MIDTERM REVIEW
Honors Biology 2012

Scientific Method Concept Map

Bubbles in a concept map are key terms

Arrows on a concept map show how big ideas are linked with short phrases

Experimental Design





Independent Variable

“What I change”
Dependent Variable

“What I count or measure”
Experimental Group

Group that receives the treatment
Control Group

Kept unchanged for comparison
Constants

Keep all things the same except I.V.

Redi’s experiment

1. Redi notived that when flies landed on exposed meat, maggots would appear on the meat later. Redi ws able to show that living things come from other living things. Complete an outline of his experiment:

Redi’s Experiment

Problem Where does life come from?

Hypothesis If Life comes only from other life then the meat that is covered should not have maggots

Procedure

Analysis & Conclusion

Analysis – Yep. Flies and maggots seem to be a connection. No access to flies, no maggots. Meat by itself in the sealed jars does not turn into maggots.

Conclusion – Maggots are baby flies.
All life comes from other life.

Analysis of Redi’s experiment
2. In his (Redi's) experiment the independent variable was the different treatments of the jars lids, cloth netting, no lids
3. In Redi's experiment the dependent variable was the amount of flies


4. Redi would have begun collecting data as soon as he set up his experiment because flies are everywhere.

Make flashcards for the following voabulary:
 homeostasis
 pH
 atoms
 bonds
 proteins
 amino acids
 carbohydrates
 monosaccharides
 polysaccharides
 lipids
 fatty acids
 nucleic acids
 nucleotides
 inorganic
 organic

homeostasis

A steady balanced state
All body systems balanced
Happy critter

pH

A measure of how much H + (acid) or OH (base)

atoms

The building blocks of all matter. Made of
 protons (positive charge)

Neutrons (neutral charge)

Electrons (negative charge)

Types of bonds

Covalent – shares electrons

Ionic – transfer electrons

Hydrogen – form b/n slight charge differences
Covalent bonds involve sharing at least one pair of electrons
Ionic bonds – electrons move from one atom to another creating a charge difference hydrogen bonds – electrons arenot equally shared in covalent bonds, created charge imbalance that creates attraction between molecules

proteins

Include the following atoms:

C, H, O, N, S

Subunit = amino acids

Make important cell structures

Enzymes are special proteins

Made by ribosome

Fancied up and packaged by
ER & Golgi

Amino acids

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

Carbohydrates

Include the following atoms:

C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio)

Subunit = monosaccharide

Important for quick energy storage/release

Cell walls
Polysaccharides = many monosaccharides bonded together
Glucose is a monosaccharide or a simple sugar

Lipids

Include the following atoms

C, H, O – not 1:2:1 ratio

Subunits are fatty acids and glycerol

Not a true polymer

Important for longer term energy storage/retrieval

Also good at insulating, protecting

Nucleic Acids

Include the atoms

C, H, O, N, P

Subunit is the nucleotide

Types of nucleotides: A, C, T, G, U

DNA = double stranded, RNA = single stranded

Also includes ATP

Organic or Inorganic?

Organic compounds have C-H bonds organic inorganic

How does this robin maintain homeostasis?

It’s warm blooded, even when it’s cold its body maintains a near constant temperature. This involves internal feedback mechanisms that work in much the same way as a thermostat works in your house.
This is what you do, too

Temperature Too low? = shivering produces heat that warms you

Temp Too warm? = sweating cools you off

Common table salt

Ionic bonds - because the Sodium loses an electron to Chlorine

Soap has a pH of 10
 pH of 10 = base

Macromolecule chart
Other examples Macromolecule Basic unit
(monomer)
Carbohydrates Monosaccharide
Lipids Glycerol + fatty acids
Cellulose
Chitin
Glucose
Starch glycogen
Triglyceride
Cholestrol
Fats, oils, waxes
Purpose
Cell wall
Quick energy
Protection insulation
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
Amino acids Keratin (hair)
Transport tubes in cell membrane
Antibody, enzymes nucleotide DNA
RNA
ATP structure
See slide 16
See slide 17
Strucutre
Defense against disease
Speed up rxns
Genetic info
Protein synthesis energy
See slide 15
See slide 18

Make flash cards for the following vocabulary

Nucleus

Chromosomes

Plasma membrane (cell membrane)

Cell wall

Mitochondria

Vacuoles

Chloroplasts

Ribosomes

Magnification

Resolution

Membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryote
 eukaryote

Nucleus

Chromosomes

Cell Membrane

Cell Wall

Mitochondria

Vacuoles

Chloroplasts

Ribosomes

Magnification / Resolution

Membrane-bound organelles

Draw an animal cell

Draw a plant cell

Plant cells vs Animal cells
Plant Cells

Cell Wall & cell membrane

Chloroplasts

Contain chlorophyll

Mitochondria

Large central vacuole
Animal Cells

Cell membrane (no cell wall)

Centrioles

Mitochondria

Smaller vacuoles
 lysosome

Draw and Label a Bacterial Cell

Why might chloroplasts be more numerous in a leaf than a stem?

Leaf is the organ of the plant that conducts photosynthesis so it has lots of chloroplasts. Stems don’t do as much photosynthesis, so they don’t have as many chloroplasts.

Why might a muscle cell have more mitochondria?

Muscle cells use a lot of ATP, so they have many mitochondria to provide that ATP by cellular respiration

How are Prokaryotes different from
Eukaryotes?
Prokaryotes




No nucleus
No membrane-bound organelles
DNA loose in cytoplasm
Small primitive ribosomes
Eukaryotes



DNA in true nucleus
Membrane-bound organelles

ER, Golgi, vacuole, mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc
Larger ribosomes
Both have cell membrane, DNA, ribosomes and cytoplasm

Microscope magnification
Multiply ocular lens x objective lens to get total magnific ation

Other cartoons of microscopes
Make sure you can identify the parts and how to use a microscope

Make flashcards

Diffusion

Osmosis

Concentration gradient

Passive transport

Active transport

Semi-permeable membrane (selectively permeable membrane)

Diffusion

Osmosis

Concentration Gradient

Passive Transport

Active Transport

Semi-permeable Membrane

Identify parts of the cell membrane
Does it let in
EVERYTHING?
No! So it’s
SEMIpermeable

cell in normal conditio ns cell in pure water cell in salt water
Plant cell placed in salt water

Isotonic (same inside and out)

Hyp
O tonic (cell swells – more water outside than inside, water moves in)

Hyp e rtonic (cell shrinks – more water inside than outside, water moves out)

Active or Passive?
Low to high or high to low?

Make flashcards

Enzyme

Substrate

Activation energy

Temperature

Denature
 catalyst

Catalyst

A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction by lowering the activation energy.

This is very important in cells because of the very slow reaction rates of some important biological reactions

Enzyme / Substrate

Enzymes are biological catalysts

Almost always made of protein

Speeds up reaction

The substance that the enzyme works on.

Can be something that is put together or something that is broken up.

Activation Energy

The energy required to get a reaction going.

Denature - Temperature

Because enzymes are made of protein, if they get too hot they can be “cooked” or DENATURED

If they get too hot, their structure breaks down and they stop working

How do enzymes work?

Enzyme

Substrate

Enzyme substrate complex

Active site

Products

Each enzyme only works on it’s own substrate, not just anything.
Enzymes are specific. 1 enzyme: 1 substrate

Enzymes don’t get used up – they get used over and over again, sometimes thousands a time a second!
Enzymes are reusable

Too hot & enzyme gets DENATURED (broken)
Enzymes are sensitive to temperature.

Too acidic or too basic = denatured. (think ceviche!)
Enzymes are sensitive to pH.

The speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy
Enzymes speed up reactions

The speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy
Enzymes speed up reactions

Some enzymes build. Some enzymes break down.
Enzymes either make a chain or break a chain

Enzyme = key. Substrate = lock.
Enzymes work like a lock and key

Lock and key is a gross oversimplification.
The Induced fit model is more accurate.

Make flashcards

Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration

Photosynthesis

Chemosynthesis

ATP

Aerobic respiration

Uses Oxygen

Mitochondria

Make WAY more ATP than anaerobic

Gives off CO
2

Anaerobic respiration

No oxygen

No mitochondria because they need the oxygen

Make WAY less ATP than aerobic

Also called Fermentation – two types

Alcoholic like yeast making beer

Lactic acid like us
 makes muscles sore

Gives off CO
2

Scientific formula for cellular respiration

Photosynthesis

Uses Carbon dioxide

Uses light energy

Happens in the chloroplast

Chloroplast contains chlorophyll

Produces glucose

Gives off oxygen

Scientific Equation for Photosynthesis
Nerd tattoo of Photosynthesis

Chemosynthesis

Where there’s no light

Deep sea vents

Use inorganic chemicals to produce carbohydrates

ATP

The energy molecule used in cells

How important is ATP to cells?

ATP is the primary energy currency of the cell.
Nerd tattoo of ATP

A water plant is exposed to sunlight and gives off oxygen.
What process is it undergoing?

A plant seed germinates, giving off carbon dioxide.
What process is it undergoing?

Yeast breaks down sugar in the absence of oxygen.
What type of respiration is it undergoing?
2

Plant in water. What are bubbles?

Yeast in dropper with juice.
What are bubbles?

Make flashcards

DNA

RNA

Replication

Protein synthesis

Transcription

Translation

Mutation

Adenine

Guanine

Cytosine

Thymine

Uracil

Contribution of Watson and Crick?




They figured out the structure of DNA was a double helix
PS. They got a lot of help from Rosalind Franklin & didn’t give her credit.
They got Nobel Prize.
She got nothing.
 she died before she could be recognized & Nobels aren’t given posthumously

Rosalind Franklin & Photo 51

This is what Watson
& crick saw that helped them know
DNA was a Double
Helix.
Photo 51

DNA

Double helix

Sugar = deoxyribose

Nucleotides

Adenine

Cytosine

Guanine

Thymine

DNA / RNA comparison

RNA

Single stranded

Sugar = ribose

Nucleotides

Adenine

Cytosine

Guanine

Uracil

DNA Replication

Said to be “semiconservative” because you get one old strand & one new strand

Protein Synthesis

Transcription – in nucleus DNA  mRNA

Translation – in cytoplasm at ribosome
– mRNA  protein

Kinds of Mutation

Frameshift Mutation

Can be caused by insertion or deletion

Changes reading frame of ribosome

Not only is the amino acid where the mistake happens messed up but every amino acid after is changed.

Big problem

Make flashcards
 genetic engineering

Electrophoresis
 recombinant DNA
 transgenic organisms

Cloning

DNA fingerprints
 gene therapy

Genetic Engineering Old School
Selective Breeding



Selective Breeding – breeding organisms to produce more useful qualities
Used in foods, animals (pets, farms)
Increases the frequency of the desired gene in a population

Genetic Engineering

Genetic Engineering – using DNA Technology to increase the frequency of a desired gene in a population

Recombinant DNA

Using DNA fragments from one organism and transplanting the pieces into a second organism

Plants and animals that contain recombinant DNA are called transgenic organisms

Example: Human gene for insulin inserted into bacteria

Bacteria are grown and produce human protein

Bacteria are harvested, protein purified

Protein sent to pharmacy

We do this with bacteria in AP Biology.

Biotechnology Tools of the Trade

Recombinant DNA

Restriction enzymes (sort of like molecular scissors)

Ligase (molecular scotch tape)

Gene of interest sequence from donor

Cells from future host

With bacteria, almost always add antibiotic resistance with gene of interest

So you can use antibiotics to screen out those who didn’t get “transformed” your payload

Biotech Tools - PCR

Ever notice how on those CSI type shows they get a microscopic sample from a crime scene and then run a zillion tests on it? How do they do that?

PCR – like a Xerox machine for DNA

Electrophoresis

Gel Electrophoresis uses electricity to separate fragments of DNA or protein by size.

Use same restriction enzyme to cut samples so you can compare them

Different sequence of
DNA “letters” in each person = different banding pattern on gel

Gel Electrophoresis

Transgenic Organisms



Fishberries – inserting a gene from an arctic fish into strawberries in attempt to act like built in anti-freeze and increase crop yield when it frosts.
Currently, up to 85 percent of U.S. corn is genetically engineered as are 91 percent of soybeans and 88 percent of cotton (cottonseed oil is often used in food products). It has been estimated that upwards of 70 percent of processed foods on supermarket shelves–from soda to soup, crackers to condiments–contain genetically engineered ingredients.
There are currently no consumer protections in place to ensure you know which products contain genetically modified food.

Cloning




Nucleus from cell taken from adult donor nucleus removed from fertilized embryo
New hybrid embryo implanted in surrogate mom
Baby born has nuclear
DNA from adult donor, but mitochondrial DNA from original ovum donor

Dolly the sheep


First cloned mammal
1997

Yet

DNA Fingerprints – to remember

Sample taken from person

Cut with restriction enzymes

Must use the same restriction enzyme for everyone who is going to be compared

Place in Gel and turn on power

Electricity pulls the negatively charged DNA down the field through the gel

Compare bands by size in rows

Gene Therapy

How can DNA Fingerprints be used to establish relationships?

Samples from Mom

Samples from baby

Samples from potential fathers

How is a transgenic organism different than a cloned organism?
Transgenic

Organism contains genes from another species

The goal is to produce those targeted foreign proteins for benefit of the organism
Cloned

Embryo has original nucleus removed

Replaced with nucleus from donor cell

Placed in surrogate and gestated until birth

Make flashcards










Biotic
Abiotic
Biomes
Ecosystems
Population
Community
Niche
Habitat predator/prey limiting factors








 carrying capacity
Decomposers
Producers
Autotrophs
Consumers
Heterotrophs food chains food webs primary succession




 secondary succession climax community global warming pesticide resistance biomagnification

Biotic / Abiotic
Biotic

Living factors in the environment

Bacteria

Protists

Fungi

Plants

Animals
Abiotic

Non-living factors in the environment

Weather

Temperature

Water

Humidity
 rock

Biomes

The world’s major types of ecosystems – examples include

Tundra

Taiga (Boreal Forest)

Grasslands

Deciduous Forest

Chapparal

Desert

Savannah

Rainforest

Levels of Organization in Ecology

Biosphere

Ecosystem

Community

Population

Organism

Niche / Habitat
Niche

An organisms role in the environment

Interaction

Feeding

Roosting

Breeding

Timing of activities
Habitat

Home of or area where an organism can be found

Same habitat – different niche


If two organisms share a niche they must compete for those limited resources, kill the invader or leave to find another suitable niche
Sometimes that is solved by partitioning resources to avoid competition

Predator / Prey Interactions

This graph is typical of predator prey relationships



Too many prey?

Predator population increases
Too many predators?

Prey populations decline
Not enough prey?

Predator population declines

Not enough predators?

Prey population booms

Limiting Factors – anything that limits the growth of a population
Density Dependent Limiting Factors

Biotic Factors that limit population growth

Disease

Food

Parasites
 predators
Density Independent Limiting Factors

Abiotic factors that limit population growth

Climate

Tornado

Drought

Hurricane

Fire

Exponential Growth – No Limiting Factors

Carrying Capacity

Maximum number of individuals an environment can support

Decomposers

Producers / Autotrophs

Make their own food

Ex: plants, algae

Chemosynthetic bacteria

Consumers / Heterotrophs

Can not make their own food, so rely on consuming other living things

Food Chain / Food Web

Food webs are complex

Arrows indicate direction of energy flow

Succession

Secondary Succession

Biological Magnification

Pesticide is nonbiodegradable

Builds up in food chain

Effects are worst at highest trophic levels

Rachel Carson, “Silent
Spring”