Personality and Sport
Performance
September 3, 2002
Definitions
• “The sum total of an individual’s
characteristics which make him/her unique”
(Hollander, 1971)
• Collection of traits; consistent
• Construct of personality (Hollander, 1971;
Martens, 1975)
Structure of personality
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Psychological core
Typical responses
Role-related behaviors
All are influenced by the social
environment
– Role-related behaviors most influenced by
environment
Psychological Core
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Indicative of what the person is “really” like
Basic attitudes, values, etc.
Centerpiece of personality
Most difficult to change
We would want to understand this to make
any further assumptions about a person
Typical Responses
• Usual manner in which we respond to
different environmental situations
• Frustration, anxiety, humor, etc.
• We use a person’s typical responses to
determine their psychological core
• May be based on one-time response
Role-Related Behavior
• Most superficial aspect of personalities
• Engage in these behaviors to fit the
environment we perceive
• As our perceptions change, our superficial
behaviors change
• Not a good indicator of a person’s
psychological core
Problems with Personality Structure
• What is influence of underlying
personality?
• If a person can act so differently based on
situation, how much influence does
personality really have?
Theories of Personality
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Hippocratic/physiological
Psychodynamic
Social Learning
Trait Theories
Interactionist
Hippocrates/Physiological
• Hippocrates (400 B.C.)
– personalities based on 4 bodily humors (black
bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm)
• Phrenology
– Bumps on skull
• Physiognomy
– What animal does the face most closely
resemble?
Psychodynamic
• Freud was the most renowned
psychodynamic theorist
• Free association
• Personality explained through three
components
– Id
– Ego
– Superego
Components of Personality
• Id
– Irrational; operates from “pleasure principle”
– Usually sexual or aggressive instincts
• Ego
– Logical, reality-oriented
• Superego
– Conscience, internalized moral standards
Defense Mechanisms for Ego
• If too much conflict exists between the three
parts of the personality, ego may have to
“defend itself”
• Repression
• Rationalization
• Projection
• Displacement
Social Learning
• Human behavior is a function of social
learning and the strength of the situation
• Behave as we learned how
• Effect of personality traits should be
minimal
• Based on stimulus-response theory
• Stimulus-->organism-->response
Social Learning
• Two primary mechanisms through which
individuals learn socially:
– Modeling
– Social reinforcement
Modeling
• Bandura’s social learning theory (1963)
• Imitative behavior/vicarious learning
• Vicarious learning requires:
– An observer
– Actor who serves as the model for the behavior
– Modeling cues (components of model’s behavior)
• Bobo Doll Study (1965)
• Examples in sport (LLWS, etc.)
Social Reinforcement
• Rewarded behaviors are more likely to be
repeated
• Verbal/nonverbal communication may
affect response
• Positive reinforcement (give a positive)
• Negative reinforcement (remove a negative)
• Punishment (apply a negative)
Trait Theories
• How do people with varying degrees of
traits tend to behave?
• Traits = relatively stable characteristics
exhibited over time & across situation
• Typically generalizable & used to predict
behavior in a variety of situations
• Convergence indicates expression of a trait
(shyness, anxiety, etc.)
Trait Theories
• States = Feelings and thoughts related to a
particular time and/or situation
• Anxious before competition
• Trait theories widely researched, but generally
criticized
• Mischel (1968) argued people do not behave as
predictably as trait theorists suggest--situations
influence
• Traits do play some role (and predispose for
states)
Interactionist Theory
• Person and environment both interact to create
human behavior
• Personality is exerted in some places and not in
others (e.g., hockey player)
• Behavior expectancies are significant, but stresses
individual differences (how much does an
individual value a reward)
• Recognizes potential influence of personality &
situation
Assessing Personality
• Three major techniques for assessment
• Sometimes linked with specific theories:
– Rating scales
– Unstructured projective tests
– Questionnaires
Rating Scales
• Use of a judge to observe individual in
some situation
• Checklist or scale (maximum objectivity)
• Interview or observation of performance
• If performed properly (well-trained &
systematic), can be reliable & valid
Unstructured Projective Procedures
• Used to identify traits (or motives)
• Allow subjects to reveal inner feelings &
motives
• Closely associated with psychoanalytic
• Rorschach Test (1954), Thematic
Apperception Test (1947), Sentence
Completion Test (1954)
Structured Questionnaires
• Pencil-and-paper, T/F, Likert-type scales
• Some designed for abnormal, some normal
• MMPI (hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria,
masc.-fem., lying)
• Cattell 16 PF (introversion-extroversion,
anxiety, tough-mindedness, and independence)
• Athletic Motivation Inventory (leadership,
aggression, trust, coachability, etc.)
Use in Sport
• Rating scales & projective procedures not
used frequently in sport/exercise
• Questionnaires (16 PF) used more often to
help athletes identify strengths &
weaknesses
• Used to develop intervention strategies &
identify athlete belief system regarding their
personalities
Credulous Vs. Skeptical
• Two schools of thought
• Credulous
– Personality can be used to predict athletic
success
• Skeptical
– Value of personality is minimal