Introduction to Anatomy
M. Ilker Gelisen MD
Human anatomy
THE DEFINITION OF ANATOMY
– Greek = to cut up, or dissect
– The science that deals with the structure of the body
Anatomical Scale
Anatomy and Physiology
•
•Anatomy – study of structure
• Physiology – study of function
“Structure dictates function.”
THE DEFINITION OF PATHOLOGY
• the branch of medical science that studies the
causes and nature and effects of diseases
• any deviation from a healthy or normal
condition
Pathology is the precise study and diagnosis of
disease. The word pathology is from Ancient
Greek, pathos which may be translated into
English as either "experience" or "suffering".
and, -logia, "the study of".
THE DEFINITION OF
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
A subject to explore the rule of origin and
evolution of disease processes and the
fundamental mechanisms .
Pathophysiology
Anatomy
Overview of Anatomy
• Branches of anatomy
– Gross anatomy
– Microscopic anatomy
• Cytology
• Histology
– Developmental anatomy
• Embryology
– Comparative anatomy
Scale of Anatomy
• Gross anatomy
– Surface anatomy
– Regional anatomy
– Systemic anatomy
• Microscopic anatomy
– Cytology
– Histology
Gross Anatomy
• Definition:
– That which can be seen with the naked eye
• Kinds:
– Regional:
• body studied by area
– Systematic:
• body studied by system
Microscopic Anatomy
Cytology
•
•
•
•
Studies the internal structure of individual cells
Cyto= “cell”
ology= “study of”
“unit of Life”
50-100 trillion
cells in the body
Histology
• Study of structure & organization of groups of
cells and tissues
• Tissue= groups of organized specialized cells
that perform similar functions
Developmental Anatomy
• Definition:
– The study of anatomical changes in a life cycle
• Kinds:
– Embryology:
• The study of prenatal development
– Postnatal development:
• The study of structures after birth
Comparative Anatomy
• Definition:
– Comparison of structures between organisms
• Kinds:
– Vertebrate:
• Comparison of structures among the vertebrate classes
– Phylogeny:
• The study of phyla, and their relationships
Comparative Anatomy
• All vertebrates
share a basic
pattern of
organization, most
noticeable during
embryology.
History
• After the Fall of Rome (476 A.D.): the dark ages
– Medical knowledge saved by Byzantium and the Islamic world
– monasteries
• 1200’s
– Out of the dark ages
– Medical schools in Solerno, Bologna Italy
• 1400’s: Renaissance
– Leonardo de Vinci (1452-1519)
• Vesalius: the “Reformer of Anatomy” (1514-1564)
– Based on cadaver dissection again; corrected Galen
– The father of modern anatomy
• The emergence of modern medicine
Tashrih albadan
manuscript
Ca 1400-1500
By
Mansur ibn
Muhammad ibn
Ahmad ibn Yusuf
ibn Faqih LLyas
Persian
Anatomist
20
Leonardo’s
Sketches
De Humani
Corporis
Fabrica
Albinus
Tabulae Sceleti e Musculorum
Corporis Humani
(London, 1749). Copperplate
engraving with etching. National
Library of Medicine
Plastination: Gunter von Hagen
Plastination: Gunter von Hagen
001 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w7imTotlzsk
Anatomical Terminology
• Why is it important?
• How are things named?
– Anatomical structures- landmarks
– Specialized directional terms
– Location
– Proper nouns
Anatomical Terminology
•
•
•
•
•
Standard anatomical position
Body regions
Body orientation & direction
Body planes & sections
Body cavities
Anatomical
Terminology
 Anatomic position is a
specific body position in
which an individual stands
upright with the feet parallel
and flat on the floor.
 The head is level, and the eyes
look forward toward the
observer.
 The arms are at either side of
the body with the palms
facing forward and the thumbs
pointing away from the body.
Gross Anatomy
 Anatomical position – a common visual reference point
 Person stands erect with feet together and eyes forward
 Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed away from the
body
Figure 1.3
Anatomical Terminology
A plane is an imaginary surface that slices
the body into specific sections.
The three major anatomic planes of
reference are the coronal, transverse, and
sagittal planes.
Anatomical Planes, Axes & Directions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uKQGNh_herE
Sections
and Planes
A coronal plane, also
called a frontal plane, is
a vertical plane that
divides the body into
anterior (front) and
posterior (back) parts.
Frontal Plane
• Longitudinal section into anterior (front) &
posterior (back) halves
Sections
and Planes
 A transverse plane, also
called a cross-sectional
plane or horizontal plane,
cuts perpendicularly along
the long axis of the body or
organ separating it into
both superior (upper) and
inferior (lower) parts.
Transverse Plane
• Horizontal plane divides body into
superior (top) & inferior (bottom)
halves
• Cross sections
Sections
and Planes
A sagittal plane or
median plane,
extends through the
body or organ
vertically and
divides the structure
into right and left
halves.
Sagittal Plane
• Longitudinal section
into left & right halves
• Midsagittal down the
midline
Body planes and sections
- cut into sections along a flat surface called a plane
(also called coronal)
(also called XS – cross section)
Sections and Planes
A sagittal plane in the body midline is a
midsagittal plane.
A plane that is parallel to the midsagittal plane, but
either to the left or the right of it, is termed a
parasagittal (or sagittal) plane.
A minor plane, called the oblique plane, passes
through the specimen at an angle.
Midline
Midsagittal Plane
Body Planes and Sections
• Oblique section through the trunk
Directional Terms of the Body
Directional terms are precise and brief, and
for most of them there is a correlative term
that means just the opposite.
Relative and Directional Terms of
the Body
 Relative to front (belly
side) or back (back side)
of the body :
 Anterior = In front of;
toward the front surface
 Posterior = In back of;
toward the back surface
 Dorsal =At the back side
of the human body
 Ventral = At the belly side
of the human body
Relative and Directional Terms of
the Body
Relative to the head or
tail of the body:
 Superior = Toward the
head or above
 Inferior = Toward feet not
head
 Caudal = At the rear or tail
end
 Cranial = At the head end
Relative and Directional Terms of
the Body
 Relative to the midline or
center of the body:
 Medial = Toward the
midline of the body
 Lateral = Away from the
midline of the body
 Deep = On the inside,
underneath another
structure
 Superficial = On the
outside
Relative and Directional Terms of
the Body
Relative to point of
attachment of the
appendage:
 Proximal = Closest to
point of attachment to
trunk
 Distal = Furthest from
point of attachment to
trunk
Orientation and Directional Terms
Orientation and Directional Terms
Orientation and Directional Terms
Body Orientation & Direction
Martini table 1-2
Body Positions
• Supine
– Lying down in the anatomical position with face up
• Prone
– Lying down in the anatomical position with face
down
anatomical terms of movement
• Flexion: A movement by which the angle of a
joint is decreased
• Extension: A movement by which the angle of
a joint is increased
anatomical terms of movement
• Adduction: Movement toward the central axis
• Abduction: Movement away from the central axis
anatomical terms of movement
• Medial rotation: Rotation toward the medial side
of the body
• Lateral rotation: Rotation towards the lateral side
of the body
an atomical terms of movement
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5YcNAPzDxDg
Body Regions
The human body is partitioned into two
main regions, called the axial and
appendicular regions.
 the axial region includes the head, neck, and
trunk which comprise the main vertical axis of
our body
 our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s
axis and make up the appendicular region
anatomical Directional Terms, Planes, and Body Cavities
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rZffxPpBjiA
Principle Anatomical Regions
Martini Table 1-1
Posterior Regions
Superficial vs Deep
Naming of serous membranes (serosa) with 2 adjectives:
1.)
parietal or
visceral
Parietal serosa forms the
outer wall of the cavity
Visceral serosa covers the
visceral organ
2.)
pericardial,
pleural, or
peritoneal*
Pericardial: heart
Pleural: lungs
Peritoneal: abdominal
• 9 abdominal regions; 4 quadrants
The important
regions:
epigastric
umbilical
inguinal,
(or iliac)
flank
(side but
in back)
The 4 quadrants:
RUQ
LUQ
RLQ
LLQ
What’s underneath……
MAJOR FUNCTIONS
• Metabolism: sum of all chemical processes
that occur in the body
– Anabolism: building; requires energy
– Catabolism: break-down; releases energy
•
•
•
•
Excitability/Conductivity:
Contractility
Growth and Development
Reproduction
Human Body Systems and Functions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qhajGKS5thQ
Systemic Anatomy
• Study structure of major
body systems
• 11 body systems
• SYSTEMS
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic
Immune
Nervous
Endocrine
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
Integumentary System
• Components
– Skin
– Hair, nails
• Function
– External covering
– Protection
– Synthesis of Vitamin D
– Location of Sense receptors
Skeletal System
• Components
– Bones
– Joints and adjacent cartilages
• Function
–
–
–
–
Support
Protection
Movement
Blood cell production (red bone
marrow)
– Mineral storage (calcium and
phosphorus)
Muscular System
• Components
– Skeletal Muscles
– Associated Connective Tissues
(tendons)
• Function
– Locomotion
– Manipulation of the environment
– Facial expression
(communication)
– Maintain posture
– Produce heat
Circulatory System
• Components
– Cardiovascular System
– Lymphatic System
• Function
– Transportation of materials
– Within the body
– To and from internal and external environments
Cardiovascular System
• Components
– Heart
– Vessels
• Function
– Transportation of blood
– Blood contains O2 and CO2,
nutrients, wastes, etc.
– Blood composed of plasma and
cells
Lymphatic System
• Components
– Lymphatic Organs (spleen,
lymph nodes, thymus, etc.)
– Lymphatic Vessels
• Function
– Transportation of lymph
– Lymph is derived from tissue
fluid
– Houses white blood cells
Immune System
• Components
– Immune Organs (red bone
marrow, thymus, etc.)
– White blood cells
(lymphocytes,
macrophages, etc.)
• Function
– Defense (Immune
response)
Nervous System
• Components
– Brain, Spinal cord (CNS)
– Nerves (PNS), sense receptors
• Function
– Control system (fast, “hard
wired”)
– Response to external and
internal environments
Endocrine System
• Components
– Glands that secrete hormones
– E.g. Pituitary, pancreas,
– thyroid
• Function
– Control system (slow,
“chemical”)
– Regulates processes such as
growth, reproduction and
nutrient use
Respiratory System
• Components
– Lungs
– Tubing ( trachea, bronchus, etc.)
– Larynx (vocal cords)
• Function
– Exchange of respiratory gases (O2
and CO2)
– Between blood and atmosphere
– Voice production
Digestive System
• Components
– Alimentary canal (mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine)
– Accessory structures(liver,
salivary glands, etc.)
• Function
– Break down food into small,
absorbable pieces
– Between blood and lumen
– Eliminate waste
Urinary System
• Components
– Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary
bladder, Urethra
• Function
– Eliminate waste (nitrogen)
from blood
– Between blood and
external environment
– Regulates water,
electrolytes, acid/base
Reproductive System
• Components
– Male Reproductive System
– Female Reproductive System
• Function
– Perpetuation of the species
– Hormones influence structure and
function
– Sexually bimorphic species
Structural organization from simplest to
most complex
• Chemical
• Cellular
• Tissue – group of cells similar in structure and
function
• Organ – Two or more tissue types performing specific
function
• Organ system – group of organs acting together to
perform specific function
• Human organism
• B. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION - from
the smallest component to the whole
body.
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
88
The Cell
Voyage into the cell
Introduction to Cells
• The basic structural and functional unit of all
living things
• Major cellular regions
• The plasma membrane
• The cytoplasm
• The nucleus
Functions of the plasma membrane
•
•
•
•
Separates intracellular fluid from extracellular fluid
Acts as a barrier
Some membrane proteins act as receptors
Determines which substances enter and leave cell
– Diffusion
– Specific transport mechanisms
– Bulk (vesicular) transport
• Exocytosis
• Endocytosis
The Cytoplasm
• The Cytosol: jelly-like fluid matrix
• Organelles (about nine types)
– Ribosomes: sites of protein synthesis
– Endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth): products synthesized
(protein, lipid, steroid); store calcium
– Golgi apparatus: packages and modifies proteins
– Mitochondria: synthesizes ATP (energy source)
– Lysosomes: intracellular digestion (“disintegrators”)
– Peroxisomes: detoxify substances
– Cytoskeleton: supports cellular structures
– Centrosomes and centrioles: organize microtubule network
• Inclusions: not permanent (eg. food storage units and
pigments)
The nucleus
• Control center of the cell
• Surrounded by a nuclear envelope
• Nucleolus associated with ribosome
production
• Chromatin - extended & condensed
– DNA and histones (packaging material)
– Four types of nucleotides: A, T, G, C
– Nucleosomes: 8 histones wrapped in DNA
– Chromosomes
NUCLEUS
Control center of the cell
Surrounded by a nuclear envelope
Nucleolus associated with ribosome production
Chromatin - extended & condensed
Tissues
Tissues
Tissues
• Definition: a group of closely associated cells
that perform related functions and are similar
in structure
• Between cells: nonliving extracellular material
• Four basic types of tissue…function
– Epithelium…covering
– Connective tissue…support
– Muscle tissue…movement
– Nervous tissue…control
Epithelia (plural)
• Epithelium: sheet of cells that covers a body
surface or lines a body cavity; also form most of the
body’s glands
• Roles: as interfaces and as boundaries
• Functions:
Protection
Absorption
Sensory reception
Ion transport
Secretion
Filtration
Formation of slippery surfaces for movement
 Four
basic types of tissue
Epithelium
Connective
tissue
 Connective
tissue proper (examples: fat
tissue, fibrous tissue of ligaments)
 Cartilage
 Bone
 Blood
Muscle
tissue
Nervous tissue
The four tissue types
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tKWTJ3_-1E8
Classes of Connective Tissue: note the cell types
and great variety of subclasses
Connective Tissue
•
•
•
•
Originate from embryonic tissue called mesenchyme
Most diverse and abundant type of tissue
Many subclasses
Function: to protect, support and bind together
other tissues
– Bones, ligaments, tendons
– Areolar cushions; adipose insulates and is food source
– Blood cells replenished; body tissues repaired
• Cells separated from one another by large amount of
nonliving extracellular matrix
Basic functions of connective tissue reviewed
• Support and binding of other tissues
• Holding body fluids
• Defending the body against infection
– macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, WBCs
• Storing nutrients as fat
(a) Cutaneous membrane
(b) Mucous membrane
(c) Serous membrane
• Four basic types of tissue
– Epithelium
– Connective tissue
– Muscle tissue
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
• Smooth
– Nervous tissue
• Four basic types of tissue
–Epithelium
–Connective tissue
–Muscle tissue
–Nervous tissue
• Neurons
• Supporting cells
Terminology
•
Find definitions and memorize terms:
Anterior
Posterior
Superior
Inferior
Medial
Lateral
Proximal
Distal
Superficial
Deep
Cephalic
Vertebral
Thoracic
Appendicular
Brachial
Lumbar
Latin and Greek Prefixes and Suffixes
(http://www.technion.ac.il/~medicine/Students/latin&Greekprefixes.html )
Acro- extremity. Acrophobia is a fear of heights.
Adeno- gland. Adenoid is a lymph gland found in the nasopharynx.
Alba- white. Albinsm is the white appearance of skin lacking melanin.
Algia- pain. Neuroalgia is a pain following the course of a nerve.
Angi- vessel. Angioplasty is the repair of a blood vessel.
Arthro- joint. Arthritis is the inflammation of skeletal joints.
Auto- self. Autolysis is the destruction of body cells by bodily enzymes.
Bio- living. Biology is the study of living organisms.
Blast- germ, bud. Osteoblast is the germ of a bone cell.
Blephar- eyelid. A blepharoplasty is eyelid surgery.
Brachi- arm. The brachialis muscle moves the arm.
Broncho- trachea, windpipe. Bronchitis is the inflammation of the respiratory system.
Bucc- cheek. The buccinator muscle is in the cheek.
Capit- head. De-capitate means "Off With the Head!"
Carcin- cancer. A carcinogen is a substance which triggers cancer formation.
Cardia- heart. Cardiologist is a heart specialist.
Cephal- head. Cephalon is another term for the brain. (see capit-)
Cerebro- brain. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is fluid circulating within the brain and spinal cord.
Chole- bile, gall. Cholecestectomy is removal of the gallbladder.
Chondro- cartilage. A chondrocyte is a cartilage cell.
Chroma- color. Chromosomes are so named because they took color easily when dye is added to a cell.
Cili- eyelash. Supercilia are eyebrows -- the hairs above the eyelashes.
Corpus- body. Corpus albicans is the white body inside an ovary.
Corona Crown. Coronary arteries supply blood to the heart muscle run along the heart, encircling it like
a crown.The coronary ligaments of the liver (which encircle the liver like a crown), the coronal suture
and the corona of the glans penis, all structures which encircle something (like a crown).
Cost- rib. Costal cartilages attach ribs to the sternum.
Cut- skin. Cutaneous tissue is skin tissue.
Cysti- sac, bladder.
Cyto- cell. Cytology is the study of cells.
Dactyl- digits. Polydactylism is the presence of more fingers than is normal.
Derma- skin. Dermatologists are skin specialists. (see cut-)
Dura- tough, hard. Dura mater is the tough covering around the brain and spinal cord.
Entero- intestine. Enteritis is inflammation of the intestines.
Erythro- red. Erythrocytes are red blood cells.
Galacto- milk.Galactose-Milk Sugur; Galactosemia is the lack of ability to digest one of milk's
sugars.
Gastro- stomach, belly. Gastric juices are produced in the stomach.
Glosso- tongue. Hypoglossal means "below the tongue".
Glyco- sugar. Glycosuria is sugar in the urine.
Hema- blood. Hemaglobin is a large molecule of the red blood cell.
Hepato- liver. The hepatic vein drains blood away from the liver.
Hyster- uterus. Hysterectomy is the removal of the uterus.
Ileo- ileum. Part of the small intestine.
Ilio- ilium. Part of the hip bone.
Lachry- tears. Lacrimal glands secrete tears.
Leuko- white. Leukocytes are white cells of the blood. (see alba-)
Lingua- tongue. Sublingual glands are beneath the tongue. (see glosso-)
Lipo- fat. Liposuction is the removal of fat by suction tube.
Lith- stone. Shock wave lithotripsy is a treatment for breaking up kidney stones.
Lumbo- lower back. Lumbar vertebrae are located in the lower back.
Macul- spot, blotch. The macula lutea is a spot on the retina of an eyeball.
Mamm- breast. Mammogram is a picture of a breast, usually a female breast.
Mast- breast. Aren't we showing our obsession with breasts?
Meningo- membrane. Meninges are the coverings of the brain and spinal cord.
Metro- uterus. Endometrium is the inner lining of the uterus. (see hystero-)
Morpho- shape. Endomorphs are people whose physical shape extends to the limits of human
dimension.
Myelo- spinal cord. Poliomyelitis is inflammation of the grey matter of the spinal cord.
Myo- muscle. Myo-cardiac infarction is a problem with the heart muscle.
Necro- death. Necrosis is death of cell tissue.
Nephro- kidney. Nephrons are the functional units of a kidney.
Neuro- nerve. Neurons are individual nerve cells.
Oculo- eye. An oculist supplies eyeglasses.
Odont- tooth. Othodontics refers to repair of teeth.
Onco- tumour. Oncology is not doctors wearing pagers; it is the study of cancerous tumours.
Ophthalm- eye. Ophthalmology is the study of eye and its diseases.
Oro- mouth. The oral cavity is the other name for the mouth.
Orchido- testicle. Orchidectomy is removal of a testicle.
Osse-, Osteo- bone. Osteoporosis is porosity of bone.
Oto- ear. Otosclerosis is the formation of bone in the ear.Otomycosis-fungal infection in ear
Patho- disease. Pathogens are agents which cause disease.
Peps- digestion. Pepsin is an enzyme found in the digestive system.
Phago- eat. Phagocytes are cells (cyto-) which eat foreign material.
Philo- love, to have an affinity for. Hydrophilic molecules are attracted to water (hydro-)
Phleb- vein. Phlebitis is inflammation of the veins.
Phren- diaphragm. Phrenic refers to a diaphragm.
Pneumo- lung. Pneumonia is a disease of the lungs.
Pulmo- lung. Are lungs related to breasts?
Pyo- pus. Pyruria is pus in the urine.
Ren- kidney. Renal artery supplies blood to the kidney.
Rhin- nose. Rhinoplasty is a nose job
Scler- hard. Atherosclerosis is hardening of the arteries. (see dura-)
Stasis- stand still. Homeostasis is the process of maintaining constant conditions within the body.
Thromb- clot, lump. Thrombosis refers to a clot in the heart or blood vessel.
Trich- hair. Trichosis is a disease of the hair.
Vas- vessel, duct. Vas deferens is the vessel which carries sperm from the epididymus.
Viscer- organ. Visceral refers to organs.
Zoo- animal. Zoology refers to the study of animals.
THE END