response to riots & lawlessness
But also to maintain & enforce systems of
inequality ”slave patrols” in southern colonies
& states
First Modern Police Force = the
London Metropolitan Police
• Organized by Sir Robert Peel & authorized by
Metropolitan Police Act of 1829
• Adoption was controversial and contested, but
became model for later police forces
• Organized on a new model
– Paramilitary organization: disciplined, professional
– Proactive focus on “policing” as peace-keeping
 prevention of crime through order maintenance,
watchfulness, and service
– Deemphasis on force – i.e., unarmed; intended to
achieve compliance through respect
Policing in the American colonies:
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Generally adopted the English Pledge
system but with some modifications
Even greater emphasis on local autonomy
– Reduce coercive power of central authority
– Make police officials locally accountable – e.g.,
Sheriff appointed by governor or elective
– Rural areas use Sheriff + citizens
– Cities use very basic night-watch systems
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Policing in colonies = weak & fragmented
– Reluctance to create strong formal authority
– Decentralized and locally administered
Policing in the U.S.: Historical Eras
Can be divided into broad periods reflecting
social, economic, & political changes
• Colonial Era (pre-1780)
• Post-Colonial (Infancy) Era (1780-1840)
• Expansion (Spoils) Era (1840-1900)
• Progressive Era (1900-1930)
• Modern Era (1930-1960)
• Reform Era (1960-1980)
• Contemporary Era (1980-present)
Policing in U.S.: Colonial Era (pre-1780)
• Localized, fragmented, variable, and minimal
organization of police systems
• Great emphasis on local authority &
voluntarism
• Opposition to strong central governments
• Forms of Policing:
– Weak Sheriff-Posse system (rural areas)
– Weak Constable-Watch system (cities)
– Formation of Slave Patrol (southern states)
Police in Post-Colonial Era (1780-1840)
• Infancy of new nation (establishing basic
structures) – continuation of colonial forms
– U.S. = “ a confederation of states”
– Even states’ coercive powers are limited
• Maintain localized control over police
• No state or national police (ex. U.S. Marshals)
• Resist stronger police organization – even
locally  strong resistance to endowing
central government with coercive authority
Policing in Expansion Era (1840-1900)
• U.S. grows as national power  major
economic, political, and social changes
• Emergence of powerful political machines
• Creation of modern city police departments
• Policing seen as locally controlled, corrupt,
partisan, brutal, unprofessional (“Spoils Era”)
• Expansion of federal government & police
• Large private police agencies: Pinkerton,
Brinks, Wells-Fargo, Railroads, Regulators,
etc.
Policing in the Progressive Era (1900-1930)
• Emergence of “Progressivism” – ideology of
“beneficial government” & social progress
• Police professionalism movement emerges
– Removal of politics & patronage from police
– Use of science and technology to improve efficiency (e.g.,
cars, fingerprints, labs, statistics)
– Emphasis on education, training, & selection
– Emergence of Unionism
– IACP advocated national crime statistics (UCR)
– August Vollmer (UC-Berkeley; Wickersham Commission)
• Stronger federal government & police
• Creation of first State Police agencies
Policing in the Modern Era (1930-1960)
• After the Depression ended, an era of social
stability and economic growth
• Police Professionalism was extended &
institutionalized  maintain the status quo
New view of Police as professional, apolitical,
crime-fighting protectors of public safety
Impact of social science
O.W. Wilson: textbook on police administration
• Expansion of federal police (FBI) due to threat
of communism, foreigners, & organizedinterstate crime (also state police)
Policing in Reform Era (1960-1980)
• Period of dramatic social conflicts, crises, and
changes (civil rights; Viet Nam, rise in crime)
• National changes in legal landscape
• Challenges to view of police as nonpartisan,
professional defenders of law and freedom
• Beginning of criticism & research to test the
received wisdom about policing
• National Commission on Law Enforcement
• Commissions on corruption/misconduct
• Experimentation and variation in policing
• Increased federal funding & sponsorship
Policing in Current Era (1980-present)
• New technologies & practices to
– Make police work more efficient & effective
– Expose errors and misbehavior
• New organizational models & theories
– Community-Oriented Policing
• Impact of globalization and terrorism
– Homeland Security (Patriot Act – 2002)
• Increased federal influence through funding
and training  standardization & control
• Privatization  expanded use of “rent-a-cops”
Forms of Policing in the Current Era
The varieties of current police agencies include:
• Local – Municipal and township departments
• County – Sheriff’s offices and sheriff’s police
departments (+ county constables in Texas)
• State – 49 primary State law enforcement agencies
• Special jurisdiction – schools, airports, etc.
• Federal – 65 agencies with police powers
• Private – about 2 million persons serving as private
police & security officers
• International – none at present – except Interpol
Local Police (cities & towns):
• 12,433 local police agencies in the U.S.
– 10,788 = municipal (city) departments
– 1,612 = township or town departments
– 33 = regional (combined) departments
• Most are very small:
– Over half have fewer than 10 full-time officers
– One-third have less than 5 full-time officers
– One-eight (1,720) have 1 or less full-time officer
• A few are very large
– Under 5% (83 depts) have 100 or more full-time
officers (the size you see on TV programs)
County Police Agencies:
• 3,111 County-level Police Agencies (in 2000)
– 3010 County Sheriff’s Offices
– 52 County Sheriff’s Police departments
– 49 Unified (“unigov”) City-County Agencies
• Note the continued importance of the Sheriff
in the 21st century
– Major county-level police agency in most states
– Elective office in all but two states
– Constitutional office in most states
– Has broad, diverse responsibilities and powers
State Police Agencies:
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Found in all but one state (Hawaii has a
“State Sheriff’s office”)
• Newest form of police agencies in U.S. (only
appeared in 1900s)
• Two general types:
1) State Police: Full and broad police powers to
investigate crimes & to enforce law anywhere (in
about half the states)
2) Highway Patrol: focus mainly on highway
traffic safety and traffic law enforcement (the
other half states)
Special Jurisdiction Agencies
• 1,376 police agencies with special limited
jurisdictions
• About 65% of these involve educational
institutions (e.g., college campuses, public
high schools)
• Also transportation facilities (e.g., airports,
transit systems, railroad, shipping ports)
• Also public parks, natural resources,
conservation departments, fish & game
• Also tribal police on Indian reservations
Federal Police Agencies:
• Federal law enforcement  mostly a 20th
century development (exc. U.S. Marshals)
• Located in various agencies where special
enforcement or investigation need occurs
• Federal Police agencies grew in early 1900s
• Some consolidation of agencies in:
– Treasury Dept.
– FBI: under J. Edgar Hoover
– Homeland Security (in 2001)
• Dept. of Homeland Security = biggest change
Most important Federal Police:
• Dept. of Justice
– FBI (15,214)
– DEA (4,400)
– US Marshals Service (3,233)
– ATFE (formerly in Treasury) (2,373)
• Dept. of Homeland Security
– US Customs and Border Protection (27,705)
– Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE)
(10,399)
– Secret Service (4,769)
Private Police & Security:
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Estimated 2 million private security officers in US
 3-4 times as many as in public police agencies
 A growing sector of policing
• What do these involve?
1) Proprietary security – employed by company itself
2) Contract Security – employed by a security firm
which contracts with employer company
 Brinks; Burns; Wackenhut; Pinkerton; Wells-Fargo
3) Private Police (with limited authority petitioned from
government)
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Private colleges & schools
Private companies with national security interest
Closed communities
Private Police/Security (cont):
• What are their Powers and Authority?
Generically same as any citizen
Some may be derived from employer
May be enhanced in some states (with
licensing)
Enhanced when public police officers are
hired as 2nd job (bring police powers with
them)
International Police?
• Interpol = the only international policing organization
– It is a cooperative, voluntary organization
─Member nations agree to contribute resources and
share information
─No real arrest powers or compulsory powers
– Its main function = information-sharing and
investigation
– No international government or jurisdiction exists that
provides its authority (beyond what member nations
voluntarily concede)
– An expanded role for Interpol in the future?