Anatomy and Physiology
INTRODUCTION
- Study of anatomy and physiology is an ever developing
science.
- Greek and Latin form the basis for the language of
anatomy and physiology.
DEFINITIONS:
A. ANATOMY =
the study of the structure (morphology,
form) of body parts.
B. PHYSIOLOGY =
the study of the function of body parts.
Anatomy dictates function!
Characteristics of Life
• Movement –
change in position; motion
• Responsiveness –
reaction to a change
• Growth –
increase in body size; no change in
shape
• Reproduction –
production of new organisms and new cells
• Respiration –
obtaining oxygen; removing carbon
dioxide; releasing energy from foods
Levels of Organization
STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION:
A. The atom [i.e. Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), or Oxygen(O)] is
the least complex level. An atom is defined as the smallest
particle of an element. Atoms combine with (react with) other
atoms to form...
B. molecules [i.e. carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H20)]. A
molecule is defined as a particle composed of 2 or more joined
atoms. Molecules combine with other molecules to form...
C. macromolecules (i.e. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic
acids). A macromolecule is defined as a large molecule.
Macromolecules combine with other macromolecules to
form...
D. organelles (i.e. cell membrane, nucleus, ribosomes). An
organelle is defined as a small organ of a cell, which performs
a particular function. Organelles collectively compose ...
Levels of Organization
E. cells The cell is defined as the basic unit of structure and
function of living organisms!
Each cell has a set of organelles and performs a particular
function (i.e. a red blood cell has a biconcave shape and is a
nucleate. This structure increases its surface area, allowing for
the transport of more oxygen0.
Some cells have all of the machinery that they need to live.
Similar cells are arranged into...
F. tissues (i.e. epithelia, connective, muscle, nervous). A tissue
is defined as a group of similar cells that performs a
specialized function. Two or more tissues combine to form...
Levels of Organization
G. organs (i.e. skin, heart, brain). An organ is defined as a
structure consisting of a group of tissues that performs a
specialized function. Two or more organs combine to form...
H. organ systems (i.e. integumentary, cardiovascular). An organ
system is defined as a group of organs that act together to
carry on a specialized function. There are 11 organ systems.
The eleven organ systems collectively form the...
I. human organism An organism is the most complex level of
organization and is defined as an individual living thing.
J. The levels of hierarchy could be further extended to include;
populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere.
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
bones
ligaments
cartilages
Major Functions:
provide framework
protect soft tissue
provide attachments for muscles
produce blood cells
store inorganic salts
Skeletal system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
skin
hair
nails
sweat glands
sebaceous glands
Major Functions:
protect tissue
regulate body temperature
support sensory receptors
Integumentary system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
muscles
Major Functions:
cause movement
maintain posture
produce body heat
Muscular system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
brain
spinal cord
nerves
sense organs
Major Functions:
detect changes
receive and interpret sensory information
stimulate muscles and glands
Nervous system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
pituitary gland
thyroid gland
parathyroid glands
adrenal glands
pancreas
ovaries
testes
pineal gland
thymus
Major Functions:
control metabolic activities of
body structures through the
release of hormones
Endocrine system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
heart
arteries
capillaries
veins
Major Functions:
move blood through vessels and
transport substances throughout
the body
Cardiovascular system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
lymphatic vessels
lymph nodes
thymus
spleen
Major Functions:
return tissue fluid to blood
carry certain absorbed food molecules
defend the body against infection
Lymphatic system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
mouth
tongue
teeth
salivary glands
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
liver and gallbladder
pancreas
small and large intestines
Major Functions:
receive, breakdown, and absorb food
eliminate unabsorbed material
Digestive system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
nasal cavity
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
lungs
Major Functions:
intake and output of air
exchange gases between air and blood
Respiratory system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
kidneys
ureters
urinary bladder
urethra
Major Functions:
remove waste from blood
maintain water and electrolyte balance
store and transport urine
Urinary system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
scrotum
testes
epididymides
ductus deferentia
seminal vesicles
prostate gland
bulbourethral glands
urethra
penis
Major Functions:
produce and maintain sperm cells
transfer sperm cells into female
reproductive tract
Male reproductive system
Levels of Organization
Major Organs:
ovaries
uterine tubes
uterus
vagina
clitoris
vulva
Major Functions:
produce and maintain eggs cells
receive sperm cells
support development of an embryo
function in the birth process
Female reproductive system
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Position = standing erect, face forward,
upper limbs at sides, palms forward.
Directional terminology
Anatomical Terminology
Relative Position
1.
Superior = above; Inferior = below;
2.
Anterior = front; Posterior = back;
3.
Ventral = front; Dorsal = back;
4.
Medial = center; Lateral = side;
5.
Ipsilateral = same side; Contralateral = other side
6.
Proximal = closer to trunk; Distal = farther from trunk;
7.
Superficial = surface; Deep = internal.
Dissection planes
Anatomical Terminology
Body Sections (cuts, planes)
1.
Sagittal cut:
divides the body into right and left portions.
midsagittal (median) = equal right and left portions.
2.
Transverse Cut: (or horizontal): divides the body into
superior and inferior portions
3.
Coronal Cut:
(or frontal): divides the body into anterior and
posterior portions.
4.
Cross-section:
cut at 90 degrees to long axis of the object
5.
Oblique section: cut at an angle across an object
6.
Longitudinal section: cut with the long axis of an object
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Terminology
Organization of the Body
Organization of the Body
Organization of the Body
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
HUMAN BODY
AXIAL PORTION
APPENDICULAR PORTION
head
arms
neck
legs
trunk
Organization of the Body
Axial Portion
DORSAL CAVITY
VENTRAL CAVITY
CRANIAL CAVITY
brain
THORACIC CAVITY
lungs
mediastinum
VERTEBRAL CANAL
thymus
spinal cord
heart
esophagus
trachea
* Note that the diaphragm muscle separates the thoracic from abdominopelvic cavities.
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
ABDOMINAL CAVITY
stomach
liver
spleen
gallbladder
small intestine
large intestine
PELVIC CAVITY
urinarybladder
internal reproductive
organs
* Note that the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ureters are behind the abdominopelvic
cavity. This is referred to as RETROPERITONEAL.
Organization of the Body
Organization of the Body
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Terminology
Anatomical Terminology
Characteristics of Life Continued
• Digestion –
breakdown of food substances into
simpler forms
• Absorption –
passage of substances through membranes
and into body fluids
• Circulation –
movement of substances in body fluids
• Assimilation –
changing of absorbed substances
into chemically different forms
• Excretion –
removal of wastes produced by
metabolic reactions
Maintenance of Life
• Life depends on five (5) environmental factors:
• Water
• Food
• Oxygen
• Heat
• Pressure
• Water
- most abundant substance in body
- required for metabolic processes
- required for transport of substances
- regulates body temperature
Maintenance of Life
• Food
- provides necessary nutrients
- supplies energy
- supplies raw materials
• Oxygen (gas)
- one-fifth of air
- used to release energy from nutrients
• Heat
- form of energy
- partly controls rate of metabolic reactions
• Pressure
- application of force on an object
- atmospheric pressure – important for breathing
- hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing
Maintenance of Life
Homeostasis
1.
Definition = the tendency of an organism to
maintain a stable internal environment.
2.
All life processes and metabolic reactions work to
maintain homeostasis.
3.
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms – monitors aspects of
the internal environment and corrects as needed.
Variations are within limits. There are three (3) parts:
a.
b.
c.
Receptor – senses change in environment
Control Center – Regulates set-point of variables
Effector – organ that acts in response to changes
4.
Example = maintenance of body temperature at 98.6ºF/37ºC.
5.
There are two (2) types:
1.
Negative feedback mechanisms
2.
Positive feedback mechanisms
Maintenance of Life
Negative feedback summary:
• Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body
• Corrects the set point
• Causes opposite of bodily disruption to occur, i.e. the ‘negative’
• Limits chaos in the body by creating stability
• Most common type of feedback loop
• Examples: body temperature, blood pressure & glucose regulation
Maintenance of Life
Control center
(set point)
Receptors
Stimulus
(Change occurs
in internal
environment.)
(Change is compared
to the set point.)
Effectors
(muscles or glands)
Response
(Change is corrected.)
Maintenance of Life
Positive feedback summary:
• Increases (accelerates) the actions of the body
• Produces more instability in the body
• Produces more chaos in the body
• There are only a few types necessary for our survival
• Positive feedback mechanisms are short-lived
• Controls only infrequent events that do not require continuous
adjustments
• Considered to be the uncommon loop
• Examples: blood clotting and child birth
Positive feedback in child birth