Themes: The end of the Period of Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.) sets the stage for the developments of a classical Chinese empire as well as the foundation of Confucianism in China. The rise and fall of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi make a fascinating story, for the grand structures he commissioned also led to the extreme oppression of the Chinese people and the downfall of his
“dynasty” after only two rulers. Qin Shi Huangdi’s imperial organization and military conquests can be easily compared to the Persian experiences.
The successor dynasty, the Han, continued the Qin patterns, albeit at a more modest pace to keep the peasantry from revolting again. Han Wudi’s military expansions, however, necessitated greater taxes and huge numbers of conscripted soldiers. As small farmers had to sell their lands, agricultural lands became concentrated in the hands of a relatively small number of wealthy landowners. Unequal land distribution was to plague Chinese politics and the economy for centuries. It would be a good idea to integrate information on the silk roads in this chapter (from chapter 12), or students won’t associate the silk roads with the Han.
Just as the Period of Warring States had given birth to the organized Qin, it also gave rise to the philosophies of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. Each of the three philosophies tried to explain how to secure a peaceful and well-ordered society. Confucianism attempted this by moral political service and adherence to a strict social hierarchy; Daoism by withdrawal into individual goodness; and Legalism by clear laws and swift punishments to transgressors.
The foundations of bureaucratic centralization in China went hand in hand with the establishment of universities in which to train the bureaucrats. Confucianism became the dominant educational and political philosophy in those universities, in large part because they had an established canon and curriculum dating from the Zhou dynasty. For the next 2000 years, in order to become a government official in China, one had to become a proficient scholar of Confucian philosophy and pass rigorous examinations. Buddhism became another philosophy, a little closer to a religion than Confucianism, which was prevalent in Han and post-Classical China. (This is also covered in chapter 12.)
The other important theme that reappears in this chapter is the complicated relationship between the northern nomadic peoples and the peoples of the settled, agricultural Chinese empire.
In the classical period, the Xiongnu created an empire strong and organized enough to challenge
Han Wudi (ultimately unsuccessfully), although usually tactics such as paying tribute, or allowing untaxed trade, or even marrying Chinese daughters to Xiongnu chiefs were enough to keep the peace.
The Han ruled for four centuries, but their control disintegrated due to a formidable array of internal problems (uprisings of desperate and disgruntled peasants; competing elite factions who fought each other in civil wars; disease outbreaks). This, however, is not included in chapter 8. It would be worthwhile to include reading from chapter 12 here (pages 302 to 305) on the fall of the
Han; otherwise students will have a hard time pulling it all together.
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Chapter 8 Reading Questions:
1.
What are the fundamental ideas and values of Confucianism? Make sure to include the concepts of ren , li , and xiao in your answer. Confucius ideas and values were moral, ethical, and political in character. Confucius did not address abstruse philosophical questions because he thought they would not help to solve the political and social problems. He also did not deal with religious questions because he believed they went beyond the capacity of mortal human intelligence. He also did not deal with the social structure of the state because he believed political and social harmony worked better for proper human ordering than the establishment of state officers. Ren was a quality believed to be an attitude of kindness and benevolence or a sense of humanity. Individuals possessing ren were courteous, respectful, diligent, and loyal. Li was a sense of propriety which called for individuals to behave in conventionally appropriate fashion. Xiao, filial piety, reflected on the high significance of family in Chinese society. These qualities were emphasized because Confucius believed that individuals who possessed these traits would gain influence in the larger society.
2.
How does Daoism contrast with Confucianism? The Daoists were the most prominent critics of
Confucian activism. Unlike the Confucians, the Daoists considered it pointless to waste time and energy on problems that defied solution. Instead of Confucian social activism, the Daoists devoted their energies to reflection and introspectation, in hopes that they would understand the natural principles that governed the world and could learn how to harmonize with them. Also, Daoism served as a counterbalance to the activism and extroversion of the Confucian tradition.
3.
What were the fundamental principles of Legalism, and how does it differ from
Confucianism and Daoism? Unlike the Confucians, the legalists did not concern themselves with ethics, morality, or propriety. Unlike the Daoists, the Legalists cared nothing about principles governing the world or the place of human beings in nature. Instead, they devoted their attention exclusively to the state, which they planned on strengthening and expanding no matter what. The
Legalists believed that strength of a state relies on agriculture and armed forces so as a result they encourages people into cultivation or military service as opposed to educators, scholars. or philosophers. The Legalists expected to harness subjects’ energy by means of clear and strict laws.
They expected all members of a family to observe the others closely.
4.
Why does your book call Qin Shihuangdi “one of the most important figures in Chinese
history”? He was the first emperor of the Qin dynasty. Even though it only lasted 14 years, During
Qin’s reign, he was able to form a centralized imperial rule that allowed for long term political organization over the Chinese civilization. This rule formed China and is the main reason he is known as one of the most important figures in Chinese history. Qin ruled his empire as a centralized bureaucracy. He launched many initiatives that enhanced the unity of China such as that he standardized the laws, currencies, weights and measures of the various regions of China. He also helped build roads and bridges that encouraged economic intergration.
5.
How did the early Han contribute to the unification of China? The emperor, Liu Bang, attempted to follow a middle path between the decentralized network of political alliances of the zhou dynasty and the tightly knit state of the Qin. He did this to try to save the advantages and avoid the excesses of both the Zhou and Qin kit
dynasties. He allotted large landholding to members of the imperial family in expectation they would provide a reliable network or support for his rule. But he also divided the empire into administrative districts governed by officials who served at the emperor’s pleasure in expectation that he could exercise effective control over the development and implementation of his policies. After an Xiongnu invasion, a policy of centralization was used. Two policies were essential in the Han’s success: administrative centralization and imperial expansion.
6.
Discuss the role of the Xiongnu in the history of China during the Han. The Xiongnu were nomadic peoples from the steppes of central Asia. They were the greatest foreign challenge Han
Wudi faced. Xiangnu boys learned to ride sheep and shoot rodents at an early age. Although their
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weaponry was not as sophisticated as that of the Chinese, their mobility offered them a distinct advantage. When they couldn’t satisfy their needs through peaceful trade, they would suddenly raid villages or trading areas, where they commandeered food supplies or manufactured goods. The
Xiongnu could disperse when confronted by a superior force. Maodun, their most successful leader, brought strict military discipline to the Xiongnu. Their empire was a source of concern to the Han emperors. Han Wudi brought much of the Xiongnu Empire under Chinese military control, after deciding to go on the offense against them. As a result of these efforts, the Xiongnu fell into dynasty
7.
What were the most significant technological developments during this period of Chinese
history? Iron metallurgy had important domestic and military uses. Iron armor was used to protect soldiers, and the strength and sharpness of Han swords, spears, and arrowheads contributed to the success of Chinese armies against the Xiongnu and other nomads. Sericulture, the manufacture of silk, was important because through careful breeding, Chinese silk was very fine and became a prized commodity in India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire. Commerce in silk and other products led to the establishment of a network of trade routes-silk road. The invention of paper made it less expensive than bamboo and became the preferred median for most writing.
8.
How did the issue of uneven distribution of wealth contribute to the collapse of the Han?
The military adventures in China, such as expeditions against the Xiongnu, caused huge economic strain. These expeditions were extremely expensive and rapidly consumed the empire’s surplus wealth. To finance these Han Wudi raised taxes and confiscated land and personal property from wealthy individuals. These things discouraged investment in manufacturing and trading enterprises which led to dampening effect on larger economy. Tensions began to grow between the rich and poor and they soon organized rebellions in hopes to gain larger shares of the Han society’s resources.
Individual economic problems were brought by high taxes and poor harvests caused by landowners to sell their property.
9.
How did the educational system develop in China during this period? Han Wudi established an imperial university that prepared young men for government service. Han Wudi cared little for learning, but he recognized that the success of his efforts at bureaucratic centralization would depend on a corps of educated officeholders. The imperial university took Confucianism as the basis for its curriculum. Confucianism became the imperial ideology. By the end of the Former Han dynasty, the imperial university enrolled more than three thousand students, and by the end of the Later Han, the student population had risen to more than thirty thousand.
10.
What was the role of the family in classical China? It was patriarchal, and each household typically consisted of five inhabitants. Children should obey and honor their parents as well as other superiors and political authorities. Women should show humility, obedience, subservience, and devotion to their husbands. Patriarchal families were the foundations of a stable society.
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