TEACHING WRITING
USING THE
WRITING PROCESS
Outcome: Students engage in a
“writing process” to write for a
number of different purposes.
0.1 Teachers teach students the stages of the writing process.
0.2 Directed teaching of writing occurs daily and includes
implementing preplanned mini-lessons focusing on
teaching students a variety of aspects of each stage of
the writing process.
0.3 Teachers develop and implement an efficient classroom
management system for supporting each student in the
various stages of the writing process.
0.4 Teachers support all students with personalized scaffolding
strategies, as needed, in the prewriting stage, including
identifying reason for writing, choosing a topic, identifying
audience, determining form, etc.
0.5 Teachers support all students with personalized scaffolding strategies,
as needed, in the drafting stage, including finding, ordering, and
selecting information about which to write, etc.
0.6 Teachers support all students with personalized scaffolding strategies,
as needed, in the revising (for clarity) stage, including choice of
grammar, determining amount of information, presenting information in
different way, use of graphics, etc 0.7 Teachers support all students with
personalized scaffolding strategies, as needed, in the editing stage,
including proofreading and correcting composition as it relates to
spelling and mechanics of punctuation, and grammar.
0.7 Teachers support all students with personalized scaffolding strategies,
as needed, in the publishing stage, including making final copy,
selecting a way to share with intended audience (e.g., bookshelves,
author’s chair/share, bulletin boards, “binding”, etc.).
0.8 Students are given routine opportunities to discuss their writing with
their peers/others/intended audience.
0.9 Each student has a writing portfolio that contains at least 5 publications
representing different forms. All 5 publications have evidence of
progress through each phase of the writing process.
Activity-Getting to Know One Another
Form teams of four members who do not know
each other.
Pair up to do interview. Decide who is A and B.
A’s interview B’s. B’s interview A’s.
Without talking any more write about your partner.
Partners get together to see if revision is necessary.
Groups use Rallytable to proofread/edit.
Make final copy.
Share by introducing your partner.
“Another way students learn to read is by writing. For
some children, their own writing provides the first
successful reading experience. Many children love the
combination of writing and illustrating that leads to a
published work. Children’s writing samples, prior to the
publication stage, serve as a rich portrait of how well
young minds are applying important language skills and
strategies, as well as what they know about words”.
-Patricia M. Cunningham, Dorothy P. Hall, & Cheryl M. Sigmon
Why teach writing?
Reading Improvement
Required Communication
Influence Others
Thought Clarification
Writing to Learn
What do you have to
say?
Be active.
Do it.
Student chooses the
words.
Productive.
Output.
Reading to Learn
What did they have to
say?
Sit still.
Pay attention.
Teacher chooses the
words.
Consumptive.
Input.
Virginia DeBolt, 1998
WRITING PROCESS
Daily Opportunities to
explore and create writing
 Progression through a
number of levels
 Part of well balanced
literacy program
CURRICULUM PHILOSOPHY
• INTEGRATED LANGUAGE ARTS
• COMMUNICATION AS CENTRAL FOCUS
• LANGUAGE CONVENTIONS DEVELOPED
AND APPLIED IN CONTEXT
• RESOURCE BASED CURRICULUM
• SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT
• REFLECTIVE TEACHER/FACILITATOR
• RESPECT OF GRADUAL, ONGOING
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Purposes of Writing
To record events
To explain
To hypothesize
To persuade
To invite a response
To predict
To command, direct, or request
To amuse, entertain
To narrate
To invent
To inform
To find out
To invite reflection
To summarize
To comment or give
an opinion
Dancing with the Pen
WRITING WORKSHOP
A BLOCK OF TIME SCHEDULED EACH
DAY WITH STUDENTS WORKING
THROUGH THE WRITING PROCESS. THIS
TIME TYPICALLY BEGINS WITH A
TEACHER DIRECTED MINI-LESSON
FOLLOWED BY STUDENTS WRITING ON
THEIR OWN. THE TEACHER MOVES
FROM INSTRUCTOR TO FACILITATOR
AND PROMOTER OF WRITING WITH
FOCUS ON INDIVIDUALIZATION.
THE WRITING WORKSHOP IS HIGHLY
STRUCTURED AND GENENRALLY
REQUIRES:
A TIMETABLE
 RULES
 CLASSROOM SPACE  A TYPICAL
 STUDENT MATERIALS
LESSON
TIMETABLE
DAILY SCHEDULED TIME
KINDERGARTEN: 30 – 40 MINUTES
GRADES 1 – 3: 45 MINUTES – 1 HOUR
GRADES 4 AND UP – AT LEAST ONE HOUR
OR MORE INTEGRATED INTO ANOTHER
SUBJECT
-Linda J. Dorn and Carla Soffos
SPACE
WHERE WILL BE THE DESIGNATED
WRITING AREA? WILL THERE BE A
TABLE OR COUNTER SPACE FOR
NEEDED MATERIALS? WILL THERE BE
WALL SPACE CLOSE FOR WRITING
POSTERS? WILL THERE BE WORD
WALLS? ARE THERE PLACES TO
DISPLAY STUDENT WRITING?
-Linda J. Dorn and Carla Soffos
RULES
KEEP TO A MINIMUM.
THERE WILL BE MOVEMENT AS STUDENTS
ORGANIZE WRITING AND OBTAIN
MATERIALS FROM THE WRITING CENTER.
THERE WILL BE CONFERENCING.
A GOOD RULE OF THUMB IS THAT
“WRITING TIME IS QUIET TIME”.
-Linda J. Dorn and Carla Soffos
A TYPICAL LESSON
• LESSON STARTS WITH A MINI-LESSON
THAT IS USUALLY 5-20 MINUTES LONG.
• STUDENTS PROCEED WITH THEIR OWN
WRITING. THEY WILL BE AT VARIOUS
STAGES IN THE PROCESS.
• AT THE END OF THE LESSON STUDENTS
NEED A CHANCE TO SHARE THEIR
WRITING.
-Linda J. Dorn and Carla Soffos
MATERIALS
 DATE STAMP
 STACKING TRAY WITH VARIOUS
KINDS AND COLORS OF PAPER
MARKERS, PENS, COLORED
PENCILS
BASKETS FOR WRITING PAPERS
 STAGE STAMPS AND INK PAD
 ATLAS
RUBBER STAMPS FOR
DECORATION
CHARTS
STAPLER
 HOLE PUNCH
TAPE
 STICKY NOTES
 DICTIONARIES
THESAURUS
 WORD BOOKS
 PHONE BOOKS
STAGES OF THE
WRITING PROCESS
~ PREWRITING ~
~ DRAFTING ~
~ REVISING ~
~ PROOFREADING ~
~ PUBLISHING ~
ROTATINg REVIEW
1. Topics are written on pieces of chart paper and hung around the room.
2. Each team is given a marker.
3. Designate teams to go to one of the papers.
4. Team is given one minute to write on the paper about specific topic.
5. Teams rotate to next paper when time is called.
6. Teams are given one minute to read what the previous team has written.
7. Teams put a question mark beside ones that they have a question on or
disagree.
8. Team has an additional thirty seconds to write any other information.
9. Continue this procedure until each team has rotated to all the papers.
Prewriting
The writer establishes and clarifies a purpose
of writing, brainstorms possible topics, collects
pertinent materials, identifies an audience, chooses
an appropriate form of writing, and establishes an
initial organizational strategy.
The teacher helps students select topics, encourages
them to talk to generate ideas and language about
the topic, provides resources, suggestions, and
materials and discusses appropriate format and
audience.
INSPIRATION FOR TOPIC
IDEAS
•PERSONAL INTEREST INVENTORIES
•CLASS INTEREST INVENTORIES
•MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS, PERIODICALS
•RADIO, TV, INTERNET
•INTERVIEWS
•DREAMS, MEMORIES, EXPERIENCES
•LITERATURE RESPONSE
•DISCUSSION, BRAINSTORMING,
ROLE PLAYING, IMAGINATION
• BRAINSTORMING
• FREE WRITING
• TOPIC OR WORD
CHARTS
• LISTS
• JOURNALLING
• WEBBING
• MAPPING
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
CLUSTERING
IMAGE STREAMING
VISUALIZATION
FAST WRITING
GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
THINKING
DAYDREAMING
PREWRITING STRATEGIES
~ Graphic Organizers – brainstorming webs,
mind maps, and other charts that help organize
thoughts and ideas ~
~ Come Aboard a R.A.F.T. – Role, Audience,
Format, Topic ~
~ Descriptive Word Prompters ~
~ Five Senses Chart ~
~ Handprint Organizer ~
Cooperative Learning Structures
for Prewriting
4-S Brainstorming
Formations
Inside-Outside Circle
Roundrobin
Team Discussion
Team Interview
Think-Pair-Share
Drafting
The writers express ideas in an uninterrupted flow
while keeping the purpose and audience in mind.
They get information on paper, concentrate on
content and explore topic possibilities. Invented
spellings, blanks, cross-outs, and abbreviations are
acceptable.
The teacher offers encouragement, helps organize
information, gives assistance focusing on the topic,
provides enough time and structure to ensure
students get off to a good start.
What is the purpose for writing this piece?
What will my audience want to know about this
topic?
How can I best arrange my information?
What main ideas do I want to present?
What details will support my main ideas?
What will make a good lead to catch the
reader’s attention?
How can I end the piece effectively?
-Gary R. Muschia
Revising 
The writers narrow down topics, eliminate
irrelevant writing, reorganize writing, write
additional drafts, and research information.
Content quality, clarity, smooth flowing
ideas, and descriptive language is emphasized.
Teachers encourage peer revision sessions
and encourage students to talk to other
students about their writing and add, cut,
and reorder their writing.
Revision is not editing for mechanics
and spelling. It is probably the most
difficult stage to teach students.
Encourage students to:
•Write on one side of the paper.
•Use markers or pens so they can concentrate
on ideas and not on erasing.
•Skip lines so it is easy to mark out/change
words.
All writing does not have to be
revised, BUT…
Teach students to ask themselves:
• Can I improve my writing?
• Should I write from a different point of
view?
• Are there places where my writing could
be clearer, more interesting, more
informative, or more convincing?
REVISING METHODS
A.R.R.R.
Adding, Rearranging, Removing, Replacing
R.A.G.
Read Around Group
A.R.M.S.
Add, Remove, Move Around, Substitute
Proofreading/Editing
Writers should correct mechanical errors
(spelling, punctuation, and capitalization).
Writing should be read aloud before the final
copy is made. An editing checklist is a good
tool.
Teachers should encourage peer
proofreading, provide vocabulary, give
instruction of specific skills, help students
evaluate their writing, and encourage
students to consult reference materials.
Teach basic editing conventions to
students and encourage them to use them
in editing.
Teach popular acronyms such as:
C
O
P
S
Capitalization
Organization
Punctuation/Paragraphs
Sentences/Spelling
Use editing checklists
Cooperative Learning
Structures for
Editing/Proofreading
Corners
Experts Edit
Pairs Confer
Roundtable
Teams Confer
Virginia Debolt, 1998
Publishing
Writers make their final copies and share
their finished work. Writers feel that their
writing is important when they share.
Teachers should encourage students to share
by reading aloud, publishing, organizing a
class book, making their own books,
displaying final drafts, and sharing with
bulletin boards, electronic bulletin boards,
multimedia presentations, newsletters,
newspapers, oral presentations, journals, etc.
Author’s Chair is a
popular way for students
to share their writing.
Response to writing
•2 Hugs and a Wish
•TAG
Activity
Look at your card. Go to the corner having the
word that matches your word.
Share with the other people in your corner anything
about that stage of the writing process.
Go to your seat and write about something that was
shared in your group.
Use Inside/Outside Circle to check to see if
revisions are needed. Make any that are needed.
Go back to your corner to proofread papers.
Go to seat and make your final copy for publishing.
A comprehensive writing curriculum includes
the best solutions to teach K-5 students to
overcome a major problem they have
learning to write well.
• Every child has problems
learning to write.
• Every child has predictable
problems.
~ J.M. Cunningham
Motivation
• (2-3 years to develop)
• (More prevalent in writing than reading)
• lack of self-confidence/
self-efficacy
(many students do not
• lack of intrinsic
motivation
( need by 3rd grade or
very tough to teach)
• lack of independence
( words to spell, topic to
write…)
see writing at home)
-J.M. Cunningham
Solutions/ Addressing Motivation Problems
Self-Selected
Writing
Single Draft
Writing
Phonic Spelling
Positive Sharing
This is an approach where students
choose what to write about and how
to write without the guidance of a
teacher
Process writing assumes that
students work on more than one
draft. However, single draft writing
is initially done without standards.
This is a shaping process, in which
students work on their own time to
complete one single draft.
Inventive spelling is accepted at this
phase.
This is when students can share
their first drafts in a positive
atmosphere. In this positive
approach, students can begin
sharing with questions like, “I’d like
to know more about…”
-J.M. Cunningham
Writing isn’t just a speaking
problem….
• Spelling
• Capitalization
• Punctuation
• Formatting
• Usage (more tolerant in speech
than writing)
-J..M. Cunningham
Solutions: Writing Isn’t Just a Speech
Problem
• Word Walls for high frequency words
• Writing mini-lessons
• Editing instruction (how to use a Word Wall
and editor’s checklist to proofread and correct
you own paper independently)
-J.M. Cunningham
Meta-analysis review of writing research…
George Hallocks of Chicago stated, “If
you want to teach students appropriate,
mechanical writing, you must teach
students to proofread and correct their
own paper using a small set of rules
….editor’s checklist”.
-J.M. Cunningham
(Take 4-5 years to develop)
• The natural inability to “juggle” all the components of
writing at the same time
• Need student to have an acceptable first draft.
• “Good writers must handwrite, spell, capitalize, and
format”
• Taking dictation is a horrible writing activity
• (example- Student can do one worksheet but doesn’t
generalize to writing and spelling on test, not a writing
paper)
• By the end of elementary the automaticity has
developed such that the first draft is “adequate” to the
last draft.
-J.M. Cunningham
The Writing Process & Writer’s Workshop
• Revision… ways to change content (add, delete,
re-order, replace content)
• Editing… rule-based ways of finding and
correcting errors
• Copying
-J.M. Cunningham
Mini-lessons begin in a “huddle” in the front
of the classroom. The children are close and
can see the teacher write as she “thinks
aloud” and talks about what she is doing and
why. The teacher writes and models all the
things writers may do. Mini-lessons vary
according to grade level and the observed
needs of children.
-J.M. Cunningham
Great ideas for Mini-Lessons
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Actual class procedures used during
the writing period
Rules for the writing period made by
teacher and/or students
Teacher models writing using “thinkalouds”
Working together with the class on
shared writing
“Words Authors Use” (Have a word a
day. Examples:publish, illustrate, edit,
topic, dedicate, etc.)
Grammar and Usage -nouns-words that mean a person,place
or thing
verbs-words that show action
adjectives- words that describe
Capital letters
Punctuation marks
How to “Set a Scene” (setting)
Fiction
Non-fiction
Mysteries
Stories that teach
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
“Feelings” in writing
Read a book, any book! Books
are great writing models
How to add to or change a story
Staying on the topic
Rhyming words
Synonyms
Homonyms
Antonyms
Poetry (This could turn into a
week of mini-lessons)
Letter Writing
Interviews
Riddles
Jokes
Newspapers
How to make a list
Student pieces (Always use a
piece that a student
has down correctly)
-J.M. Cunningham
•Bring in something already written (with mistakes), and
put on the overhead.
•Revise- Is it interesting? Does it do what I wanted?
•Get the student to elicit ways that address change.
•Cut poor parts out (kids like to see you cut it out!)
•Typically when adding revision during a mini-lesson, do
not say what you are writing (teachers typically do). If you
don’t say while writing, students have the chance to read.
•Tape the parts to overhead
•Ask if anyone wants to revise
-J.M. Cunningham
Copying without new mistakes!
•First- must be revised & approved.
•Second- must be revised, edited, & approved.
Step 1: Copy one sentence at a time. Check
every sentence to see if copied. Use fingers
word by word to help copy correctly.
-J.M. Cunningham
There are many different types of genres
or types of writing. Each one must be
learned separately!
-J.M. Cunningham
Solutions to the Multiple-Genres
Problem
Initially self-selected until enough
confidence…motivation to write then address multiplegenres by:
• Focused writing lessons on a variety of
types of writing - teacher selected writing.
• Carefully crafted prompts - problems not
prompting students, it’s when we promptthis is the heart of a focused writing lesson.
• Genre-based writing scales- not to teach
students to edit, but how to revise
--use descriptive writing scales (teacher
use rubric, not students)
--Scale is in a yes/no-present/not present
format; one item at a time
-J.M. Cunningham
What students read affects how they write…
The Prior-Knowledge Problem
• You cannot write well about what you do not know about.
• You cannot write well about what you do not understand.
• You cannot write clearly and interestingly about something
unless you know the vocabulary.
*Prompted writing disadvantages some students prior-knowledge.
-J.M. Cunningham
1. Self-selected writing
2. Experience-based teaching of
science, social studies, and
current events.
-J.M. Cunningham
Teachers should conference with
students in all stages of the
writing process.
Students should do most of the talking.
The teacher is a coach not a critic.
Focus should be on one point/key element.
Conferences should last no more than two minutes.
Key Questions:
How are you doing? Are you having any problems?
What’s the best part of your piece of writing?
What are you going to do next?
Peer Conferencing
Use Gambits
Use Peer Response Forms
Use Modeling and Reinforcement
Cooperative Learning
Structures
for Conferencing
Corners
Inside-Outside Circle
Numbered Heads Together
Pairs Confer
Roundrobin
Roundtable
Teams Confer
Virginia Debolt, 1998
10 Rules for Writers
1. Write.
2. Write.
3. Write often.
4. Write about anything.
5. Write about everything.
6. Write about what you see.
7. Write about what you learn.
8. Write about what you think.
9. Write about what you read.
10. WRITE!!!
Virginia DeBolt, 1998
Writing Taught Only During
“Language Arts” Period
Writing Across the
Curriculum as a Tool for
Learning
Teacher control of decision-making by:
Deciding on all writing topics
Dictating suggestions for improvement
Determining learning objectives alone
Giving instruction as whole-class activity
Student ownership and responsibility by:
Receiving help in choosing their own topics
and goals
Having brief teacher-student conferences
Reviewing their own progress
Time spent on isolated drills on “sub skills”of
grammar, vocabulary, spelling, paragraphing,
penmanship, etc.
Time spent on writing whole, original pieces
Real writing purposes with student
involvement in determining
Instruction/support in all stages of the
writing process
Teacher talking about writing but
never writing or sharing own
work
Teacher modeling all stages of the
writing process and demonstrating
the process
Grammar lessons, isolated and
given in order as determined by a
textbook, before writing begins
Grammar and mechanics taught in
context as needed, especially
during the editing stage of the
writing process
Only teacher reading assignments
Real audiences reading writing
assignments
Negative evaluations by teacher
Marking errors heavily
Editing paper instead of helping
student make improvements
Focusing on grading instead of growth
Constructive, efficient evaluation
Brief informal oral responses
Grading of student-selected pieces
Viewing of growth and self-evaluation
Encouraging risk-taking and honest
expression
Activity
The topic is: Women are as effective in combat
as men.
Use class value line to demonstrate your feelings
about this topic and participate in discussion with
your partner after the line splits.
Write--remembering your audience.
Form teams of four. With one partner confer for
content. Revise as needed. With another partner
proofread. Make edits and prepare final draft.
Share with the last person in your group.
Choose one of these topics.
Birth control should be available to
students from their high school
counselors.
President Bush is doing an
outstanding job.
Madonna is a good role model for our
students.
If ________ were alive today,
what would you ask him/her?
•ThinkPad Brainstorm
Questions
•Independent Write
•Arrange Questions/Answers
•Put together as written
interview
Compare & Contrast
Plants & Animals
•Pair Project with chart
•Use chart to write your
compare-and-contrast essay
on another sheet of paper
•Revise with partner
•Proofread with partner
•Make final copy
Math Writing
Solve this problem:
2/4
+ 1/8__
With a partner discuss the steps to how you solved this
problem.
With your partner, list the steps that you used taking
turns writing each step.
Create a poster illustrating the steps to solving the
problem. You will present your poster to the class.
Write a brief paper explaining the process you just
analyzed and sequenced. The steps in your writing
should match the steps as they were displayed on your
poster.
NOW:
On your card write something from today that
squared with what you already thought.
On your card write something from today that
made you view something from a different
angle.
What new piece of information from the
presentation completed or “closed the circle”
for you? Write it down.
Z
List an action or a new approach that you will
take and share with someone.
-Bob Pike and Lynn Solem