Bahan Kajian MK. Pengelolaan SDALH
PENGELOLAAN
PENCEMARAN TANAH
Smno.psdl.pdkl.ppsub.des2013
PENCEMARAN TANAH ATAU LAHAN
Soil pollution or land pollution is an undesirable change in the physical ,chemical or
biological characteristics of the soil that adversely affects its fertility and
productivity
There are many natural and synthetic materials that can adversely affect the
properties of the soil
Logam berat seperti tembaga, seng dan
molibdenum adalah elemen penting
untuk tanaman dan hewan, tetapi
konsentrasi yang berlebihan dapat
merusak kesuburan tanah secara
keseluruhan.
Logam seperti kadmium dan timbal
dapat memiliki efek buruk pada
kesehatan manusia dan hewan jika
mereka dibiarkan menumpuk dalam
rantai makanan.
Terjadinya konsentrasi tinggi logam
berat dalam topsoil lahan pertanian
umumnya sangat lokal. Waktu tinggal
sebagian besar logam berat ini cukup
panjang dan mereka cenderung tidak
tersedia bagi tanaman.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.ecifm.rdg.ac.uk/landpolluti
on.htm
SOURCES OF LAND POLLUTION
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
The main soil polluting Industries
are
chemical, tanneries
Industries etc.
DOMESTIC WASTES
The various domestic garbage and
wastes are the second largest
sources of soil pollution
The domestic wastes include
polythene bags ,plastic materials
,broken packing box ,bottle etc
LIMBAH PERTANIAN
The materials includes fertilizers
pesticides, salinity due to increased
irrigation etc
Sumber logam berat yang ada
dalam lahan pertanian :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Parent material (underlying geology)
Mine wastes
Atmospheric deposition
Farm manures
Sewage sludge
Fertilizers and lime
Agrochemicals
Industrial wastes.
Diunduh dari:
http://www.ecifm.rdg.ac.uk/landpollution.
htm
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
The radioactive wastes from different
nuclear reactors or different
testing laboratories cause severe
pollution to the soil
The radioactive pollutants include
barium-140; rhodium-106 etc.
The radioactive materials emit gamma
rays
which adversely affect the
living organisms
Agen-agen Hayati
The biological agents responsible for
soil pollution are the human
excreta,animal excreta, birds
excret
The diagram above shows that when animal manure is applied to soils it is decomposed by microbes. The complex protein in
the material is eventually broken down to release the nitrogen which was contained in it. The first nitrogen ion to be released
is ammonium (NH4+). In warm, well-drained soils which contain a favorable balance of water and air the "aerobic" microbes
soon convert ammonium nitrogen to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-) nitrogen.
Diunduh dari: http://www.memun.org/SchoolsProject/Resources/zoning/Shoreland/ordinance_appB.htm
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 21 March 1972 vol. 180 no. 1061 371-382
Eutrophication (J. W. G. Lund)
Eutrofikasi adalah pengayaan oleh hara tanaman . Berikut ini dibahas
eutrofikasi buatan manusia . Sumber utama pengayaan hara adalah limbah ,
pupuk buatan dan limbah pertanian . Populasi besar tanaman dan hewan ,
hidup atau mati , menyebabkan kesulitan dalam industri air dan dapat
mengganggu kegiatan rekreasi , terutama “fishing”.
Sebagian besar fosfor dan nitrogen dapat dihapus dari limbah buangan jika
biaya memungkinkan.
Penurunan volume runoff pertanian dalam julah besar dianggap tidak praktis,
tetapi pengurangan runoff sangat mungkin . Penghapusan polifosfat dari
deterjen adalah “dilema”, tetapi bahan pengganti yang cocok dan tidak
menimbulkan ancaman lingkungan belum ada di pasaran.
Diunduh dari: http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/180/1061/371
Pp. 462-465 in: Landin, M.C. (ed.), Wetlands: Proceedings of the 13th
Annual SWS Conference, New Orleans, LA, June 1992.
Rader, R.B. and C.J. Richardson. 1993.
The effects of agricultural run-off on small fish and
macroinvertebrates in the Everglades.
One of the most highly publicized fears associated with nutrient enrichment in
the Florida Everglades is the loss of wading bird populations because of a
decline in the density and diversity of macroinvertebrates. The object of this
study was to determine the effects of nutrient enrichment on oxygen, pH, and
especially macroinvertebrates along a nutrient enrichment gradient in the
Everglades. Although 24-hr. oxygen profiles were lower within enriched
compared to unenriched habitats, macroinvertebrate diversity and density were
higher. To date, 96 and 63 taxa have been identified from enriched and
unenriched sites, respectively. The density of macroinvertebrates, averaged
across all sampling dates, is 2.9 X greater within enriched compared to
unenriched sites. Although some analyses are not yet completed, these data
indicate that nutrient enrichment has not caused harmful foodweb effects.
Diunduh dari: http://www.nicholas.duke.edu/wetland/sws_93_rader.htm
SOURCES OF LAND POLLUTION
Chemical and nuclear plants
Industrial factories
Oil refineries
Human sewage
Oil and antifreeze leaking from cars
Mining
Littering
Overcrowded landfills
Deforestation .
TIPE-TIPE PENCEMARAN TANAH
Agricultural Soil Pollution
i) pollution of surface soil
ii) pollution of underground soil
Soil pollution by industrial effluents and solid
wastes
i) pollution of surface soil
ii) disturbances in soil profile
Pollution due to urban activities
i) pollution of surface soil
ii) pollution of underground soil
TIPE-TIPE PENCEMARAN TANAH
The urine and faeces discharged by animals contain a large
number of pathogenic organisms.
These pollute the soil and infect a large number even the man
CAUSES OF SOIL POLLUTION
Diffuse Pollution Conference, Dublin 2003 Poster Papers
Diffuse Pollution Conference, Dublin 2003 Poster Papers
14-102
PESTICIDE RETENTION IN THE WATERSHED AND IN A SMALL CONSTRUCTED
WETLAND TREATING DIFFUSE POLLUTION
K. Haarstad and B.C. Braskerud
Loss of pesticides is likely from watersheds where pesticides are used. The herbicides propachlor,
linuron and metamitron, and the fungicides propiconazole, fenpropimorph and metribuzin and
metalaxyl, were applied on an arable soil plot. A mass balance study showed that approximately 96
% of the applied pesticides disappeared within the watershed. Three pesticides remained as
residuals in the soil profile one year after the application. The 4 % of the pesticides that were lost
from the watershed gave peak concentrations, appearing immediately after spraying, reaching
levels that can be hazardous to aquatic life. The constructed wetland situated in the first-order
stream generally managed to lower the peak concentrations significantly. For the summer season,
retention varied from 12 to 67 % the first year. The second year, we observed both loss and
retention.
Increasing the wetland surface from 0.2 % to 0.4 % of the watershed area increased the average
retention with 21 % units the first year and 9 % units the second year.
Chemical properties of the pesticides could explain some of the behaviour in the watershed and in
the wetland.
Diunduh dari: http://www.ucd.ie/dipcon/docs/theme14/theme14_29.PDF
Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution
Volume 6, Number 1 / 2009
Pesticide Pollution in Punjab: A Review
N.S. Tiwana, Neelima Jerath, Gurharminder Singh, Ravleen Singh
The use of chemical pesticides in the country has increased by more than
seventeen times since 1955. The state of Punjab is one of the highest user of
these pesticides especially after the ushering in of green revolution. Though
the state has only 1.5% landmass of the country, it consumes about 17% of
pesticides used in India.
The per hectare pesticide use is highest in Punjab (923 g/ha) as compared to other
agriculturally advanced states like Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
and Gujrat. Although the use of pesticides has helped to enhanced economic gains
through crop protection yet they have had serious implications to human health and
non-target plants and animals by accumulating in food and water.
The present paper reviews various studies carried out in Punjab on the pesticide
residues found in different food items (like wheat flour, human milk, vegetables, etc.)
and their effect on human health.
Diunduh dari: http://iospress.metapress.com/content/0751534g14238545/
TIPE-TIPE PENCEMARAN TANAH
Wastes are unwanted and useless substances resulting from different
human activities
Un wanted or discarded substances that have weight and size are called
solid wastes eg:sewage
APPLICATION OF AGROCHEMICALS
FAULTY SANITATION PRACTIES
Sanitation means the whole field of controlling the environment with a
view to prevent disease and health
Some parts of the lands are polluted due to human excreta. It is a source
of infection
Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems
Volume 36, Number 2 (1993), 95-103, DOI: 10.1007/BF00747579
Fertilizers and eutrophication in southwestern Australia:
Setting the scene
E. P. Hodgkin and B. H. Hamilton
An excess of plant nutrients has caused serious eutrophication in aquatic ecosystems of
southwestern Australia manifested by excessive growth and accumulation of green and
bluegreen algae. Phosphorus is generally the limiting nutrient for algal growth and
phosphatic fertilizers applied to nutrient-deficient, leaching, sandy soils are the main
source of P, supplemented by rural industry point sources. Nitrogen is the limiting
nutrient in marine embayments with little drainage from the land. Measures to reduce
the load of P delivered to drainage include basing fertilizer application rates on soil
testing for P and the use of less soluble P fertilizers.
Catchment management plans are being implemented with community involvement to
reduce P loads and maintain agricultural production. This introductory paper reviews the
history of eutrophication in southwestern Australia and of studies into its causes,
principally in the large Peel-Harvey estuary.
It briefly summarises other papers in this special issue concerned with different aspects
of the problem: how to fertilize the land without causing eutrophication.
Diunduh dari: http://www.springerlink.com/content/hl37938503526656/
TIPE-TIPE PENCEMARAN TANAH
SALINATION DUE TO IRRIGATION AND FLOOD
•
over irrigaton and flood will increase the salinity of soil.This has
adverse effect on soil productivity
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SOIL EROSION
•
soil erosion leads to loss of productivity of soil
•
A ccording to Rama Rao ‘soil erosion is creeping death of soil’
INDIRECT CAUSES
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ACID RAIN
Acid rain occurs due to acid deposition in air these acid
deposition come from the motor vehicles, factory etc
acid rain contains nitric acid, sulphar dioxide etc
Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems
Volume 36, Number 2 (1993), 157-164, DOI: 10.1007/BF00747587
The potential use of wetlands to reduce phosphorus
export from agricultural catchments
J. M. Chambers, T. J. Wrigley and A. J. McComb
Natural and artificial wetlands have the potential to reduce phosphorus (P) loads
from dispersed agricultural runoff and from point sources in the Peel-Harvey
catchment, Western Australia. Small experimental systems containing wetland
plants and substrate have shown significant removal of P from inflowing water, the
proportion of P removed being dependent on P concentration and flow rate of
water through the system. The use of artificial wetlands to treat diffuse
agricultural runoff is limited by the highly seasonal runoff typical of this
Mediterranean climate, while use at point sources has so far been unsuccessful
because compounds from the effluent clog the wetland filters. Treatment at point
sources may well be feasible after further research.Natural wetlands in the
catchment absorb P received in runoff from farmland and, in the absence of any
outflow channels to the drainage system, confine this P within the boundaries of
the wetland. Disturbance to wetlands may reduce their efficiency in absorbing
nutrients and may release P stored in the vegetation and sediment to the water.
The conservation of natural wetlands is recommended to maximise nutrient
retention in the catchment.
Diunduh dari: http://www.springerlink.com/content/r1rj40h752056r65/
TIPE-TIPE PENCEMARAN TANAH
DISPOSAL OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Radioactive substaces pollute the soil . They have adverse effects
on fauna and flora.
EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION
EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH
Chlorinated hydrocarbons contained in the agrochemicals cause
cancer, birth defects, neurological disorders etc.
Most of the organic phosphates are toxic and human being may
suffer from diarrhea, vomiting, breathing difficulty etc high
concentration may cause paralysis, coma and death
Biogeochemistry (2006) 77: 441–463 Springer 2006
DOI 10.1007/s10533-005-3070-5
Escalating worldwide use of urea – a global change
contributing to coastal eutrophication
PATRICIA M. GLIBERT, JOHN HARRISON, CYNTHIA HEIL and SYBIL SEITZINGER.
While the global increase in the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers has been well recognized, another
change in fertilizer usage has simultaneously occurred: a shift toward urea-based products. Worldwide
use of urea has increased more than 100-fold in the past 4 decades and now constitutes >50% of global
nitrogenous fertilizer usage.
Global urea usage extends beyond agricultural applications; urea is also used extensively in animal feeds
and in manufacturing processes. This change has occurred to satisfy the world’s need for food and more
efficient agriculture. Long thought to be retained in soils, new data are suggestive of significant overland
transport of urea to sensitive coastal waters.
Urea concentrations in coastal and estuarine waters can be substantially elevated and can represent a
large fraction of the total dissolved organic nitrogen pool. Urea is used as a nitrogen substrate by many
coastal phytoplankton and is increasingly found to be important in the nitrogenous nutrition of some
harmful algal bloom (HAB) species.
The global increase from 1970 to 2000 in documented incidences of paralytic shellfish poisoning, caused
by several HAB species, is similar to the global increase in urea use over the same 3 decades.
The trend toward global urea use is expected to continue, with the potential for increasing pollution of
sensitive coastal waters around the world.
Diunduh dari:
JOURNAL OF CHINESE JOURNAL OF ECOLOGY
cje 2004, Vol. Issue (1): 73-77
Biodegradation and bioremediation of
pesticide pollution
YOU Minsheng, LIU Xin
This paper discussed the concept of bioremediation, pesticidedegrading microorganisms, acquisition and identification of
pesticide-degrading microorganisms, and elucidated the research on
enzymes in bioremediation of pesticide pollution, measurement on
efficiency and mechanism of pesticide bioremediation,as welll as
variables which affect the process of pesticide bioremediation.
The authors also summarized the advantages and disadvantages of
pesticide bioremediation, and discussed the development trends of
pesticide bioremediation.
Diunduh dari: http://www.cje.net.cn/EN/abstract/abstract5239.shtml
TIPE-TIPE PENCEMARAN TANAH
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2.
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4.
5.
Industrial wastes are extremely toxic to living beings . The toxins
enter the food chain causing a number of undesirable effects
Domestic wastes spread several chronic diseases
Industrial as well as domestic wastes can cause water borne
diseases
Radioactive substances contained in the soil can cause several
health problems
In the heaps of different industrial and urban wastes rates, fleas
and flies multiply and spread various diseases. The fleas help in
spreading the plague .The flies spread the diseases like dysentry
etc.
World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 72 2010
Use of Pesticides and Their Role in Environmental
Pollution
Muhammad Jamil Khan, Muhammad Sharif Zia and Muhammad Qasim
Insect pests are the major source of crop damage, yield and quality
reduction in Pakistan and else where in the world. Cotton crop is the
most hit crop in Pakistan followed by rice and the second most
important foreign exchange earning crop. A wide variety of staple,
horticultural and cash crops grown, reflect serious problems of many
types of insect pests. To overcome the insect pest problem, pesticide use
in Pakistan has increased substantially which has now been further
intensified. Pesticides worth more than billions of rupees are imported
every year. This paper reviews the over all pesticide use in Pakistan in
relation to pesticide prices, support price of cotton and rice, pesticide
use in different provinces of Pakistan on different crops and their impact
on crop productivity.
The environmental pollution caused by the use of pesticides,
contamination of soil and
water resources and the danger associated with the disposal of their
empty containers is also discussed in detail.
Diunduh dari: http://www.waset.org/journals/waset/v72/v72-24.pdf
EFEK PENCEMARAN TANAH
EFFECT ON PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE
The animal borne diseases which spread through soil are anthrax
and leptospirosis
radioactive pollutants affects the soil and soil fertility these
radiations kill plant species
Phosphate fertilizer is considered deterimental to crop
production long lasting effects of pesticides are visible in
animals.
EFFECTS ON THE ECONOMY
For removing the pollutants from the soil ,a certain amount of
Mar Pollut Bull. 2007;55(1-6):74-90. Epub 2006 Oct 9.
Assessing the impact of nutrient enrichment in estuaries:
susceptibility to eutrophication.
Painting SJ, Devlin MJ, Malcolm SJ, Parker ER, Mills DK, Mills C, Tett P, Wither A, Burt J,
Jones R, Winpenny K.
The main aim of this study was to develop a generic tool for assessing risks and impacts of
nutrient enrichment in estuaries. A simple model was developed to predict the magnitude of
primary production by phytoplankton in different estuaries from nutrient input (total
available nitrogen and/or phosphorus) and to determine likely trophic status.
In the model, primary production is strongly influenced by water residence times and relative
light regimes. The model indicates that estuaries with low and moderate light levels are the
least likely to show a biological response to nutrient inputs. Estuaries with a good light
regime are likely to be sensitive to nutrient enrichment, and to show similar responses,
mediated only by site-specific geomorphological features. Nixon's scale was used to describe
the relative trophic status of estuaries, and to set nutrient and chlorophyll thresholds for
assessing trophic status. Estuaries identified as being eutrophic may not show any signs of
eutrophication.
Additional attributes need to be considered to assess negative impacts. Here, likely
detriment to the oxygen regime was considered, but is most applicable to areas of restricted
exchange. Factors which limit phytoplankton growth under high nutrient conditions (water
residence times and/or light availability) may favour the growth of other primary producers,
such as macrophytes, which may have a negative impact on other biological communities.
The assessment tool was developed for estuaries in England and Wales, based on a simple 3category typology determined by geomorphology and relative light levels. Nixon's scale
needs to be validated for estuaries in England and Wales, once more data are available on
light levels and primary production.
Diunduh dari:
Diffuse Pollution Conference Dublin 2003 3A: Agriculture
3-14
COLD-CLIMATE VEGETATIVE BUFFER ZONES AS PESTICIDE-FILTERS
FOR
SURFACE RUNOFF
N. Syversen
Vegetative buffer zones adjacent to watercourses can be effective filters for
diffuse pollution from agriculture. Several investigations, even during snowmelt
season, have shown that retention of sediments and sediment-bound nutrients in
runoff water has been high through buffer zones (BZ). It is likely that BZ also can
be effective filters for sediment-bound pesticides. The retention of glyphosate,
propiconazole, fenpropimorph and soil particles was studied in surface runoff
experiments with 5-m wide buffer zones. Volume proportional samples were
collected after each runoff episode (1999- 2002). The distribution coefficient
(Kd) shows moderate to high adsorption of the pesticides to the experimental
soil. Results show average retention efficiency of about 74%, 61%, 85% and
34% for particles, glyphosate, propiconazole and fenpropimorph, respectively.
The amount of AMPA (which is a degradation product of glyphosate), entering
the BZ was high; approximately the same amount as for glyphosate.
The retention efficiency through the BZ for AMPA was about 78%. There were no
significant differences in removal efficiency (in %) between winter with
snowmelt and summer. This is possibly due to detachment of coarser aggregates
during winter, which trap more easily in the BZ. The conclusion based on this
study suggests BZ to be contributors to reduced pesticide input to surface
waters.
Diunduh dari:
Agricultural Runoff-Characteristics and Control
Raymond C. Loehr
Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division, Vol. 98, No. 6, November/December
1972, pp. 909-925
Agricultural runoff consists of nonpoint sources that range from almost natural
runoff to that from concentrated agricultural operations such as animal feedlots
and fertilized fields. Control of the latter is possible by waste management and
land conservation techniques. Increases in agricultural efficiency have been
associated with a variety of potential and real environmental problems.
The paper attempts to quantify some pollution problems due to agricultural runoff
and to put these problems in perspective. The major topical areas include erosion,
animal feedlots, rural runoff, pollution characteristics, and effect of fertilizers.
Management methods to control the quantity and pollutional quality of the runoff
are noted.
The paper stresses that agriculture should institute a systematic, coordinated
approach for specific production operations to reduce excesses that could cause
environmental degradation.
Diunduh dari: http://cedb.asce.org/cgi/WWWdisplay.cgi?127982
PENCEGAHAN DAN KONTROL PENCEMARAN TANAH
PENGELOLAAN SAMPAH YANG EFISIEN
Koleksi SAMPAH dan limbah dari berbagai tempat
dan membuangnya di tempat yang jauh,
merupakan metode yang paling populer daalam
pengelolaan limbah padat
Namun koleksi dari tempat yang berbeda dan
membuangnya ke tempat yang jauh , rantainya
panjang dan mahal
Untuk menghindari masalah ini, harus dibangun
stasiun-stasiun peralihan di berbagai lokasi (TPS)
. Journal of Environmental Protection
JEP >> Vol.2 No.4, June 2011 PP.429-434
Groundwater Pollution Due to Pesticides and Heavy Metals in North
West Bank
This study aims at determining the quantitative effect of pesticides including 2, 4D dichlorphenoxy acetic acids, Paraquat, Atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6isopropylamino-striazine), and MCPP 2-(2-Methyl-4-chlorophenoxy) pro-panioic
acid on groundwater quality due to agricultural in Jenin and Tulkarem, northern
part of the West Bank. The concentrations of pesticides in Jenin was found to be
higher than those in Tulkarem where the majority of the samples taken had
concentration 10 µg/L. It is concluded that the contamination of the tested wells
was due to pesticides and not wastewater disposal, since most of the samples
were free from pathogenic indicators. Results revealed that using these wells for
drinking purposes has a potentially high health risk. This is mainly due to the
uncontrolled industrial and agricultural activity as well as the lack of monitoring.
Concentrations of heavy metals including cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), iron (Fe), zinc
(Zn), chromium (Cr) and copper (Cu) were also quantitatively determined for the
same period extending from April, 2004 to May, 2005. Concentrations of Pb and Cr
in most of the tested wells in Tulkarem complied with the WHO guideline; while
nitrate (NO3) and potassium (K) concentrations exceeded the permissible
concentra-tions.
Diunduh dari: http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?paperID=5271
Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems
Volume 36, Number 2 (1993), 135-140, DOI: 10.1007/BF00747584
Changing fertilizer practices
J. S. Yeates
Traditional fertilizer practices using mostly single (ordinary) superphosphate
applied to pastures on sandy-surfaced soils in the coastal areas of south-western
Australia has contributed greatly to the eutrophication of waterbodies of the
region.
To reduce eutrophication, it is necessary to modify traditional fertilizer practices,
involving the accurate definition of nutrient requirements for specific situations,
and the evaluation of fertilizer strategy options to achieve optimal levels of yield. A
model was developed to integrate available information on phosphorus, sulphur
and potassium responses in pastures, and to estimate optimum fertilizer
application requirements.
The model uses a Mitscherlich function to describe pasture responses to applied
fertilizer. Use of the model to estimate optimum fertilizer application rates also
allows evaluation of the cost to agricultural production of reducing fertilizer
application rates based on environmental rather than on agricultural productivity
objectives.
Diunduh dari: http://www.springerlink.com/content/v6g4p0472282h283/
PENCEGAHAN DAN KONTROL PENCEMARAN TANAH
o
o
separate garbage bins can be used to collect different varieties of
wastes for recycling purposes
paper should not be mixed with glass or plastic which are difficult
to recycle
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RECYCLING OF WASTES
o
Most of the non-degradable materials can be removed from the
wastes and can be recycled to freshly usable one
The clothes ,papers and glasses can easily be recycled
it reduces the consumption of original resources secondly it
lessens the volume of the wastes
o
o
J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2008 March; 9(3): 197–209.
doi: 10.1631/jzus.B0710626
Mechanisms and assessment of water
eutrophication
Xiao-e Yang, Xiang Wu, Hu-lin Hao, and Zhen-li He
Water eutrophication has become a worldwide environmental problem in recent
years, and understanding the mechanisms of water eutrophication will help for
prevention and remediation of water eutrophication. In this paper, recent
advances in current status and major mechanisms of water eutrophication,
assessment and evaluation criteria, and the influencing factors were reviewed.
Water eutrophication in lakes, reservoirs, estuaries and rivers is widespread all
over the world and the severity is increasing, especially in the developing
countries like China. The assessment of water eutrophication has been advanced
from simple individual parameters like total phosphorus, total nitrogen, etc., to
comprehensive indexes like total nutrient status index.
The major influencing factors on water eutrophication include nutrient
enrichment, hydrodynamics, environmental factors such as temperature, salinity,
carbon dioxide, element balance, etc., and microbial and biodiversity. The
occurrence of water eutrophication is actually a complex function of all the
possible influencing factors. The mechanisms of algal blooming are not fully
understood and need to be further investigated.
Diunduh dari:
LAND-FILLING
CONSTRUCTION OF SANITARY LATRINES
DILUTION. Dilution is one way of removing pollutants
from the soil . It involves running large quantities of
water through the soil to leach out the pollutants
VAPOUR EXTRACTION. In vapour extraction ,air is
injected in to the soil to remove organic compounds
that evaporate quickly.
Bioremediation cleans up the soil by introducing bacteria
and other micro-organisms.
OTHER MEASURES
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steps should be taken to prevent and control soil erosion
strict pollution control legislation and effective
implementation should be made
use of biopesticides over chemical pesticides should be
encouraged
biodegradable organic waste should be used for
generation of biogas.
PNAS July 19, 2005 vol. 102 no. 29 10002-10005
Eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems: Bistability and
soil phosphorus
Stephen R. Carpenter
Eutrophication (the overenrichment of aquatic ecosystems with nutrients
leading to algal blooms and anoxic events) is a persistent condition of
surface waters and a widespread environmental problem.
Some lakes have recovered after sources of nutrients were reduced. In
others, recycling of phosphorus from sediments enriched by years of high
nutrient inputs causes lakes to remain eutrophic even after external inputs
of phosphorus are decreased. Slow flux of phosphorus from overfertilized
soils may be even more important for maintaining eutrophication of lakes
in agricultural regions.
This type of eutrophication is not reversible unless there are substantial
changes in soil management. Technologies for rapidly reducing
phosphorus content of overenriched soils, or reducing erosion rates, are
needed to improve water quality.
Diunduh dari: http://www.pnas.org/content/102/29/10002.long
Soil Pollution:
Masuknya zat-zat, organisme biologis, atau
energi ke dalam tanah, sehingga
mengakibatkan perubahan kualitas
tanah, yang kemungkinan akan
mempengaruhi penggunaan tanah secara
normal atau membahayakan kesehatan
masyarakat dan lingkungan hidup.
Soil Use and Management
Volume 27, Issue 3, pages 404–414, September 2011
Effects of conservation agriculture on runoff, soil loss and crop yield
under rainfed conditions in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia
Tesfay Araya, W. M. Cornelis, J. Nyssen, B. Govaerts, H. Bauer, Tewodros Gebreegziabher, Tigist
Oicha, D. Raes, K. D. Sayre, Mitiku Haile, J. Deckers
An experiment was carried out in a rainfed field using a permanent raised bed planting system for
3 yr (2005–2007) in Adigudem, northern Ethiopia in order to evaluate the effect of CA on runoff,
soil loss and crop yield. CA practices were introduced in fields with Vertisols in a randomized
complete block design on permanent 5 × 19 m plots. Three treatments were evaluated: (1)
conventional tillage (CT) with a minimum of three tillage operations and removal of crop residues,
(2) terwah (TER) that was similar to CT except that contour furrows were included at 1.5 m
intervals, and (3) derdero+ (DER+), which consists of permanent raised beds with a furrow and
bed system, retention of 30% of standing crop residues and zero tillage on the top of the bed. All
ploughing as well as the maintenance of the furrows of the permanent raised beds was done using
a local ard plough called maresha. Results from monitoring over 3 yr showed that soil loss and
runoff were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in CT followed by TER and DER+.
Average soil losses of 5.2, 20.1 and 24.2 t/ha were recorded from DER+, TER and CT, respectively.
Runoff was 46.3, 76.3 and 98.1 mm from DER+, TER and CT, respectively. Grain yield was
significantly lower (P < 0.05) in DER+ under teff in 2006, probably due to the high sensitivity of
teff to weeds. The yield of wheat in 2007 was significantly higher in DER+ followed by TER. The
terwah system is recommended as a first measure for wider adoption to reduce runoff and soil loss
and to increase crop yield. The long-term goal is to achieve a derdero+ system, i.e. a permanent
raised bed planting system along with the application of crop residues.
Soil contaminants are spilled onto the surface through many different activities.
Most of these are the result of accidents involving the vehicles that are transporting waste
material from the site at which it originated to the site at which it is to be disposed.
Soil contamination is caused by
the presence of man-made
chemicals or other alteration in
the natural soil environment.
This type of contamination
typically arises from the rupture
of underground storage tanks,
application of pesticides,
percolation of contaminated
surface water to subsurface
strata, oil and fuel dumping,
leaching of wastes from landfills
or direct discharge of industrial
wastes to the soil.
The most common chemicals
involved are petroleum
hydrocarbons, solvents,
pesticides, lead and other heavy
metals.
JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association
Volume 7, Issue 1, pages 124–132, February 1971
CONCENTRATIONS OF POLLUTANTS IN AGRICULTURAL RUNOFF
Dan M. Wells, Ellis W. Huddleston, Robert G. Rekers
Eighteen rural lakes in Lubbock County were sampled on a routine basis
following runoff-producing rainfall for a period of approximately eighteen
months to determine whether or not runoff from intensively farmed
agricultural areas contained significant concentrations of nitrates,
phosphates, herbicides, or insecticides. An additional fifteen lakes lying
within a triangle bounded by the cities of Plainview, Canyon, and
Hereford, Texas, were sampled one time during the summer of 1969 to
provide additional data regarding the nature and extent of the potential
problem in an area with a different soil type and a slightly different
cropping pattern.
Based on results of detailed analyses of pproximately two hundred
samples of water collected from the lakes and an equal number of
sediment samples collected from the same lakes at the same time, it
appears that the concentrations of all chemical pollutants in runoff from
agricultural lands in the High Plains are well below the allowable
concentrations for drinking water.
Diunduh dari: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-
Polutan di Permukaan Tanah
When any liquid pollutant
is on or just below the
ground surface for
any period of time,
one of three things
could happen to it, if
it is not cleaned up
first.
1- pollutant might be
washed away by
precipitation, causing
little or no harm to
the ground on which
it was found
( however, pollutants
will simply
accumulate
somewhere else)
The pressure of diffuse pollution on soils: polluted soils will eventually loose their important
function as filter and buffer in the water cycle. Soils are the key element in the water cycle
determining the quality of groundwater, surface water, and finally drinking water.
Diunduh dari: http://www.eugris.info/FurtherDescription.asp?Ca=2&Cy=0&T=Diffuse%20pollution&e=91
Water Research
Volume 21, Issue 8, 1987, Pages 889–890
Fluoride in irrigation waters of Agra district, Uttar
Pradesh
Vinay Singh, Ram Narain, Chandra Prakash
Air bawah tanah di daerah semi-kering Agra diperiksa untuk
mengetahui konsentrasi F dan kandungan bahan kimia lainnya.
Konsentrasi F di perairan bervariasi 0,2-3,2 mg / l dan 56% dari
air yang mengandung konsentrasi F yang membahayakan,
ternyata dipakai untuk air minum. Namun, perairan ini tidak
berbahaya bagi sebagian besar tanaman sehubungan dengan
konsentrasi F nya.
Konsentrasi fluoride tidak berkorelasi dengan EC, B dan
konsentrasi Na dari air tanah.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0043135487800040
.. Journal of Hazardous Materials
Volume 171, Issues 1–3, 15 November 2009, Pages 189–199
Nitrate contamination in groundwater of some rural areas of
Rajasthan, India
Surindra Suthar , Preeti Bishnoi, Sushma Singh, Pravin K. Mutiyar, Arvind K. Nema, Nagraj S.
Patil
Efforts were made to evaluate the level of nitrate in some agro-economy based
rural habitations of northern Rajasthan, India. A total of 64 groundwater samples
from 21 different villages/sub-villages of district Sri Ganganagar, India were
collected and analyzed for nitrate (as NO3−), sulphate (as SO42−) and few other
parameters. NO3− level in groundwater was 7.10–82.0 mg l−1 for individual
samples. But average NO3− for total samples was 60.6 ± 33.6 (SD) mg l−1, which
indicates the non-suitability of groundwater for drinking purposes, if BIS
permissible limit (22.6 mg l−1) is considered as reference level. SO42− ranged
form 28.6 to 660.3 mg l−1 in this area.
The regression analysis indicates the difference sources for NO3− and SO42−
contamination in different regions rather than a common source. The point and
non-point sources of NO3− and SO42− in groundwater of this region may be Nfertilizer, sewerage, animal waste, organic manure, geology of sub-surface soil
layers, pit latrines, etc. Results thus indicated that groundwater of this part of
the State is severely polluted due to anthropogenic activities. The continuous
consumption of such water may pose serious health hazardous in local residents.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389409008929
Polutan di Permukaan Tanah
1.
2.
the pollutant, if
volatile, could
evaporate, again
causing little harm to
the soil ( however, not
a solution to the bigger
pollution problem, as
it might become a
source of air pollution).
pollutant could
infiltrate through the
unsaturated soil, in
much the same way as
ground water.
The genesis and evolution of soil and groundwater pollution.
Pollutants percolate through soil, simultaneously releasing into the gas-phase volatile
components, if any, that can also diffuse back to the atmosphere.
Diunduh dari: http://wpage.unina.it/giutosca/mesocosmo/index_en.html
Agricultural Sciences in China
Volume 10, Issue 3, March 2011, Pages 423–430
Investigations on Nitrate Pollution of Soil, Groundwater and Vegetable
from Three Typical Farmlands in Beijing Region, China
Lian-feng DU, , Tong-ke ZHAO, , Cheng-jun ZHANG, Zhi-zhuang AN, Qiong WU, Bao-cun LIU, Peng LI,
Mao-ting MA
The aim of this study was to determine the nitrate pollution status of soil, groundwater, and
vegetable from three typical farmlands (croplands, vegetable fields, and orchards) in Beijing
region. During the investigation, hundreds of the soil, groundwater, and vegetable samples
from three typical farmlands were collected and analyzed. In addition, attributes of all
samples were recorded for data analysis. The results showed that nitrate was substantially
accumulated in soil profiles, while the soil nitrate concentrations of vegetable fields and
orchards were higher than those of croplands. Nitrate concentration in 0-30 cm soil of
vegetable field and orchard were 3.8 and 1.2 times of that of cropland, respectively. Nitrate
content of groundwater in vegetable field was 13.8 mg L−1 (with the over-standard ratio
44.8%), which was 2.8 folds of that in cropland. Nitrate concentration of groundwater under
orchard was 9.3 mg L−1 (with the over-standard ratio 23.5%), which was 1.9 folds of that in
cropland. High concentrations of the nitrate in vegetables were detected, particularly green
leafy vegetables ranked first with 2 685.5 mg kg−1, followed by rhizome vegetables,
cabbages, and fruit vegetables. The nitrate over-standard ratios of rhizome vegetables, green
leafy vegetables, fruit vegetables, and cabbages were 80.9, 37.9, 29.7, and 2.2%,
respectively. The results revealed that the high nitrate concentrations of soil, vegetable, and
groundwater might result from the high fertilization dose.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1671292711600217
Polutan di Permukaan Tanah


Agricultural practices,
including the use of
agricultural chemicals,
are another primary
source of pollution on
or near the ground
surface.
Most agricultural
chemicals are watersoluble nitrates and
phosphates that are
applied to fields, lawns
and gardens to
stimulate the growth
of crops, grass and
flowers.
Soil health in agricultural systems
M.G Kibblewhite, K Ritz and M.J Swift.
Soil health is presented as an integrative property that reflects the capacity of soil to
respond to agricultural intervention, so that it continues to support both the
agricultural production and the provision of other ecosystem services.
The major challenge within sustainable soil management is to conserve ecosystem
service delivery while optimizing agricultural yields. It is proposed that soil health is
dependent on the maintenance of four major functions: carbon transformations;
nutrient cycles; soil structure maintenance; and the regulation of pests and diseases.
Each of these functions is manifested as an aggregate of a variety of biological
processes provided by a diversity of interacting soil organisms under the influence of
the abiotic soil environment.
Analysis of current models of the soil community under the impact of agricultural
interventions (particularly those entailing substitution of biological processes with
fossil fuel-derived energy or inputs) confirms the highly integrative pattern of
interactions within each of these functions and leads to the conclusion that
measurement of individual groups of organisms, processes or soil properties does not
suffice to indicate the state of the soil health.
A further conclusion is that quantifying the flow of energy and carbon between
functions is an essential but non-trivial task for the assessment and management of
soil health.
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 27 February 2008 vol. 363 no. 1492 685-701
Ag Chemicals
1.
2.
When not used by the plants the nutrients can enter
streams and lakes during the run-off or leaching
events.
Once in a body of water, these chemicals continue to
promote the growth of plants, the resulting plant
detritus is food for micro-organisms, and as the
population of such organisms grows, the supply of
oxygen in the water is depleted.
Optimizing nutrient management for farm systems
Keith Goulding, Steve Jarvis and Andy Whitmore
Increasing the inputs of nutrients has played a major role in increasing the supply of
food to a continually growing world population. However, focusing attention on the most
important nutrients, such as nitrogen (N), has in some cases led to nutrient imbalances,
some excess applications especially of N, inefficient use and large losses to the
environment with impacts on air and water quality, biodiversity and human health. In
contrast, food exports from the developing to the developed world are depleting soils of
nutrients in some countries.
Better management of all essential nutrients is required that delivers sustainable
agriculture and maintains the necessary increases in food production while minimizing
waste, economic loss and environmental impacts. More extensive production systems
typified by ‘organic farming’ may prove to be sustainable. However, for most of the
developed world, and in the developing world where an ever-growing population
demands more food, it will be essential to increase the efficiency of nutrient use in
conventional systems.
Nutrient management on farms is under the control of the land manger, the most
effective of whom will already use various decision supports for calculating rates of
application to achieve various production targets. Increasingly, land managers will need
to conform to good practice to achieve production targets and to conform to
environmental targets as well.
. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 12 February 2008 vol. 363 no. 1491 667-680
B.O.D.
"Biochemical Oxygen
Demand", or "BOD".
This means that the water
is capable of supporting a
large population of bacteria
that will have a high
demand for oxygen.
Biochemical oxygen demand curves: (A) typical carbonaceous-demand curve showing
the oxidation of organic matter, and (B) typical carbonaceous- plus nitrogeneousdemand curve showing the oxidation of ammonia and nitrite. (Modified from Sawyer
and McCarty, 1978.)
Diunduh dari: http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/Chapter7-Archive/chapter7.2/7.2.html
Agriculture and Environment
Volume 3, Issue 1, December 1976, Pages 57–67
Nitrate pollution of groundwater from nitrogen fertilizers and animal wastes
in the Punjab, India
Bijay Singh, G.S. Sekhon
Fifty-seven water samples were obtained from wells situated on cultivated farms and
near village settlements in the Ludhiana and Hoshiarpur districts of Punjab (India).
Water samples collected in June and September, 1975 were analysed for nitrate.
Probability plots indicated that 90% of the well-water samples may contain less than
45 mg NO3−/l, the upper safe limit. The nitrate content of well water near villages was
significantly higher than in the cultivated area. Animal wastes appear to be the major
contributor in the village environment. The nitrate concentration of well water
decreased significantly with depth to water table, but correlated positively with amount
of nitrogenous fertilizers added per unit area per year. Soil profile samples taken in
June, 1975 from farms in the immediate vicinity of the sampled wells were analysed for
nitrate and water content. The amount of NO3− contained in the soil profile down to
2.10 m depth correlated significantly with the nitrate concentration of well water in
September, thus confirming that nitrates tend to reach the water table during the rainy
season (July–September). The projected geometric mean nitrate concentration of
ground water (computed on the expectation that the nitrate content of the saturated
zone would equal that of the 1.50−2.10 m soil layer) was found to be 35.6 mg NO3−/l,
many times higher than the observed mean of 1.88 mg NO3−1/l.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304113176900072
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 12 February 2008 vol. 363 no. 1491 659-666
Water pollution by agriculture
Brian Moss
School of Biological Sciences, University of Liverpool Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
(brmoss@liverpool.ac.uk)
Agriculture disrupts all freshwater systems hugely from their pristine states.
The former reductionist concept of pollution was of examining individual effects
of particular substances on individual taxa or sub-communities in freshwater
systems, an essentially ecotoxicological concept. It is now less useful than a
more holistic approach that treats the impacts on the system as a whole and
includes physical impacts such as drainage and physical modification of river
channels and modification of the catchment as well as nutrient, particulate and
biocide pollution.
The European Water Framework Directive implicitly recognizes this in requiring
restoration of water bodies to ‘good ecological quality’, which is defined as only
slightly different from pristine state. The implications for the management of
agriculture are far more profound than is currently widely realized.
DIUNDUH DARI: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1491/659.short
Biocontrol- avoiding use of chemicals
1.
2.
3.
Choose a cover crop
as a bio-control for a
specific pest
Time tillage to give
crops the best
advantage from the
resulting biological
activity
Manage habitats at
the edge of fields to
support predators of
pests
General model for an integrated pest management (IPM) program.
Diunduh dfari: http://www.apsnet.org/publications/apsnetfeatures/Pages/biocontrol.aspx
Procedia Environmental Sciences
Volume 4, 2011, Pages 294–302
Effect of chemical nitrogen fertilizer application on the release of
arsenic from sediment to groundwater in Bangladesh
Md. Shamim Uddin, Kiyoshi Kurosawa
The effect of chemical nitrogen fertilizer application on groundwater arsenic
pollution was examined. Arsenic and N concentrations in peat sediment were high.
In the groundwater, a high arsenic concentration was observed under a high
ammonium-N concentration with reducing conditions. From _15N analysis, the
source of N in peat sediment and groundwater was possibly chemical N fertilizer.
Thus, we assumed that a high N environment created by the fertilizer led the
groundwater to reducing conditions through the enhancement of microbial activity,
and the reducing condition promoted the arsenic release from peat sediment to
the groundwater.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878029611000600
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 27 February 2008 vol. 363 no. 1492 789-813
Greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture
Pete Smith, Daniel Martino, Zucong Cai, Daniel Gwary, Henry Janzen, Pushpam Kumar, Bruce McCarl, Stephen Ogle, Frank O'Mara,
Charles Rice, Bob Scholes, Oleg Sirotenko, Mark Howden, Tim McAllister, Genxing Pan, Vladimir Romanenkov, Uwe Schneider,
Sirintornthep Towprayoon, Martin Wattenbach and Jo Smith.
Agricultural lands occupy 37% of the earth's land surface. Agriculture accounts for 52
and 84% of global anthropogenic methane and nitrous oxide emissions. Agricultural
soils may also act as a sink or source for CO2, but the net flux is small.
Many agricultural practices can potentially mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the most
prominent of which are improved cropland and grazing land management and restoration of
degraded lands and cultivated organic soils. Lower, but still significant mitigation potential is
provided by water and rice management, set-aside, land use change and agroforestry, livestock
management and manure management.
The global technical mitigation potential from agriculture (excluding fossil fuel offsets from
biomass) by 2030, considering all gases, is estimated to be approximately 5500–6000 Mt CO2eq. yr−1, with economic potentials of approximately 1500–1600, 2500–2700 and 4000–4300 Mt CO2eq. yr−1 at carbon prices of up to 20, up to 50 and up to 100 US$ t CO2-eq.−1, respectively.
In addition, GHG emissions could be reduced by substitution of fossil fuels for energy production by
agricultural feedstocks (e.g. crop residues, dung and dedicated energy crops). The economic
mitigation potential of biomass energy from agriculture is estimated to be 640, 2240 and 16 000 Mt
CO2-eq. yr−1 at 0–20, 0–50 and 0–100 US$ t CO2-eq.−1, respectively.
Biocontrol
1.
2.
Choose
pesticides
partially based
on the nontarget organisms
they affect
Choose a source
of compost and
manure based
on how it
impacts disease
or cropenhancing
organisms
Diunduh dari: http://www.ucc.ie/en/biomerit/Research/envbio/
Soil Pollution
Information needed to clean up materials added to soil
include:
1) Kind of material - organic or inorganic - is the material
biodegradable, is the material dangerous to animals and
humans,
2) how much material was added to the soil, will it overload
the organisms in the soil;
3) C:N ratio of the material, are additional nutrients
needed ( N & P)
Soil Pollution
4) Kind of Soil - will the soil be able to handle the
material before groundwater is contaminated,
5) Growing conditions for the soil organisms - is it
too cold, too wet etc.
6) How long has the material been on the site - is
there evidence of environmental problems, is it
undergoing decomposition.
7) Immediate danger to people and the environment
- Urgency of the situation.
Bioremediation
Proses
pengolahan yang
menggunakan
mikroorganisme
(jamur, jamur,
atau bakteri)
biasanya
dilakukan untuk
memecah, atau
mendegradasi
substansi toksik
menjadi zat yang
kurang beracun
atau tidak
beracun (karbon
dioksida dan air)
FERTILIZER POLLUTION REDUCTION STRATEGIES
Theresa Connor, P.E., General Manager, and Jack Merriam
Environmental Manager Sarasota County Water Planning and Regulatory 1001
Sarasota Center Blvd., Sarasota, Fl 34240
Sarasota County became interested in controlling pollution from fertilizers as a
result of community concerns about red tide blooms over the last several years.
The Board of County Commissioners asked staff to look at ordinances to control
fertilizer usage such as the one passed in St. Johns County. After looking at the St.
Johns County ordinance and talking with their staff and commissioners Sarasota
County decided to pursue a different route. Instead of jumping right in and passing
an ordinance, Sarasota County decided to establish a series of “Community
Conversations” with four different stakeholder groups: industry, government, civic
groups, and environmental groups to look at all options.
The conversations were a series of facilitated meetings which worked through
questions or exercises with the ultimate goal of developing a set of comprehensive
recommendations to the Board of County Commissions.
The details of the process, statistics from survey questions, and the final
recommendations will be part of the paper.
http://www.stormwater.ucf.edu/conferences/9thstormwatercd/documents/fertili
Conditions that favor Bioremediation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Temperature favorable for organisms
Water available (near field capacity)
Nutrients (N, P, K) in adequate supply
C:N ratio of material < 30:1
Material added is similar to naturally occurring
organic material
Oxygen in sufficient quantity
In-situ-Bioremediation


Biostimulation (stimulates biological activity)

Bioventing (Inject air/nutrients into unsaturated zone – good
for midweight petroleum, jet fuel)

Biosparging (Inject air/nutrients into unsaturated and
saturated zones)
Bioaugmentation (inoculates soil with microbes)
Less expensive
•Creates less dust
•Less possibility of contaminant release into environment
•Good for large volumes
•Slower
•Doesn’t work well in clays or highly layered subsurfaces
Biostimulation
Biosparging
Research of Environmental Sciences, Vol.13, No.3, 2000.
Characteristics and Control Countermeasures of
Pesticide Pollution and Its Damage on Environment in
China
Hua Xiaomei , Jiang Xiliu
This paper summarized the present status and main characteristics of
pesticide pollution and damage on environment with respect of acute
damage and long -term and potential effects.
The causes of environmental damage resulting from pesticides were
analyzed.
Suggestions that pesticide product structure need to be adjusted and
that environment management for pesticides needs to be enhanced
were proposed as an important approach for current effective control of
the environmental damage.
Diunduh dari: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/21/58/1934406.pdf
Rev. salud pública [online]. 2010, vol.12, n.2, pp. 300-307. ISSN 0124-0064.
TOBON-MARULANDA, Flor á; LOPEZ-GIRALDO, Luís A and PANIAGUA-SUAREZ, Ramón E.
Water pollution caused by pesticides in an area of
Antioquia.
Objective Determining the frequency of pesticide use in agricultural, pig and poultry
production to understand its influence on water resources in the village of
Monterredondo in the municipality of San Pedro de Los Milagros (Antioquia) and
diagnosing its quality.
Methods 100 % of the households in the village were surveyed regarding chemical
use. Physicochemical and microbiological analysis of three water samples was carried
out in the Universidad de Antioquia's Environmental Engineering laboratory using
standardised methods.
Results The Hato stream was contaminated by 1,600x103 NMP/100ml coliforms and
220x10 NMP/100ml E. coli. The Fray Juana stream had 1,600x103 NMP/100ml coliform
contamination. Water sources were also contaminated by the use of pesticides such as
Lorsban (chlorpyriphs), Burst (chlorpyriphs), Whip (chlorpyriphs), Neguvon
(metriphonate) and Furadan (carbophuran) and insecticides like Ganabaño
(cypermethryn) and disinfectants and Limpido (6 % sodium hypochlorite). Conclusion
Agricultural, pig and poultry production in the village has been producing a negative
impact on water resources due to its reduced availability and pollution. The water from
the samples analysed here was not suitable for human consumption.
Diunduh dari: http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?pid=S0124-
Ex-situ -Bioremediation

Slurry-phase


Soil combined with
water/additives in tank, microorganisms, nutrients,
oxygen added
Solid-phase

Land-farming: soil put on pad, leachate collected

Soil biopiles: soil heaped, air added

Composting: biodegradable waste mixed with bulking
agent
• Easier to control
• Used to treat wider range of contaminants and soil types
• Costly
• Faster
http://naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/18701/PDF
Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 59: 269–284, 2001.
Processes controlling soil phosphorus release to runoff and implications for
agricultural management
R.W. McDowell , A.N. Sharpley, L.M. Condron, P.M. Haygarth & P.C. Brookes.
Phosphorus (P) loss from agricultural land to surface waters is well known as an
environmental issue because
of the role of P in freshwater eutrophication.
Much research has been conducted on the erosion and loss of P in sediments and
surface runoff. Recently, P loss in sub-surface runoff via agricultural drainage has been
identified as environmentally significant. High soil P levels are considered as a potential
source of P loss. However, without favourable hydrological conditions P will not move. In
this paper, we review the basis of soil P release into solution and transport in surface
and sub-surface runoff.
Our objectives are to outline the role of soil P and hydrology in P movement and
management practices that can minimize P loss to surface waters.
Remedial strategies to reduce the risk of P loss in the short-term are discussed, although
it is acknowledged that long-term solutions.
Affect of soil pH on adsorption of 4 heavy metals
Pb
Adsorption
Cu
Zn
Cd
3
3.5
4
Soil pH
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7.0
Annu. Rev. Energy Environ. 2000. 25:53–88
Copyright c 2000 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved
PHOSPHORUS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Natural
Flows and Human Interferences
Vaclav Smil
Phosphorus has a number of indispensable biochemical roles, but it does not have a rapid global
cycle akin to the circulations of C or N.
Natural mobilization of the element, a part of the grand geotectonic denudation-uplift cycle, is slow,
and low solubility of phosphates and their rapid transformation to insoluble forms make the
element commonly the growth-limiting nutrient, particularly in aquatic ecosystems.
Human activities have intensified releases of P. By the year 2000 the global mobilization of the
nutrient has roughly tripled compared to its natural flows: Increased soil erosion and runoff from
fields, recycling of crop residues and manures, discharges of urban and industrial wastes, and
above all, applications of inorganic fertilizers (15 million tonnes P/year) are the major causes of this
increase.
Global food production is now highly dependent on the continuing use of phosphates, which
account for 50–60% of all P supply; although crops use the nutrient with relatively high efficiency,
lost P that reaches water is commonly the main cause of eutrophication. This undesirable process
affects fresh and ocean waters in many parts of the world. More efficient fertilization can lower
nonpoint P losses.
Although P in sewage can be effectively controlled, such measures are often not taken, and
elevated P is common in treated wastewater whose N was lowered by denitrification. Long-term
prospects of inorganic P supply and its environmental consequences remain a matter of concern.
Forms of heavy metals found in soils that had received sewage sludge
(45mg/ha) for 5 years
% of Elements in each form
Forms
Cd
Exchangeable/adsorbed
Organically bound
Carbonate/iron oxides
residual *
1
20
64
16
Cr
Cu
Ni
Pb
Zn
1
5
19
77
2
34
36
29
5
24
33
40
1
2
3
28
85
39
12
31
* sulfides and other very insoulble forms
.. January 2005 Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology, 38, 53-63.
Pesticide pollution of the Triassic Sandstone aquifer of South
Yorkshire
D. C. Gooddy, M. E. Stuart, D. J. Lapworth, P. J. Chilton, S. Bishop, G. Cachandt, M. Knapp and T.
Pearson
Diffuse pollutants such as pesticides pose a significant threat to groundwater quality. Following
the wet autumn and winter of 2000–2001 an upturn in trace pesticide concentrations was
detected in blended water drawn from part of the Triassic Sandstone aquifer. A groundwater
sampling and monitoring programme was undertaken to assess whether this increase would
continue. Over a period of 18 months, 190 groundwater samples were collected from the upper
part of the aquifer and analysed for 40 pesticides and for nitrate.
A total of 25 pesticides were found of which 16 were detected more than once. Positive pesticide
detections were in excess of the EU maximum admissible concentration (MAC) for individual
substances of 0.1 μg l−1 on 33% of occasions. The most commonly detected pesticides generally
have higher agricultural application rates and/or relatively greater solubilities. Very high
concentrations of mecoprop (up to 7.1 μg l−1) were consistently found at two of the sampling sites.
Analysis of mecoprop enantiomers suggested more than one source for this contaminant. High
concentrations of atrazine (up to 1.4 μg l−1) were also detected at three sites and high
concentrations of isoproturon (1.2 μg l−1) were found where very high mecoprop concentrations
were also present. Nitrate concentrations exceed the EU MAC of 11.3 mg l−1 N at four sites. The
spatial and temporal distribution of pesticides obtained from the monitoring network shows no
clear trends for prediction of future concentrations.
Nitrate-N concentrations and pesticide detections show no clear relationship,
suggesting different source, transport or degradation pathways.
Diunduh dari: . http://qjegh.lyellcollection.org/content/38/1/53.abstract
SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL
PENGENDALIAN
PENCEMARAN TANAH
CLEAN – Soil, Air, Water
Volume 39, Issue 4, pages 356–361, April, 2011
Pesticide Pollution in Surface- and Groundwater by Paddy Rice Cultivation:
A Case Study from Northern Vietnam
Marc Lamers, Maria Anyusheva, Nguyen La, Van Vien Nguyen, Thilo Streck
This study was designed to examine the environmental exposure of surface- and
groundwater pollution in remote mountainous regions of northern Vietnam. In
2008, we monitored the loss of four commonly applied pesticides (imidacloprid,
fenitrothion, fenobucarb, dichlorvos) from paddy rice farming systems to a receiving
stream on the watershed scale and quantified groundwater pollution. For the entire
monitoring period, runoff loss of pesticides from the watershed was estimated to
range between 0.4% (dichlorvos) and 16% (fenitrothion) of the total applied mass.
These losses were correlated well with the octanol–water partition coefficient and
water solubility of pesticides (r2 = 0.78–0.99).
In the groundwater collected from eight wells, all target pesticides were frequently
detected. Maximum measured concentrations were 0.47, 0.22, 0.17, and 0.07 µg L −1
for fenitrothion, imidacloprid, fenobucarb, and dichlorvos, respectively.
Our results strongly indicate that under the current management practice pesticide
use in paddy fields poses a serious environmental problem in mountainous regions
of northern Vietnam.
Diunduh dari: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/clen.201000268/abstract
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Tanah yang terkontaminasi merupakan salah satu
masalah lingkungan yang secara historis
diabaikan oleh manusia.
Akhir-akhir ini, hubungannya dengan dampak
kesehatan manusia dan dampak ekologinya
mulai dibahas.
Teknik yang paling banyak digunakan pada tanah
yang tercemar adalah “mengambil” dan
“Membuang”nya di lingkungan TPA yang lebih
aman.
Diffuse Pollution Conference Dublin 2003 3F: Agriculture 3-125
HOW MUCH DOES DIFFUSE POLLUTION AFFECT AN AQUATIC
ECOSYSTEM
Hideo NAKASONE and Tomohisa YAMAMOTO
Japanese people like green tea very much, as well as its vivid green
color and sweet taste. In order to produce such kind of tea, farmers
apply a great amount of nitrogen fertilizer.
The amount of fertilizer has reached to 1,000 kg/ha to our
understanding heard from several farmers. Tea plants uptake about 300
kg/ha, hence, the residues become diffused pollution. Since the soil
condition of tea fields is aerobic, ordinary nitrogen fertilizer oxidizes to
nitrate quickly and diffuses into soils. Usually the cation exchange
capacity (CEC) of soil is great, however, if a great amount of nitrate acid
soil loses its CEC, then the H+ ions runoff.
We observed that the pH is 4.3 in small river water, and further when
there was heavy rain, the river water became below a pH of 3.5 at times.
As a result, the small irrigation reservoir receives this water below pH
5.0, and thus fauna cannot live there.
Diunduh dari: http://www.ucd.ie/dipcon/docs/theme03/theme03_24.PDF
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Meskipun sangat mudah untuk mengambil tanah
yang terkontaminasi dari satu tempat dan
dipindahkan ke tempat lain, namun akan lebih
bermanfaat kalau remediasinya dalam bentuk
disain landfill.
Seringkali TPA ditempatkan di lahan basah atau
berdekatan dengan sungai, sehingga mendorong
migrasi kontaminan dan akhirnya mengancam
penduduk sekitar.
The Effects of Fertilizer Pollution
The major issue with fertilizer pollution is a process called
eutrophication, where the surface of a body of water becomes
nutrient rich, causing an algal bloom. When the algae start to die off,
the organic material in the water will reduce the available oxygen in
the water, causing many other organisms to die off.
Eutrophication is a natural process for warm, shallow lakes, but the
addition of fertilizer pollutants can make the process occur over a
series of decades, as opposed to centuries. Fertilizer pollution can
even harm larger bodies of water, like the Gulf of Mexico. The
northern Gulf of Mexico has a dead zone, where oxygen in the water
is not sufficient for most forms of life, starting at the mouth of the
Mississippi, where surface water pollutants from half the country
wind up, and spread over about 6,000 square miles of water.
Read more: Fertilizers & Pollution | eHow.com
http://www.ehow.com/info_7962176_fertilizers-pollution.html#ixzz20XYAZSlC
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Limbah dapat distabilkan setelah pembuangan, dan
sebelum atau selama penempatan untuk mengurangi
mobilitas setelah penempatannya.
Stabilisasi mungkin termasuk pemadatan dengan beton
atau bahan serupa atau perlakuan kimia secara
langsung bahan-bahan kontaminan tertentu.
Pembakaran atau perlakuan termal dari tanah yang
terkontaminasi dapat digunakan untuk menghilangkan
kontaminan organik yang tidak tahan panas atau yang
mudah terbakar.
Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems
Volume 26, Numbers 1-3 (1990), 209-215, DOI: 10.1007/BF01048758
Environmental effects of N fertilizer use — An overview
B. H. Byrnes
In recent years concern has grown over the contribution of nitrogen (N) fertilizers to the
environmental problems of nitrate pollution of waters and the pollution of the atmosphere
with nitrous oxide, other oxides of nitrogen, and ammonia. These gases potentially
contribute to the greenhouse effect or global heating because of their increasing
concentrations in the atmosphere and to the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer,
which protects the earth from ultraviolet radiation. In light of these concerns, proposals to
mitigate these problems have been considered, and others will be forthcoming. When they
have been used in high amounts, fertilizers and animal manures have created problems of
nitrate pollution. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a greenhouse gas and may also contribute to the
destruction of the stratospheric ozone when it is converted to nitric oxide. N2O is primarily
produced in the biological processes of nitrification and denitrification. Nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide are also produced in biological processes and are important in atmospheric
reactions in the troposphere and stratosphere. There is little indication that N fertilizers
contribute very much to the production of nitrous oxide. More research is needed to
characterize and measure the emissions of the oxides of nitrogen and ammonia and to make
better estimates of global emissions based on process-related models. More efforts to
increase the efficiency of nitrogen fertilizer use through modifications or use of inhibitors of
biological processes as well as better management of rates, timing, and incorporation are
needed to ensure increased food production while conserving natural resources.
Diunduh dari: http://www.springerlink.com/content/n0hv432605607657/
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
A variety of other processes have been employed to treat
contaminated soils once excavated and removed from a site.
Included among these are biological degradation in dedicated
bioreactors and sophisticated extraction schemes, for
example, supercritical extraction, followed by the application
of destruction processes to the effluent.
An alternative to removal options of remediating soil is the
use of in situ means that do not require soil removal. These
are generally the options of choice if they can be
demonstrated effective at reducing the volume, toxicity, or
exposure to the wastes.
EREM Vol 53, No 3 (2010)
Nitrification Potential of Soils under Pollution of a Fertilizer Plant
Gintarė Sujetovienė
Oil in the form of mineral and organic bonds are available to microbes
and plants as NO3- and NH4+, produced in consequence of
ammonification, nitrification and N fixation. The laboratory experiment
was conducted on samples of podzolic sandy soils.
Soil samples were taken in the surroundings of a nitrogen fertilizer plant
Achema, situated in the center of Lithuania. The objective of the study
was to determine the effect of soil contamination on the nitrification
process. Nitrification generally proceeded more rapidly in control soils
than in soils under the Achema pollution.
On the average, 0.004 mg NO2-N was nitrified per g N mineralized per
hour in the plots under the influence of the nitrogen fertilizer producing
plant pollution. In comparison with nitrified N in reference soils the
values were significantly higher - 0.253 (p < 0.05). Soils from
background ecosystems had, on the average, 63 times higher
nitrification rate than in polluted soils. The eutrophication of pine sandy
soils stimulated biological processes and that was likely related to
higher soil pH and initial NH4+.
Diunduh dari: http://www.erem.ktu.lt/index.php/erem/article/view/83
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
The principle
option to
decontaminate
soils are:
1. Removal
options for soil
remediation
2. In
situ
soil
remediation
processes
Diunduh dari: http://www.dowa-eco.co.jp/en/soil.html
.. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Tech.
Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 41-47, Spring 2005
Agricultural activities impact on groundwater nitrate pollution
H. Mahvi, J. Nouri, A. A. Babaei and R. Nabizadeh
Concern over agricultural diffuse pollution sources in integrated water quality management
has been growing recently. High nitrogen fertilizers application rates may increase the
potential groundwater pollution. These effects were investigated in Andimeshk and Susa
plains that cover an area of 1100 km2 between the Dez and Karkhe rivers in north of
Khozestan-Iran. This region divided to 4 sub-regions A, B, C, and D. Additionally 168
groundwater samples were collected from 42 water wells during the months April, May,
August, and September of 2004. The Hackspectrophotometer nitrate test was used to
measure the NO3- concentration in water samples. Information about further nitrate data
was obtained. A questionnaire procedure was used for collection N-fertilizers application rate
data in studied area.
The results demonstrated that all of the groundwater samples have NO3- concentration
below the EPA MCL (44.27 mg/l) and WHO guideline (50 mg/l). The mean nitrate
concentrations are 16.1, 19.5, 13.3, and 7.9 mg/l in sub-regions A, B, C, and D respectively.
There are different amount of N-fertilizers applied in sub-regions A, B, C, and D.
Correlation between NO3- concentrations and N-fertilizers rate suggests a inverse
correlation between N fertilizers application rate and ground waters nitrate concentrations in
studied area (r=-0.69).
Diunduh dari: http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?st05006
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
Removal options for soil
remediation
• These techniques are
techniques that
consists in to take the
contaminated soil and
apply a method to
decontaminate. This
techniques are:
Incineration,
landfilling,
stabilization and
solidification, and ex
situ bioremediation.
• The methods are the
same that are defined
in the waste manager
chapter.
Diunduh dari: http://www.biology-online.org/articles/phytoremediation-alecture/phytostabilization.html
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
TECHNIQUES
In situ soil remediation processes
• These techniques consist in treat the soil in the same land or place where is
contaminated. The techniques or methods are: Pump and treat extraction of
contaminated groundwater, enhancement of pump and treat processes, vacuum
extraction in the unsaturated zone and in situ bioremediation of soils.
• Pump and treat extraction of contaminated groundwater is the technique that
remove the contaminated groundwater or separate contaminated phases via
withdrawal wells for above-ground treatment.
Diunduh dari: http://www.biology-online.org/articles/phytoremediation-a-lecture/different-
Environmental Pollution Series B, Chemical and Physical
Volume 7, Issue 1, 1984, Pages 43–48
Nitrogen fertilisation and nitrate pollution of groundwater in sandy soils
M. Khanif Yusop, O. Van Cleemput, L. Baert
The study of the relation between N fertilisation and groundwater pollution was
carried out on two fields in the sandy area of Belgium during a two-year period.
The fields under study were grown with maize and barley and received fertiliser N
and manure at normally applied rates. The NO3−-N and Cl− content of the
groundwater at 0·5, 1·0, 1·5 and 2·0 m depth was monitored every two weeks.
The total rainfall during the two consecutive years was about 800 mm.
On one of the fields, the NO3−-N content at all depths was most of the time above
11·3 mg NO3−-N dm−3, the WHO safe limit. However, on the other field the nitrate
level was much lower, except at 0·5 m depth.
The difference between the two fields was attributed to differences in the rate of N
input. The fluctuations during the two-year study were influenced by N fertilisation
and rainfall distribution. The NO3−-N/Cl− ratio indicated that denitrification in the
deeper zones of the soil was not prominent.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0143148X84900363
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
TECHNIQUES
•
•
Enhancement of pump
and treat processes are
methods of remediation
of soils. These
methods are of limited
usefulness when
significant quantities of
NAPLs exist.
Due to the low
solubility of most soil
contaminants, large
volumes of water are
required to remove
contaminants present
in a separate phase
even if it were possible
to maintain the water at
saturation.
Diunduh dari: http://www.biology-online.org/articles/phytoremediation-a-
Agriculture and Environment
Volume 4, Issue 3, March 1979, Pages 207–225
Nitrate pollution of groundwater from farm use of nitrogen fertilizers — A review
Bijay Singh, G.S. Sekhon
The fears that the use of fertilizer nitrogen on farms is contributing considerably to nitrate pollution
of groundwater have increased in the past few years. Investigations have indicated that nitrate is
accumulating in the shallow groundwaters of some irrigated areas with intensive agriculture using
fertilizers. In certain areas, natural geologic deposits of nitrate contribute a large percentage of
nitrate leached to groundwater formations. Soil organic matter, animal wastes and plant residues
also contribute, but their relative inputs are difficult to determine. The amount of fertilizer nitrogen
leaching as nitrate below the root zone and the stability of nitrate in the unsaturated zone and in
aquifers are the factors that determine the extent of nitrate pollution of groundwater from fertilizer
N. The amount and distribution of rain and irrigation affect the leaching of nitrate below the root
zone. However, exactly to what extent nitrate leaching occurs is determined by the amount of water
percolating down the profile, which in turn is affected by growing plants. Vegetative cover is the
most important factor affecting nitrate leaching by utilizing water (as transpiration) and fertilizer
nitrogen. Nitrate in the unsaturated zone and aquifers is generally stable because there is
insufficient supply of oxidizable carbon for denitrifiers to utilize. But the possibility of such an
occurrence is not ruled out. For computing nitrogen application rates which can ensure both
optimum crop yields and permissible nitrate leaching loss, the fertilizer efficiency factor needs
careful consideration. Maximizing the efficiency of fertilizer nitrogen can reduce the risk of nitrate
pollution from fertilizers.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0304113179900225
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
TECHNIQUES
Vacuum extraction in the
unsaturated zone is a process that
is similar conceptually to pump
and treat of groundwater is soil
vacuum extraction (SVE) in the
water-unsaturated zone.
A vacuum is applied to the
unsaturated zone by placing a
vacuum pump on a well screened
in the unsaturated zone.
This pulls vapours through the
soil, removing any volatile
components that have volatilised
in the subsurface
Diunduh dfari: http://www.biology-online.org/articles/phytoremediation-a-
Water Science and Technology
Volume 39, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 67–75
Diffuse agricultural nitrate pollution of groundwaters in India
G.D. Agrawal, S.K. Lunkad, T. Malkhed
Nitrate pollution of groundwater due to urban waste and industrial effluents
usually centres around cities. This study has shown that nitrate levels in
groundwater over vast agricultural areas can be correlated with intensive irrigated
agriculture, corresponding use of nitrogenous fertilizers and groundwater
development, and consequent diffuse agricultural pollution has already
endangered the safety of potable groundwater for future generations in both rural
and urban areas.
Chemical and bacterial treatment of groundwater for nitrate removal relies on
advanced technology and is considered costly even in the developed world.
In a country like India where economic resources are inadequate, action on the
suggested preventive measures may be taken without delay at this stage when
alarming trends have been recorded.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0273122399000335
PENGENDALIAN PENCEMARAN TANAH
TECHNIQUES
• In situ bioremediation of
soils is perhaps the most
desirable of all treatment
processes is in situ
biodegradation to render the
soil harmless and to
naturally recycle the
contaminants.
• There are a number of
compounds that undergo
detoxification by microbial
processes at rates that are
sufficient to justify natural
recovery of contaminated
soils.
Bioremediation is also attractive because of several advantages that its application has over more
conventional technology. Bioremediation techniques are typically more economical than more
traditional methods. It is estimated that bioremediation would cost one-third to one-half that of
incineration. In some cases pollutants can be treated at the site, thus reducing the risk exposure to
cleanup personnel and potentially wider exposure as a result of transportation accidents .
Diunduh dari: http://agrotechno-park.blogspot.com/2011/10/advantage-and-disadvantages-of.html
How Does Fertilizer Pollute?
Fertilizer pollution is considered a nonpoint source of water pollution,
meaning that there is no single point of contamination, but rather a
slow and sporadic addition of the pollutant over a wide area.
The fertilizer you add to your lawn or garden can get into the water
supply in one of two ways: by being carried off the surface of the land
by rainfall, or by seeping through the soil and contaminating the
ground water beneath the land.
Fertilizer can also pollute if it is accidentally dropped onto paved
ground, where it is quickly moved into water runoff without even
getting a chance to be absorbed by the soil. Fertilizer is not inherently
bad, as all plants need these nutrients to survive, but when an area is
overfertilized or incorrectly fertilized, that pollution becomes a
problem.
Read more: Fertilizers & Pollution | eHow.com
http://www.ehow.com/info_7962176_fertilizerspollution.html#ixzz20XXmqFii
.diunduh dari: http://www.ehow.com/info_7962176_fertilizers-pollution.html
. Ways to Prevent Fertilizer Pollution
Langkah paling penting yang dapat dilakukan untuk mencegah
pencemaran pupuk adalah melakukan uji tanah sebelum memupuk.
Sebagian besar negara memiliki laboratorium, seringkali melalui
kerjasama dengan perguruan tinggi, di mana petani dapat mengirim
sanpel tanah, dan dengan sedikit biaya, petani dapat belajar hara apa
yang dibutuhkan dan hara mana yang sudah cukup. Petani juga dapat
memilih pupuk organik, yang ketersediaan haranya lebih lambat
daripada pupuk anorganik yang normal.
Akhirnya, jangan memupuk di sepanjang sungai atau danau, tidak
jangan memupuk sesaat sebelum hujan lebat turun
Read more: Fertilizers & Pollution | eHow.com
http://www.ehow.com/info_7962176_fertilizerspollution.html#ixzz20XYG0Tu5
Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems
Volume 43, Numbers 1-3 (1995), 5-7, DOI: 10.1007/BF00747675
Fertigation for minimizing environmental pollution by
fertilizers
J. Hagin and Anat Lowengart
Intensification of agriculture by irrigation and enhanced use of
fertilizers may generate pollution by increased levels of nutrients in
underground and surface waters. Most of the irrigation is by open
systems having a relatively low efficiency of water application.
A higher efficiency may be gained by pressurized irrigation systems.
Drip irrigation generates a restricted root system requiring frequent
nutrient supply that may be satisfied by applying fertilizers in
irrigation water, i.e. by fertigation.
Maximization of crop yield and quality and minimization of leaching
below the rooting volume may be achieved by managing fertilizers
concentrations in measured quantities of irrigation water, according
to crop requirements.
Diunduh dari: http://www.springerlink.com/content/f7360216p2685610/
SusTools - Tools for Sustainability:
Development and Application of an Integrated Framework
(Contract N° EVG3-CT-2002-80010)
Final Report on Work Package 4
Damage Costs of Nitrogen Fertiliser and Their Internalization
H. von Blottnitz & A. Rabl, D. Boiadjiev, T. Taylor & S. Arnold,
This report summarizes the environmental impacts and costs of synthetic nitrogen (N)
fertiliser and discusses options for reducing these impacts, including their
consequences for farmers and for producers of fertiliser. The external costs of the
fertiliser life cycle that could be estimated are large, about 0.3 €/kgN (compared to the
current market price of about 0.5 €/kgN); much of that is due to global warming by
N2O and CO2 emissions during fertiliser production and N2O emissions from fertilised
fields. If the external cost were internalized by a pollution tax or tradable permits that
are auctioned by the government, the economic consequences would be heavy, with a
large profit loss for farmers. But if it is internalized by tradable permits that are given
out free, the revenue loss for farmers is small. With the internalisation of 0.3 €/kgN the
farmers’ profit contribution crop yield × crop price – fertiliser used × fertiliser price
decreases by < 0.5 % for most crops, except for crops with low €/ha revenue; the
average loss to farmers in the UK is about 0.1%. The revenue loss for fertiliser
producers is larger (for most crops <10% with the internalisation of 0.3 €/kgN, except
for crops with low €/ha revenue). The loss for fertiliser producers increases linearly
with the amount of external cost that is internalized, by contrast to the loss for farmers
which increases quadratically.
Diunduh dari: http://wwwcenerg.ensmp.fr/english/themes/impact/papers/WP4_N_Fertil%20FinalReport.pdf
Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 36: 1625–1639, 2005
Copyright # Taylor & Francis, Inc.
ISSN 0010-3624 print/1532-2416 online
DOI: 10.1081/CSS-200059104
Nitrogen Fertilizer Losses from Rice Soils and Control of
Environmental Pollution Problems
A. T. M. A. Choudhury and I. R. Kennedy
Nitrogen (N) requirements of rice crop are met from both the soil and fertilizers.
Because of acute N deficiency in most rice soils, fertilizer N must be applied to meet
the crop demand. N fertilizer applied to rice crops is partially lost through different
mechanisms, including ammonia volatilization, denitrification, and leaching.
These losses may cause environmental problems such as polluting the atmosphere,
aquatic systems, and groundwater.
These problems cannot be alleviated completely. However, they can be reduced a
considerable extent by various techniques.
Research has been conducted around the world to minimize N fertilizer losses. This
paper reviews this information on N fertilizer losses, indicating management practices
for minimizing these losses from the soil-water system.
Diunduh dari: http://www.bashanfoundation.org/ivan/ivanpollution.pdf
Landbauforschung Völkenrode 2 (52):81-90
Impact of fertilizers on aquatic ecosystems and protection of water bodies from
mineral nutrients
Ulrich Kremser and Ewald Schnug
Pollution by nutrients from agricultural activities causes many problems in the environment. Fertilization is
considered as one of the main sources of pollution of water bodies caused by agriculture. When high
fertilizer rates are applied which are not in line with the codes of good agricultural practice, nutrient losses,
e.g. by surface runoff, take place which pollute land-based and aquatic ecosystems.
Fertilizer use, its impact on water bodies and their protection are comprehensively discussed in this
contribution. An oversupply with inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus compounds causes an increased
nitrification, oxygen demand, intensification of the primary production of plankton including „red tides“,
excessive growths of macro-algae and other water plants as well as formation of the toxic un-ionized
ammonia. The negative impact of nutrient losses from agriculture on ecosystems in ponds, lakes, rivers as
well as to seas and oceans varies . Oxygen deficiencies in the bottom waters of shallow areas may result in
the production of hydrosulfide which is highly toxic. Low oxygen concentration in deep water layers where
fish spawn may prevent the development of eggs. Increased density of macro-algae in shallow waters of
seas might affect the composition of species too.
Defense strategies were developed in order to minimize the environmental burden caused by agricultural
pollution. The so-called end of the pipe solution which means to clean up the water body after pollution
occurred is rather inefficient in natural waters. A preferable alternative is the reduction or even prevention of
pollution, e.g. by making fertilization more efficient and more environmentally friendly.
Programs for protecting the water bodies against input of nutrients from agriculture are developed and are
being implemented. Such programs could be supported by concepts like balanced fertilization, ecological
agriculture etc.. The more updated programs are serving a holistic view and try to combat, minimize or
prevent pollution by nutrients.
Diunduh dari: http://sharepoint.snoqualmie.k12.wa.us/ckms/spiesse/Lists/Announcements
.. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology
Volume 20, Issues 3–4, December 1995, Pages 167–184
Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing
countries
Bijay-Singh, Yadvinder-Singh, G.S. Sekhon
Around 76% of the world's population lives in developing countries where more fertilizer-N is
currently applied than in developed countries. Fertilizers are applied preferentially in regions
where irrigation is available, and soil and climatic conditions are favorable for the growth of crop
plants. Due to low N application rates during the last 3 or 4 decades, negative N balances in the
soil are a characteristic feature of the crop production systems in developing countries. In the
future, with increasing fertilizer-N application rates, the possibility of nitrate pollution of
groundwater in developing countries will be strongly linked with fertilizer-N use efficiency.
A limited number of investigations from developing countries suggest that, in irrigated soils of
Asia or in humid tropics of Africa, the potential exists for nitrate pollution of groundwater,
especially if fertilizer-N is inefficiently managed. In a large number of developing countries in
West and Central Asia and North Africa, the small amount of fertilizer applied to soils (mostly
Aridisols) that remain dry almost all the year, do not constitute a major threat for nitrate pollution
of groundwater, except possibly when soils are irrigated.
In Asia and the Pacific regions, where 70% of the fertilizers are used to grow wetland rice on soils
with low percolation rates, leaching of nitrates is minimal. Climatic water balance and soil
moisture conditions do not favor leaching of nitrates from the small amount of fertilizer-N applied
to Oxisols and Ultisols in Latin America. In developing countries located in the humid tropics,
attempts have not been made to correlate fertilizer-N use with nitrate level in groundwater;
however, fertilizers are being increasingly used. Besides high rainfall, irrigation is becoming
increasingly available to farmers in the humid tropics and substantial leaching of N may also
increase.
Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0169772295000674