Chp. 1
Introduction to
Forensic Science
“In school, every period ends with a bell.
Every sentence ends with a period. Every
crime ends with a sentence.”
—Stephen Wright, comedian
1
Answer on notebook paper
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•
•
•
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5 things you “know” about forensics
4 things you’ve heard about forensics
3 things you’ve NEVER heard of (look through book)
2 Questions about forensics
1 thing you “MUST” know about forensics
2
• What 3 units would you like to learn
about in forensic science?
• What 3 units would you not like to learn
about in forensic science
• Look at your book for this question.
3
Please Do Now
What does forensic science mean to you?
Please write at least 5 lines in your composition
book.
4
Count the F’s
Finished files are the result of years
of scientific study combined with
the experience of many years.
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There are 6!
Finished files are the result of years of
scientific study combined with the
experience of many years.
6
Forensics
• Forensic science has come to mean the application of
the natural and physical sciences to the resolution of
conflicts within a legal setting.
• The study and application of science to matters of law
• Includes the business of providing timely, accurate,
and thorough information to all levels of decision
makers in our criminal justice system.
• Comes from the Latin forensus, meaning “of the
forum”
• In Ancient Rome, the forum was where governmental
debates were held, but it was also where trials were
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held (it was the courthouse)
I. Definition of Forensic Science
The application of science to the criminal
and civil laws that are enforced by police
agencies in a criminal justice system.
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Scope of Forensic Science
The 10 sections of The American Academy of Forensic Science
(the largest forensic science organization in the world) are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Criminalistics
Engineering science
General
Jurisprudence
Odontology
Pathology/ Biology
7. Physical Anthropology
8. Psychiatry and
Behavioral Science
9. Questioned Documents
10. Toxiology
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Scope of Forensic Science
The list of professions of The American Academy of Forensic
Science is not exclusive. It does not encompass skills such as:
•
•
•
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Fingerprint examination
Firearm and tool mark examination
Computer and digital analysis
Photography
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Mathieu Orfila
father of forensic
toxicology (the study
of the adverse effects
of chemicals or
physical agents on
living organisms)
(1814)
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Please Do Now
Read the article “Toxicology on Trial” and
answer the following in your composition book:
Was Marie Lafarge found innocent or guilty?
Why?
12
II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Alphonse Bertillon
(Father of Criminal Investigation)
Devised the first scientific system
of personal identification
through anthropometry in 1879
Photo showing the measurement of the
cubit (from the tip of the middle finger
to the elbow) from the 1893 World’s
Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
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Figure 1–
3 Bertillon’s system
of bodily
measurements
(anthropometry) as
used for the
identification of an
individual. Courtesy Sirchie
Finger Print Laboratories, Inc.,
Youngsville, N.C., www.sirchie.com
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Bertillon Activity
Use measuring tapes to measure :
1. The length of torso from the top of your head to
the bottom of your seat in a chair
2. The length of your arm from elbow to tip of
middle finger
3. The hand from wrist to tip of middle finger
•
Record the data on a piece of notebook paper in a
data table and find averages for males and females
in the class
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Bertillon Activity con’t.
1. Was there a difference between the male and
female average measurements? Why or why
not?
2. Do any two people in the class have exactly the
same three measurements? If yes - who. Explain
why or why not?
3. Would you want to have to take 9 different
measurements for 10 000 people? Why or why
not.
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Sir Arthur Conan Doyle
wrote Sherlock Holmes
—uncanny ability to
describe scientific
methods of detection years
before they were actually
discovered and implemented
1887 - A Study in Scarlet
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Francis Galton
Conducted the first
definitive study of
fingerprints and
their classification
(1892)
Galton displayed his own
fingerprints as part of his
title page
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Hans Gross
Credited with coining the term
“criminalistics”
Wrote first treatise describing the
application of scientific
principles to the field of criminal
investigation
(1893)
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Dr. Karl Landsteiner
Identifies human blood
groups- A, B, AB and O
(1901)
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Albert S. Osborn
Developed the
fundamental
principles of
document
examination
(1910)
Author of
Questioned Documents
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Edmond Locard
Father of criminalistics
Built the world’s first
forensic lab in France
(1910)
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Locard’s Exchange Principle
When two objects come into contact
with each other, a cross-transfer of
materials occurs.
“Every Contact Leaves a Trace”
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Leone Lattes
Developed a
procedure to
determine
blood type
from dried
bloodstains
(1915)
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Calvin Goddard
Used a
comparison
microscope to
determine if a
particular gun
fired a bullet
(1929)
Goddard with
comparison
microscope
Worked on the St. Valentine’s
Day massacre
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II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Walter McCrone
Used microscopy
and other
analytical
methodologies to
examine evidence
(1916-2002)
Worked on Shroud of Turin
(controversy with results) 26
II. History and Development
of Forensic Science
Sir Alec Jeffreys
Developed the
first DNA
profiling test in
1984
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HOMEWORK
Read CRIME LABORATORIES
pages 14 to 23
Answer Review Questions #11 to 22
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III. The Crime Lab
Katie Woodward, a forensic scientist at the
Washington State Patrol Crime Lab, examines a
coat for blood spatter. When found, she removes
it for DNA analysis. (March 22, 2003)
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Crime Lab History
 First police crime lab in the world was established
in _______
France in 1910 by __________________
Edmond Locard
 First police crime lab in the U.S. opened in 1923 by
Los Angeles Police Department
_____________________________
1932
 The first FBI crime lab opened in _________
(now the world’s largest forensic lab - performing
one million examinations per year 30
more than ___________
Please Do Now
"Only two things are infinite, the universe and
human stupidity, and I'm not sure about the
former" -- Albert Einstein
31
Development of Crime Labs
• Characterized by a rapid growth accompanied by
a lack of national and regional planning and
coordination.
– Current system of crime labs in U.S. is best described
as decentralized
• Approximately 350 public crime laboratories
operate at various levels of government—federal,
state, county, and municipal.
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Growth of Crime Labs since 1960
1. Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s responsible for
police placing greater emphasis on scientifically
evaluated evidence. (suspect must be advised on their
rights - less confessions as a result)
2. Staggering increase in crime rates.
3. All illicit-drug seizures must be sent to a forensic lab
for confirmatory chemical analysis before going to
court.
4. The advent of DNA profiling. (expected to add
~10,000 forensic scientists in coming years due to
DNA profiles)
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Major Crime Labs in the U.S.
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FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation)
DEA (Drug Enforcement Administration)
ATF (Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives)
U.S. Postal Service
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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International Crime Labs
(more than 100 countries have at least 1 forensic science lab)
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Great Britain has a national system (in contrast to
U.S. independent local labs) of regional labs under
direction of the government’s Home Office.
Canada has 3 government-funded institutes:
1. 6 Royal Canadian Mounted Police regional labs
2. The Centre of Forensic Sciences in Toronto
3. The Institute of Legal Medicine and Police Science in
Montreal
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Crime Lab—Basic Services
 Physical Science Unit
 Chemistry
 Physics
 Geology
 Biology Unit
 Firearms Unit
 Document Examination
Unit
 Photography Unit
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Crime Lab—Basic Services
(Physical Science Unit)
Applies principles of chemistry, physics and
geology to identify and compare physical
evidence such as:
• Drugs
• Glass
• Paint
• Explosives
• Soil
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Crime Lab—Basic Services
(Biology Unit)
Applies knowledge of biological sciences to
investigate samples such as:
• Blood
• Body fluids
• Hair
• Fibers
• Botanical samples
(ex. wood, plants)
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Crime Lab—Basic Services
(Firearms Unit)
Examines:
• Firearms
• Discharged bullets
• Cartridge cases
• Shotgun shells
• Ammunition of all types
• Garments and other objects for
firearms discharge residues
• Approximate distance from target
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to weapon
Crime Lab—Basic Services
(Document Examination Unit)
• Studies handwriting and typewriting on
questioned documents to determine
authenticity and/or source
• Analyze paper and ink
• Examine indented writings,obliterations,
erasures and burned or charred documents
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Crime Lab—Basic Services
(Photography Unit)
Use of highly specialized photographic
techniques to make invisible information visible
to the naked eye, such as:
• Infrared
• Ultraviolet
• X-ray photography
Photographs crime scenes and physical evidence
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Prepares photographic exhibits for court
Crime Lab—Basic Services
(Photography Unit)
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Optional Services Provided by
Full-Service Crime Lab
– Toxicology Unit examines body fluids and organs for
the presence of drugs and poisons.
– Latent Fingerprint Unit processes and examines
evidence for latent fingerprints.
– Polygraph Unit conducts polygraph or lie detector
tests.
– Voiceprint Analysis Unit attempts to tie a recorded
voice to a particular suspect.
– Evidence-Collection Unit dispatches specially trained
personnel to the crime scene to collect
and preserve physical evidence.
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Figure 1–10 An envelope containing anthrax spores along with an anonymous letter was sent
to the office of Senator Tom Daschle shortly after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.
A variety of forensic skills were used to examine the envelope and letter. Also, bar codes
placed on the front and back of the envelope by mail-sorting machines contain address
information and information about where the envelope was first processed. Courtesy Getty
Images, Inc.—Liaison
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Special Forensic Science Services
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Forensic Pathology
Forensic Anthropology
Forensic Entomology
Forensic Psychiatry
Forensic Odontology
Forensic Engineering
Forensic Computer and Digital Analysis
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Special Forensic Science Services
(Forensic Pathology)
Concerned with
determining the
cause of death
Examines
wounds and
injuries
A forensic
pathologist
examines a
kidney during
an autopsy.
Click for autopsy video
“This is the place where the dead shall teach the living.”
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Please Do Now
Explain the statement “This is the place where the
dead shall teach the living.” in reference to forensic
pathology.
Please write at least 5 lines in your
composition book.
47
Special Forensic Science Services
(Forensic Anthropology)
• Assist in identification of deceased
individuals whose remains are decomposed,
burned, mutilated or otherwise
unrecognizable
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Special Forensic Science Services
(Forensic Anthropology)
An anthropologist exhumes an unidentified set of remains from a Sarajevo cemetery. Forensic anthropology teams
match these and thousands of other remains from conflicts around the world with DNA samples from family members
of missing relatives. Photo by T.J. Grubisha 2002, U.S. State Department.
49
Special Forensic Science Services
(Forensic Entomology)
• Uses insects to help law enforcement
determine the cause, location and time
of death (TOD) of a human being
• Insect life cycles act as precise clocks
which begin within minutes of death
– Used to determine the TOD when other
methods are useless
• Insects can also show if a body has
been moved after death
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Special Forensic Science Services
(Forensic Psychiatry)
• Examines relationship between human
behavior and legal proceedings is examined
– Determine if person is competent to stand trial
• Examines behavior patterns of criminals as
an aid to developing a suspect’s behavioral
profile
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Special Forensic Science Services
(Forensic Odontology)
• Helps identifies victims based on dental
evidence
• Bite mark analysis - compare marks left of a
victim and the tooth structure of a suspect
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Bite Marks
Pattern injury displaying ovoid
pattern and central bruising
Pattern injury displaying linear
interrupted abrasions
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Special Forensic Science Services
(Forensic Engineering)
Concerned with
• failure analysis
• accident reconstruction
• causes and origins of fires or explosion
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Corrosion Engineering &
Failure Analysis
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Special Forensic Science Services
(Forensic Computer Science + Digital Analysis)
• Identifying, collecting, preserving, and
examining information derived from
computers and other digital devices, such as
cell phones
– Recovering deleted or overwritten data from a
computer’s hard drive
– Tracking hacking activities within a
compromised system
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CLASSWORK / HOMEWORK
Read the article “Making an Impression,
Bite-mark study could bolster use as
evidence” and answer the questions on a
separate piece of paper.
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What are the 3 major avenues
available to police investigators
in solving a crime?
1. Confessions
2. Eyewitness accounts by victims and/or
witnesses
3. Evaluation of physical evidence recovered
from the crime scene
Which of the above is free of inherent error or bias?
Only PHYSICAL EVIDENCE — WHY?
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Only PHYSICAL EVIDENCE is free
of inherent error or bias— WHY?
Because physical evidence MUST undergo
scientific inquiry
Scientific integrity is due to strict guidelines
that ensure careful and systematic collection,
organization, and analysis of information
The Scientific Method
(this is known as ______________________)
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The Scientific Method
• Formulate a question worthy of investigation.
• Formulate a reasonable hypothesis to answer the
question.
• Test the hypothesis through experimentation.
• Testing process must be thorough and recognized
by other scientists as valid.
• When the hypothesis is validated by
experimentation, it become suitable as scientific
evidence, appropriate for criminal investigation
and for admission in court.
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Skills of a Forensic Scientist
• Applying the principles and techniques of
the physical and natural sciences to the
analysis of the many types of evidence that
may be recovered during a criminal
investigation
• Participate in training law enforcement
personnel in the proper recognition,
collection, and preservation of physical
evidence
• May provide expert court testimony
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Expert Witness
• Must establish his or her credibility through
credentials, background and experience
• One whom the court determines possesses
knowledge relevant to the trial that is not
expected of the average person
Watch a Forensic Expert Witness (#1)Testify
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Expert Witness
• Evaluates evidence based on specialized
training and experience that the court lacks
the expertise to do
• Then expresses an opinion as to the
significance of the findings
Watch a Forensic Expert Witness Testify (#2)
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Facets of Guilt
Try to prove:

Means—person had the ability to do the crime

Motive—person had a reason to do the crime
(not necessary to prove in a court of law)

Opportunity—person can be placed at the
crime
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Federal Rules of Evidence
In order for evidence
to be admissible, it
must be:
 Probative—actually
prove something
 Material—address an
issue that is relevant to
the particular crime
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Admissibility of Evidence
1923 Frye v. United States
1993 Daubert v. Dow
 Scientific evidence is allowed
into the courtroom if it is
generally accepted by the
relevant scientific community.
The Frye standard does not offer
any guidance on reliability. The
evidence is presented in the trial
and the jury decides if it can be
used.
Admissibility is determined by:
 Whether the theory or technique
can be tested
 Whether the science has been
offered for peer review
 Whether the rate of error is
acceptable
 Whether the method at issue
enjoys widespread acceptance.
 Whether the opinion is relevant
to the issue
The judge decides if the evidence
can be entered into the trial.
NOTE: Frye standard used
in Pennsylvania
(6/11/04)
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Frye v. United States, 1923
• James Frye convicted of second degree murder
• On appeal, defense counsel said that the court
erred when it refused the introduction of a systolic
blood pressure deception test and expert testimony
on the test as evidence
• The court stated that, to be accepted in a court of
law, the scientific evidence must be generally
accepted in the scientific community
– Systolic pressure deception test was NOT generally
accepted by scientific community so not admissible
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Rule 702 of
Federal Rules of Evidence
Sets a different standard (from the Frye
standard) for admissibility of expert
testimony
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Rule 702 of
Federal Rules of Evidence
A witness is “qualified” as an expert by
knowledge, skill, experience, training or
education and may offer expert testimony
on a scientific or technical matter if
1. The testimony is based upon sufficient facts
or data
2. The testimony is the product of reliable
principles and methods
3. The witness has applied the principles and
methods reliably to the facts of the case
69
Daubert v. Merrell Dow
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 1993
• Two minor children + their parents sued
Dow, claiming the children’s serious birth
defects were due to a prescription drug
marketed by Dow
• Court ruled evidence didn’t meet the
standard of “general acceptance” for
admission of expert testimony
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Daubert v. Merrell Dow
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 1993
• On appeal, U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the Frye
standard is not the only rule for admissibility of
scientific evidence.
• Admissibility of expert testimony should be
controlled by Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of
Evidence
• It need not be generally accepted in the the
scientific community, rather it should be admitted
if it rests on a reliable scientific foundation and is
relevant to the issue at hand
• Daubert rule only applies to federal courts, but
states are expected to use the decision as a
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guideline in setting standards
Admissibility of Evidence
1923 Frye v. United States
1993 Daubert v. Dow
 Scientific evidence is allowed
into the courtroom if it is
generally accepted by the
relevant scientific community.
The Frye standard does not offer
any guidance on reliability. The
evidence is presented in the trial
and the jury decides if it can be
used.
Admissibility is determined by:
 Whether the theory or technique
can be tested
 Whether the science has been
offered for peer review
 Whether the rate of error is
acceptable
 Whether the method at issue
enjoys widespread acceptance.
 Whether the opinion is relevant
to the issue
The judge decides if the evidence
can be entered into the trial.
72
Kumho Tire Co., Ltd. v.
Carmichael, 1999
• Court unanimously ruled that the
“gatekeeping” role of the trial judge applied
not only to scientific testimony, but to ALL
EXPERT TESTIMONY
73
Coppolino Case Study
(whiteboard the following)
1. What was Coppolino charged with?
2. What was the result of the trials?
3. If you were the forensic expert on this
case would you have done anything
differently? Explain.
4. What was “special” about this case?
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Coppolino v. State, 1968
Coppolino standard
• the court allows a novel test or piece of
new, sometimes controversial, science
on a particular problem at hand if an
adequate foundation can be laid even if
the profession as a whole isn't familiar
with it.
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Detection of Curare in the
Jascalevich Murder Trial
• What was the reason this case was given at
this point in the text?
• What was Jascalevich charged with?
• What was the result of the trial?
• If you were the forensic expert on this case
how would you have handled the
investigation differently?
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