ORIENTEERING
A Sport for Life
A Long Term Participant
Development
Guide
CONTENTS
Preface ....................................................................................................................................... 5
Letter from LTPD Project Leader ........................................................................................... 5
Letter from President............................................................................................................. 6
Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................. 7
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 8
What is LTPD? ........................................................................................................................ 8
The Ten Key Factors Influencing LTPD ..................................................................................... 11
1. Continuous Improvement (kaizen) .................................................................................. 11
2. The FUNdamentals - Developing Physical Literacy ......................................................... 11
3. Chronological Age vs. Developmental Age ..................................................................... 12
4. Mental, Cognitive and Emotional Development............................................................. 14
5. Specialisation .................................................................................................................. 14
6. Trainability ...................................................................................................................... 15
7. Periodisation (Annual training, competition & recovery plan) ....................................... 16
8. The Ten Year Rule ........................................................................................................... 17
9. Calendar Planning for Competition................................................................................. 17
10. System Alignment and Integration ............................................................................... 18
The 10 S’s of Training and Performance .................................................................................. 19
Stamina (Endurance)............................................................................................................ 20
Strength................................................................................................................................ 21
Speed ................................................................................................................................... 21
Skill ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Suppleness ........................................................................................................................... 22
Structure / Stature ............................................................................................................... 22
(p)Sychology ......................................................................................................................... 23
Sustenance ........................................................................................................................... 24
Schooling .............................................................................................................................. 24
Socio-Cultural ....................................................................................................................... 25
Building a Pathway: The Eight Stage LTPD .............................................................................. 26
STAGE ONE:
ACTIVE START (Treasure Hunt) .................................................................. 27
STAGE TWO:
FUNDAMENTALS (Path Finder) .................................................................. 28
STAGE THREE:
LEARN TO TRAIN (Explorer) ...................................................................... 29
STAGE FOUR:
TRAIN TO TRAIN (Expert Explorer) ........................................................... 30
STAGE FIVE:
LEARN TO COMPETE (Adventurer) ............................................................ 32
STAGE SIX:
TRAIN TO COMPETE (Navigator)................................................................ 33
STAGE SEVEN:
TRAIN TO WIN (Elite Navigator) .............................................................. 34
STAGE EIGHT:
ACTIVE FOR LIFE ...................................................................................... 35
Assessment of Orienteering in South Africa ............................................................................ 36
WHERE ARE WE NOW? ........................................................................................................ 36
Where do we want to be? ................................................................................................... 39
How to get there? ................................................................................................................ 41
Strategic initiatives: Planning to Implement ........................................................................... 43
Short-term objectives 3-5 years .......................................................................................... 44
Long-term Objectives: 2020 ................................................................................................ 44
Coach Education and Development .................................................................................... 44
Officials Education and Development ................................................................................. 45
Parents education ................................................................................................................ 46
Summary .................................................................................................................................. 48
SELECTED Bibliography ............................................................................................................ 49
APPENDIX ONE – SKILLS MATRIX ............................................................................................. 52
APPENDIX TWO – PHYSICAL, MENTAL / COGNITIVE AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPEMNT FOR
ALL STAGES............................................................................................................................... 53
STAGE 1:
Active Start .................................................................................................... 53
STAGE 2:
FUNdamentals ............................................................................................... 55
STAGE 3:
Learn to Train ................................................................................................ 59
STAGE 4:
Train to Train ............................................................................................... 62
Stage 5:
Learn to Compete ............................................................................................. 67
STAGE 6:
Train to Compete........................................................................................... 71
STAGE 7:
Training to win............................................................................................... 74
APPENDIX THREE - COMPETITION GUIDELINES ....................................................................... 77
Current Situation.................................................................................................................. 77
Future Calendar ................................................................................................................... 79
Competition Review Strategy .............................................................................................. 81
APPENDIX FOUR: THE ROLE OF THE SAOF AND OTHER SPORTING BODIES ........................... 82
APPENDIX FIVE – MONITOING GROWTH................................................................................. 83
APPENDIX SIX – OPTIMUM TRAINABILITY ............................................................................... 85
APPENDIX SEVEN – RECOVERY AND REGENERATION ............................................................. 86
APPENDIX EIGHT – PERIODISATION ......................................................................................... 87
APPENDIX NINE – GLOSSARY OF TERMS.................................................................................. 93
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Preface
Letter from LTPD Project Leader
It will require a coordinated effort by the entire South African orienteering community to create
an integrated, leading edge development system that will enable orienteering in South Africa to
achieve its vision of “Development Growth Excellence”. In order to realise this vision, it is
important that all of the primary stakeholders acknowledge their roles and responsibilities and
be aware of those of the other key groups involved in the developmental process. The
requirements for each group include:
Parents

Providing support and guidance and making their child’s involvement in orienteering
enjoyable.

Being educated about orienteering and how one can progress through the sport.

Understanding the concept that increased activity reverses the current trends in
childhood and adult obesity and cardiovascular disease.
Participants

Enjoying the sport.

Developing competent physical literacy.

Developing competent orienteering skills

Becoming self-reliant and demonstrating independent initiative in learning and
developing skills.
Coaches

Being educated.

Having a thorough understanding of the LTPD principles for orienteering.

Adhering to the SAOF’s Code of Ethics.

Understanding where and how they fit into the “system”.

Committing to supporting participants in achieving their goals.
Clubs

Providing proper training and competition facilities.

Providing a support structure (coaching, resources, etc).
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering

2011
Operating developmental orienteering programs.
The SAOF / Provincial Bodies

Ensuring appropriate programming is in place for use by clubs, coaches, officials, etc.

Being a source of information, expertise and support; providing necessary information
and communications in the development of athletes.
There is a long road for us to travel. Our current small size is advantageous in that our efforts
will be less impeded by the historical legacy of larger, more well-established sports. The LTPD
model provides us with a clear set of principles that will serve to underpin and guide our efforts
to turn orienteering into a popular and winning sport.
Letter from President
The South African Orienteering Federation is excited to present its Long-Term Participant
Development (LTPD) Guide, “Orienteering – A Sport for Life”. This document introduces and
explains the conceptual framework for participant development and as such provides essential
guidance for the SAOF, its members and participants as we pursue the shared vision of evolving
into a sport system that is in the forefront of theory and practice. The SAOF’s LTPD Guide,
which is consistent with Sport Canada’s Long-Term Participant Development Resource Paper
but is customised to orienteering. It is intended as a catalyst for change and improvement that
can help our sport achieve its goals of fostering both life-long participation and international
excellence. To this end this resource paper includes an assessment of the current state of
orienteering in South Africa as well as a description of the strategies we believe are required to
reach our goals. To reach these goals will require:

A cooperative partnership between the SAOF and its member clubs, within a sport
system that recognises and facilitates the roles of all participants, including both those
that are integral to the SAOF and those that are external to the organisation (e.g. multisport organisations, community recreational organisations, schools, universities, etc.).

Systematic coaching development at all levels.

An effective participant development framework from grassroots to elite levels.

Programs tailored specifically to an participant’s development stage.

Long term strategies rather than a short term focus.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
The SAOF’s LTPD model will become the touchstone against which the relevance and
effectiveness of all operations, functions and supporting systems within our sport will be
measured. The model clearly delineates “what needs to be done” and “why”, if our sport is to
flourish. Building an implementation plan from our strategy will enable us to create a
comprehensive roadmap to success. Ultimately, by understanding and adhering to LTPD
principles and practices, an optimal developmental environment for current and future
orienteers will be established.
Eugene Botha
SAOF President
17 June 2011
Acknowledgments
Expert Consultant
Istvan Balyi: National Coaching Institute BC, Member of the Canadian Sport Centres LTPD
Expert Group.
Editor
Garry Morrison, South African Orienteering Federation
LTPD Task Force Committee Members
Michele Botha:
Chair, SAOF, Coaching sub-committee
Nicholas Mulder:
SAOF National Junior Orienteering Coach
Jeremy Green:
Athlete
Eugene Botha:
President, SAOF
Garry Morrison:
SAOF committee member.
Bernelle Verster:
Former SAOF committee member.
Tania Wimberley:
Former SAOF committee member and developer of YOC initiative.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Introduction
What is LTPD?
The Long-Term Participant Development (or LTPD) model provides a framework for an optimal
training, competition and recovery schedule for each stage of athletic development. The model
is based on the idea that there are a number of different physiological, mental/ cognitive, and
emotional development stages through which an participant progresses and that each stage
requires a different set of training, competition and recovery programs for optimal
performance. The model is therefore based on the developmental age rather than the
chronological age of the participant. Coaches who engage in the model and its practices are
more likely to produce participants who reach their full athletic potential. However, the LTPD
model is inclusive, meaning that the principles which underpin it are equally applicable to
people of all ages and abilities whether they are participating in elite sport or recreational
physical activity.
This model represents a paradigm shift, a philosophically different approach to sport and
physical activity. It draws on the experiences of various athlete development projects that have
been implemented by different sport organisations in Canada & elsewhere. In order to be
successful LTPD requires full sport system alignment and integration. As such the model is
participant centred, coach driven and administration, sport science and sponsor supported.
Underpinning life-long participation in physical activity and excellence in performance sport is
the concept of Physical Literacy (see Figure 1). Physical literacy is defined as the mastery of
fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills. A physically literate person moves
with poise, economy and confidence in a wide variety of physically challenging situations; is
perceptive in reading all aspects of the physical environment. He/ she anticipates the
movement needs or possibilities, and responds appropriately with intelligence and imagination.
(Whitehead, 2001)
Orienteering is a late specialisation sport. Characteristic of late specialisation sports is that
specialisation prior to age 10 is not recommended since it contributes to early burn-out, dropout, and retirement from training and competition.
This document - the LTPD Guide for orienteering - utilises a number of stages that are
seamlessly linked in with the generic LTPD concept, but with an orienteering-specific focus. The
latter focus reflects the requirements of the sport at the highest level, yet retains, at its core,
the concept of age and ability appropriate programming and evaluation.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Figure 1: Physical Literacy is the foundation of life long
participation in physical activity and/or sport excellence.
Within the eight stage LTPD model for Orienteering the first three stages focus on fun and
physical literacy. Children grow and improve within the sport through programs designed to
introduce the basic technical skills in an adventurous environment, which assists in the
development of overall motor and sport skills. Following the first three stages, there is a
transition to either further development or excellence in orienteering or life-long participation
in orienteering and/or other sports at the recreational or less competitive level. For
participants who wish to pursue excellence, increasing specialisation in orienteering and an
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
expanding focus on competition permit them to mature athletically and aspire to national and
international podiums. Regardless of the level of excellence or sport-mastery achieved
however, participation in orienteering can enhance the health, fitness and mental well-being of
South Africans of all ages. Orienteering is a true “Sport for Life”
The first 3 stages encourage Physical Literacy and sport for all:
1. Active Start
(Treasure Hunt)
2. FUNdamentals
(Path Finder)
3. Learning to Train (Explorer)
The next 4 stages focus on excellence:
4. Training to Train
(Expert Explorer)
5. Learning to Compete (Adventurer)
6. Training to Compete
(Navigator)
7. Training to Win
(Elite Navigator)
The final stage encourages life-long physical activity:
8. Active for Life
Individuals can transition from the first 3 LTPD stages to either excellence, life-long
participation in the same sport, or remain active for life in another activity.
To better understand the LTPD model, and its role in helping participants to achieve these
goals, it is useful to discuss ten key factors which influence the model and set it apart from
other long-term development models. Before these factors are outlined, however, an analysis
of Orienteering in South Africa will be presented, which will serve as a springboard to derive an
implementation plan.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
The Ten Key Factors Influencing LTPD
Research has identified 10 important factors that influence participant development.
Orienteering programs built around these factors will ensure that participants can experience
optimal development in their chosen sport as well as lifelong involvement in physical activity.
1. Continuous Improvement (kaizen)
The concept of continuous improvement is drawn from the respected Japanese industrial
philosophy known as kaizen.
This concept extends to all aspects of the South African Orienteering Federation and its partner
organisations (provincial affiliates and clubs) in our efforts to continually improve and evolve
into a vibrant and progressive sports community. Given that we are embarking on a major
effort to grow participation and develop the sport of orienteering in South Africa, means that
there will be a regular need to review our progress and update our strategy. In addition to
these internal updates, periodic updates of the SAOF’s LTPD guide will be undertaken at regular
intervals in the future based on recommendations from leaders in the South African and
international sport community.
LTPD is a dynamic framework that utilises continuous adjustments based on key principles.
Continuous improvement ensures that:

LTPD responds and reacts to new scientific and sport-specific innovations and
observations and is subject to continuous research in all its aspects.

LTPD, as a continuously evolving vehicle for change, reflects all emerging facets of
physical education, sport and recreation to ensure systematic and logical delivery of
programs to all ages.

LTPD promotes ongoing education and sensitisation of all partners about the
interlocking relationship between physical education, school sport, community
recreation, life-long physical activity and high performance sport.

LTPD promotes integration between sport, physical education, recreation, health and
education.
2. The FUNdamentals - Developing Physical Literacy
Fundamental movement skills (running, throwing, catching, hopping, bounding, etc.) and
fundamental sport skills equals Physical Literacy and reading the environment. The literature
on participant growth and development (these terms were identified earlier in a different
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
context!) indicates that children should master the fundamental movement skills and
fundamental sport skills before learning more complicated sport-specific skills and strategies.
These fundamental skills should be acquired prior to the onset of the growth spurt which
occurs in adolescence.
The physical and movement qualities which are developed as physical literacy are essential for
participation and enjoyment of sports. Athletics, gymnastics and swimming are three sports
which are particularly useful for developing fundamental movement skills and sport skills.
Athletics:
Develops many of the fundamental movement skills which are components of all
other sports, including running, jumping, throwing and for wheelchair participants, wheeling.
Gymnastics: Encourages the development of agility, balance, coordination, and speed, along
with the fundamental movement patterns of landing, statics, locomotion, rotation, swings,
springs and object manipulation.
Swimming:
is the foundation for all water sports. It is also important for water safety
reasons, and teaches balance in a buoyant environment as well as coordination.
3. Chronological Age versus. Developmental Age
A cornerstone of LTPD is the recognition that chronological age differs from developmental age.
Chronological age refers to the number of years and days elapsed since birth. Developmental
age refers to the degree of physical, mental, cognitive and emotional maturity along a
continuum that begins at birth and culminates in full physical maturity.
Developmental age is highly individual and is a blend of a child or adolescent’s physical
development (assessed by skeletal maturity or bone age), together with their mental, cognitive
and emotional maturity. Participants of the same chronological age between 10 and 16 can
differ by as much as four or five years in their developmental age. The beginning of the growth
spurt and the peak of the growth spurt are very significant considerations in the application of
LTPD to training and competition program design.
A participant's developmental age determines when Peak Height Velocity (PHV) is
various aspects of sport and physical activity should be commonly referred to as the
introduced or emphasised. The LTPD model uses the adolescent Growth Spurt. It a key
categories "early", "average" (on-time), or "late" indicator of Developmental Age, and is
used to identify sensitive periods of
maturers to identify an participant's developmental age.
accelerated adaption to training.
These designations help coaches and instructors to
design instructional, training and competition programs that are appropriate for the
participant's level of development. Identifying an participant's stage of maturation is not
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2011
difficult. For the most part the indicators of the general developmental process that can be
used to observe and monitor growth are relatively easy to gather. For specific information on
"how to", see the “Monitoring Growth in LTAD” document (www.canadiansportforlife.ca)
As individuals mature, there are several time sensitive periods when there is accelerated
adaptation to training. The LTPD model identifies these periods and makes maximum use of
them to introduce skill and fitness development. Figure 2 shows the rate of change in height in
boys (left-hand) and girls (right-hand) through the key growth period.
Figure 2: Rate of Change in Height & Peak Height Velocity (PHV), Left – Girls, Right – Boys; highlighting key
physical development indicators (adapted from CS4L (2005))
PHV in girls occurs at about 12 years of age. Usually the first physical sign of adolescence is
breast budding, which occurs slightly after the onset of the growth spurt. Shortly thereafter,
pubic hair begins to grow. Menarche, or the onset of menstruation, comes rather late in the
growth spurt, occurring after PHV is achieved. The sequence of developmental events may
normally occur 2 or even more years earlier or later than average.
PHV in boys is more intense than in girls and on average occurs about 2 years later. Growth of
the testes, pubic hair, and penis are related to the maturation process. Peak Strength Velocity
(PSV) comes a year or so after PHV. Thus, there is pronounced late gain in strength
characteristics of the male participant. As with girls, the developmental sequence for male
participants may occur 2 or more years earlier or later than average. Early maturing boys may
have as much as a 4-year physiological advantage over their late-maturing peers. Eventually,
the late maturers will catch up when they experience their growth spurt.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
4. Mental, Cognitive and Emotional Development
Instructors and coaches should recognise that individuals mature at different rates and that the
timetable for physical, mental, motor and emotional development varies from participant to
participant. Instructors and coaches are encouraged to take a holistic approach to teaching and
training participants. This means taking into account a wide variety of psycho-social and
emotional factors that influence the participant day-to-day - see Appendix 2.
Cognitive, mental and emotional (affective) elements have a significant effect on participants'
performance, and must be prioritised in long-term participant development. Beyond these
elements, instructors and coaches should also consider equipment and environmental factors
that impact participation, performance and safety. Ethics, including fair play, respect of self and
others, and perseverance should be developed within all stages of long term participant
development.
5. Specialisation
Typically, sports can be classified along a continuum from early to late specialisation types.
Early specialisation sports include artistic and acrobatic sports such as gymnastics, diving and
figure skating. These differ from late specialisation sports in that very complex skills are
learned before maturation since it is more difficult for them to be taught afterwards. In
addition, this differentiation is relevant to the eventual point at which the highest level of
performance or competitive excellence is attained or consistently achieved. Orienteering
clearly falls into the late specialisation category. However it is important to note that
involvement during the early stages of childhood and participant development (i.e. the Active
Start and FUNdamentals stages) is extremely important. In particular, foundation orienteering
requirements should be introduced during the FUNdamentals stage and firmly established and
refined before the end of the Learning to Train stage via appropriately designed activities,
events and programs.
Many of the world’s most successful athletes participated as children in a wide variety of sports
and physical activities. The movement and sport skills they developed as a result have helped
them to attain a high level of athletic achievement.
There is much to be gained from a child’s early participation in a variety of sports. Early
exposure to a wide variety of sport and physical activities will develop some of the physical and
movement attributes that are crucial to later success in participation including: agility, balance,
conditioning, speed, core body strength, stamina, suppleness, and eye-hand-foot coordination.
Early specialisation in a late specialisation sport can contribute to:
 Overemphasis on sport specific preparation/ one-sided preparation
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 Lack of development of basic movement and sport skills
 Overuse injuries
 Early burnout
 Premature retirement from training and competition.
6. Trainability
Trainability can be considered in terms of the 5 Ss, namely Stamina, Strength, Speed, Skill and
Suppleness.
These are well documented in the literature (Brohms, 1985; Viru et al, 1998 and 1999; Rushall,
2000). Biological markers (Balyi, 2002), such as the on-set of PHV (adolescent growth spurt),
PHV and the on-set of menarche can identify the “sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation
to training” for Stamina, Strength and Skills. The trainability of Speed and Suppleness is based
on chronological age, because all research is based on chronological age. Thus, the biological
markers will identify the “windows of optimal trainability for accelerated `adaptation to
training. (See further details on trainability in the 10S’s of training and performance section).
 Stamina (Endurance)
The window of optimal trainability occurs at the onset of the growth spurt. Aerobic
capacity training is recommended before children reach PHV. Aerobic power should be
introduced progressively after the growth rate decelerates.
 Strength
The window for trainability for girls is immediately after PHV or at the onset of the
menarche (first menstruation) while for boys it is 12 to 18 months after PHV.
 Speed
For boys, the first speed training window occurs between seven and nine years of age and
the second window occurs between 13 and 16 years of age. For girls, the first speed
training window occurs between six and eight years of age and the second window occurs
between 11 and 13 years of age.
 Skill
In orienteering there are two types of skill to consider, namely physical skill and mental
skill. The window for optimal physical skill training (e.g. running in technical terrain)
begins at nine years of age for boys and eight years of age for girls. This window narrows
down after the onset of the growth spurt.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
The window of optimal mental skill training (e.g. critical thinking and abstract thought) for
boys occurs between the ages of 12 and 19, and for girls it is open between the ages of 11
and 17.
 Suppleness (Flexibility)
The window of optimal trainability for suppleness in both boys and girls occurs between
six and 10 years of age. Special attention should be paid to flexibility during PHV.
7. Periodisation (Annual training, competition & recovery plan)
Periodisation provides the framework for organising training, competition and recovery into a
logical and scientifically based schedule to achieve optimum performance at the required time.
A periodised annual plan, in which training and competition components are sequenced into
months, weeks, days and sessions, should be developed for all stages of LTPD taking into
account growth, maturation and trainability.
Simply put, designing a periodised yearly plan is time management. This involves planning the
right activities with the correct level of difficulty, in the correct sequence to reach the desired
training and competition objectives. The plan should be situation specific depending upon
priorities and the time available to bring about the required training and competition
improvement.
Longer term planning involving the training and competition calendar over a number of years is
required in order to truly formulate a logical and sequenced approach to achieve the desired
performance objectives.
The plan can be broken down into workable units. The proper sequencing of these units is
critical for success. To reach optimum performance in a competitive environment, the training
units should be sequenced in the following manner:
 Develop the performance capacity of the participant including physical literacy and sport
specific skills, tactics/strategies, physical components, mental skills;
 Integrate the performance factors in a complex and harmonious blend;
 Prepare the participant to perform at important competitions.
In order to design an annual plan, the coach needs to know:
 How the sport specific athletic form is developed;
 The requirements (demands) of the sport during competition;
 The demands of the sport during the preparation phase;
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 The competition calendar and the relative importance or purpose of each competition;
 The actual training state of the participant at the start of the yearly plan;
 The contextual reality that the coach and participant have to cope with;
 The principles of long term participant development.
Creating a blueprint for success involves accurate and effective planning of training,
competition and recovery.
8. The Ten Year Rule
Scientific research in sport has concluded that a minimum
of ten years, or 10,000 hours of deliberate training is
needed for a talented participant to reach elite levels.
There are no shortcuts; participant development is a longterm process. Short-term performance goals must never
be allowed to undermine long-term participant
development (Viru, 1995)
In the case of orienteering, there is
evidence that to become an
experienced World Orienteering
Championship performer it takes
an athlete approximately 12 years
(British
Orienteering
website,
2010).
The philosophy behind Long Term Participant Development is that it takes 8-12 years of training
and practice for an athlete to reach elite levels (Bloom , 1985; Ericsson et al., 1993; Ericsson and
Charness 1994, Gibbons, 2002), and that success comes from training, practicing and competing
well over the long term rather than focusing on winning in the short term. There is no short cut
to success in athlete preparation! A number of recent books have sought to popularise this
idea (Gladwell 2008, Coyle 2009, Syed 2010)
9. Calendar Planning for Competition
The domestic competitive and event calendar must support and be aligned with LTPD stages.
Different stages of development and different levels of participation have different
requirements for the type, frequency and level of competition. During the first 4 stages of LTPD
(i.e. all stages up to Training to Train), training and development take precedence over
competitions and short-term success. During the later stages participants need to experience a
variety of competitive situations and perform well at international and other high level events.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
National and international competition and event calendars must be coordinated, and
competitions selected according to the priorities of the specific stage of development of the
participants (see Appendix 3).
10. System Alignment and Integration
South Africa’s LTPD concept is a framework for full sport system alignment in South Africa,
integrating health and education with sport and physical activity. It is also a tool for motivating
change towards more effective organisation, alignment and integration within each national
sport organisation, such as Orienteering.
LTPD recognises that physical education, school sports, recreational activities and competitive
sport are interdependent. Enjoying a lifetime of physical activity and achieving athletic
excellence are both built on a foundation of physical literacy and fitness.
Stakeholders in LTPD include participants, instructors, coaches, parents, administrators,
spectators, sponsors and supporting national, provincial and multi-sport organisations. With so
many partners included, system integration and alignment is a major challenge.
It is important that all members of the South African orienteering community work together to
implement the right programs and ensure a sport system that will produce optimal conditions
for participation, skill development, training and competition. The SAOF has been happy to
embrace the LTPD concept and has supported some recent program developments that apply
these principles, e.g. the Young Orienteers Challenge (YOC).
This is an important start, but only a beginning. The LTPD concept is an important influence in
the South African Orienteering Federation’s current Strategic Plan, and ultimately it will provide
guidance to all areas of the SAOF’s operations.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
The 10 Ss of Training and Performance
The original Five Basic Ss of training and performance were introduced in the Canadian Sport
for Life: Long-term Participant Development document. Building on the physical development,
an additional Five Ss create a complete, holistic, training, competition and recovery program
and a proper lifestyle.
Thus, there are Ten Ss of training which need to be integrated when developing annual training,
competition and recovery plans. Each of these capacities is trainable throughout an
participant’s lifetime, but there are clearly critical periods (or sensitive periods) in the
development of each capacity during which training produces the greatest benefit to each
participant’s improvements.
The CS4L document also describes the various stages of LTPD and identifies the windows of
optimal trainability related to the critical or sensitive periods of the maturation process.
In all former LTPD documents the windows of trainability have been referred to as the “critical
periods” of accelerated training; however, scientist now believes that critical periods should be
referred to as sensitive periods. Thus, windows of trainability refer to periods of accelerated
adaptation to training during the sensitive periods of pre-puberty, puberty and early postpuberty. The windows are fully open during the sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to
training and partially open outside of the sensitive periods.
These sensitive periods vary between individuals as each participant is unique in their genetic
makeup. While the sensitive periods follow general stages of human growth and maturation,
scientific evidence shows that humans vary considerably in the magnitude and rate of their
response to different training stimuli at all stages. Some participants may show potential for
excellence by age 11, whereas others may not indicate their promise until age 15 or 16.
Consequently, a long-term approach to participant development is needed to ensure that
participants who respond slowly to training stimuli are not “short-changed” in their
development.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Figure 3: Windows of Accelerated Adaptation to Training (adapted from Balyi and Way, 2005)
Stamina (Endurance)
The sensitive period for training stamina occurs at the onset of the growth spurt or Peak Height
Velocity (PHV), commonly known as the adolescent growth spurt. Participants need increased
focus on aerobic capacity training (continuous or aerobic interval workloads) as they enter PHV,
and they should be progressively introduced to aerobic power training (anaerobic interval
workloads) as their growth rate decelerates. Orienteering requires a combination of stamina
and strength. Research has indicated that elite orienteers have amongst the highest VO2-max’s
20
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
recorded (Andersson, unknown). In addition there are indications that elite orienteers are also
highly efficient uphill runners (Zürcher et al., 2005). This knowledge informs that type of
stamina training required to be successful at the highest level.
Strength
There are two sensitive periods of trainability for strength in girls: immediately after PHV or
after the onset of menarche. Boys have one strength window, and it begins 12 to 18 months
after PHV. Again, sport-specific needs will determine “how much strength is enough” in a
particular sport, thus minor or major emphasis of training strength will be defined by sportspecific and individual specific needs. As mentioned above there are indications that elite
orienteers are also highly efficient uphill runners (Zürcher et al., 2005). It is thus a combination
of endurance and strength that is required to be successful at the highest level. In athletic
terms this is more aligned with the cross-country running or the steeplechase discipline rather
than the flat track events.
Speed
Whilst explosive speed might not be crucial in orienteering, the need for agility (lateral and
bounding in rough terrain) is of great importance. Also with the advent of the Sprint
orienteering format, speed has become more important. There are two sensitive periods of
trainability for speed. For girls, the first speed window occurs between the ages of six and eight
years, and the second window occurs between 11 and 13 years. For boys, the first speed
window occurs between the ages of seven and nine years, and the second window occurs
between 13 and 16 years. During the first speed window, training should focus on developing
agility and quickness (duration of the intervals is less than five seconds); during the second
speed window, training should focus on developing the anaerobic alactic power energy system
(duration of the intervals is 10-15 seconds). In orienteering terms it is important to develop
good ground speed during this second window, since this is difficult to develop subsequently
(Salmi 2010).
Skill
There are two types of skill training for orienteering. The first is physical skill training and the
second is mental skill training. Girls and boys both have one window for optimal physical skill
21
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
training. For girls, the window is between the ages of eight and 11 years, while in boys it is
between nine and 12 years or more precisely before the onset of the growth spurt. During this
window, young participants should be developing physical literacy. Physical literacy is the
development of fundamental movement skills and fundamental sports skills that permit a
child to move confidently and with control, in a wide range of physical activity and sport
situation. It also includes the ability to “read” what is going on around them in an activity
setting and react appropriately to those events. Physical literacy is the foundation of life-long
involvement in physical activity and also for high performance participation.
In the case of the mental or navigational skills required for orienteering the window for optimal
training is between the ages of 13 and 17 for girls and between the ages of 14 and 18 (Salmi,
2010). This reflects the periods when girls and boys are developing their abstract thinking and
critical thinking skills, both of which are important in orienteering.
These technical orienteering skills are difficult for participants who enter the sport after this
navigational skills window. In other words, participants who start orienteering early are able to
develop high specific orienteering skills, whilst those who miss this window will struggle unless
they developed the critical 3D thinking and quick analytical skills through some other route
(Salmi 2010). This, no doubt, explains why participants who enter the sport later in life are
generally technically orientated.
Suppleness
The sensitive period of trainability for suppleness occurs between the ages of six and 10 years
in both girls and boys. However, because of the rapid growth special attention should also be
paid to flexibility during the growth spurt. The reason is that during this growth phase is
characterised by rapid bone growth, which results in the ligaments being stressed and the
muscles effectively shortening.
Structure / Stature
This component addresses the six stages of growth as illustrated in Figure 4.
Phase 1: very rapid growth and very rapid deceleration;
Phase 2: steady growth;
Phase 3: rapid growth;
Phase 4: rapid deceleration;
22
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Phase 5: slow deceleration;
Phase 6: cessation of growth
These stages of growth in the human body provide the link to the windows of optimal
trainability.
Figure 4: Schematic illustrating the six phases of growth.
The tracking of stature as a guide to developmental age allows planning to address the sensitive
periods of physical (endurance, strength, speed and flexibility) and skill development.
Diagnostics to identify individually relevant sensitive periods of accelerated adaptation to
training is essential to design and implement optimal training, competition and recovery
programs. See the “Monitoring Growth in LTAD” document (www.canadiansportforlife.ca)
(p)Sychology
Sport is a physical and mental challenge. The ability to maintain high levels of concentration,
remain relaxed with the confidence to succeed are skills that transcend sport to everyday life.
To develop the mental toughness for success at high levels requires training programs which
are designed specific to the gender and LTPD stage of the participant. The training programs
should include key mental components identified by sport psychologists; concentration,
confidence, motivation and handling pressure. As an participant progresses through LTPD
stages the mental training aspect will evolve from: having fun and respecting opponents; to
visualization and self-awareness; to goal setting, relaxation and positive self-talk. To master the
23
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
mental challenge of sport those basic skills are then tested in increasingly difficult competitive
environments. Ultimately the planning, implementing and refining of mental strategies for high
level competition will determine podium performances. The mental training program is critical
at any LTPD stage as dealing with success and failure will determine continuation in sport and
physical activity, therefore dramatically affecting an individual lifestyle.
Sustenance
Sustenance recognises a broad range of components with the central theme of replenishing the
body. This is to prepare the participant for the volume and intensity required to optimise
training or living life to the fullest. Areas addressed are: nutrition, hydration, rest, sleep and
regeneration, all of which need to be applied different to training (life) plans depending on the
stage within the LTPD. Underlining sustenance is the need for optimal recovery management
moving the athlete to the 24/7 model which places a high degree of importance on the
individual’s activities away from the field of play. For proper sustenance and recovery
management there is a need to monitor recovery by the coach or parent through the
identification of fatigue. Fatigue can come in many forms including: metabolic; neurological;
psychological; environmental and travel. While overtraining or over-competition can lead to
burn-out, improperly addressing sustenance can lead to the same result. See the “Recovery
and
Regeneration
for
Long-Term
Athlete
Development”
document
(www.canadiansportforlife.ca)
Schooling
In training program design the demands of school must be considered. This is only limited to
the demands placed by school sports or physical education classes. This includes integrating
school academic loads, duties, school related stresses, and timing of exams. When possible,
training camps and competition tours should complement, not conflict, with the timing of
major schools academic events.
Overstress should be monitored carefully. Overstress refers to the everyday stresses of life, like
schooling, exams, peer groups, family, boyfriend or girlfriend relationships as well as increased
training volume and intensities.
Interference from other school sports should be minimised, communication between coaches
who are responsible to deliver the training and competition programs are essential. A good
balance should be established between all factors and the coach and the parents should be
working on this together.
24
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Socio-Cultural
The socio-cultural aspects of sport are significant and must be managed through proper
planning. Socialisation via sport will ensure that general societal values and norms will be
internalised via sport participation. This occurs at the community level. The nature of
Orienteering, as a sport, requires particular attention to principles of fairness. It is also a sport
that is close to the natural environment, which leads naturally to the promotion of eco-friendly
culture.
In South Africa there exists a strong socio-cultural legacy that must be overcome. This presents
an important challenge that must be address by active effort, i.e. Development in the South
African context. South Africa is blessed with a population with a wide variation in ethnicity
cultural diversity. A successful sport system must be sensitive to these factors, but at the same
time embrace the opportunity that they present.
As a participant progresses through the LTPD stages can lead to International exposure. This
socialisation can be broadening of perspective including; ethnicity awareness and national
diversity. This can be a valuable learning experience which demonstrates that these are
important factors globally that mirror those experienced locally within South Africa.
Within a national and international travel schedule, recovery can include education of
competition location including; history, geography, architecture, cuisine, literature, music and
visual arts. Proper annual planning can allow sport to offer much more than simply commuting
between hotel room and field of play.
Sport socialisation also must address sport sub-culture. In addition, coaches and parents must
guard against group dynamics which foster a culture of abuse or bullying. Ethics training should
be integrated into training and competition plans at all stages of LTPD.
Overall socio-cultural activity is not a negative distraction or interference with training and
competition activities. It is a positive contribution to the development of the person and the
participant.
Children often choose to play a sport after the windows of optimal trainability for endurance,
strength, speed, skill, and suppleness have past. These children are therefore dependent on
schools, recreation programs, and other sports to provide timely training in these capacities.
LTPD advocates that sports build relationships with these organisations to promote and support
appropriate training. If participants miss these training periods entirely, coaches will need to
design individualised programs to remedy any shortcomings.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Building a Pathway: The Eight Stage LTPD
Orienteering is a late specialisation sport.
The Orienteering Long-term Participant
Development model distinguishes eight stages of participant development. This is a
modification of the seven stage Canadian Sport for Life model.
1. Active Start (Treasure Hunt)
0 - 6 years of age
2. FUNdamentals (Path Finder)
Females 6 - 8 / Males 6 - 9
3. Learn to Train (Explorer)
Females 8 – 11 / Males 9 – 12
4. Train to Train (Expert Explorer)
Females 11 – 15 / Males 12 – 16
5. Learn to Compete (Adventurer)
Females 15-17 / Males 16-19
6. Train to Compete (Navigator)
Females 17-22+/- / Males 19-23+/-
7. Train to Win (Elite Navigator)
Females 22+/- / Males 23+/-
8. Active for Life
Enter any time
During the first three of these stages, children should be exposed to a wide variety of activities
to ensure proper development of overall motor skills and sports skills. After the first three
stages, there is focus on specialisation. During the subsequent phases the participant can
further develop and strive for excellence in orienteering or transition to life-long participation
in orienteering and/ or other sports at a recreational or less competitive level.
The following sections detail the objectives of each stage within the context of developmental
age.
26
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE ONE:
2011
ACTIVE START (Treasure Hunt)
Ages: 0 to Six years of age
Objectives:
During the Active Start stage, Orienteering encourages participation in activities that promote
physical activity and the development of physical literacy.
The objective of the stage is to learn fundamental movements and link them together into play.
Physical activity should be fun and a natural part of a child’s daily life. Active, free play is the
way young children are physically active.
Activities include Running, Jumping, Twisting, Balancing, Kicking, Throwing and Catching.
At the Treasure Hunt stage of LTPD the children begin their journey by being introduced to
orienteering through the Youth Orienteering Challenge participation scheme and other
grassroots initiatives. This scheme is supported and funded by the SAOF for implementation by
the clubs at local events.
27
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE TWO:
2011
FUNDAMENTALS (Path Finder)
Ages: Females: 6-8 years of age
Males: 6-9 years of age
At the Fundamentals stage of LTPD the children continue their journey by being taught to
orienteer independently. This is supported by the Youth Orienteering Challenge Skills Quest,
which is a scheme that is supported and funded by the SAOF for implementation by the clubs at
local events.
During this phase, which lasts approximately 3-4 years, children can try the sport out and get a
basic understanding of map-reading and navigational skills. Those who are identified as having
either a more genetic disposition to the sport or show keenness will in future be encouraged to
join an accredited local club which will provide the opportunity for more focused development.
The emphasis during the Fundamentals phase will be on fun and participation. It will aim to
develop crucial physical capacities such as agility, balance, co-ordination and speed (ABC’S)
alongside basic orienteering-specific skills. The children will be encouraged to participate in as
many other sports as possible.
Coaches must encourage a positive perception of the activities and of the children themselves.
They must create a non-judgmental and unthreatening atmosphere where equal praise is given
for all forms of effort. It is important that the children have a positive early experience of
orienteering if they are to develop a future love for the sport. Basic orienteering related skills
such as understanding the map, orientating the map, folding the map, tracking position on the
map relative to the ground (i.e. thumbing), are starting to be internalised during this phase.
28
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE THREE:
2011
LEARN TO TRAIN (Explorer)
Ages: Females: 8-11 years of age
Males: 9-12 years of age
As the children grow and develop they enter the Learn to Train stage. Towards the end of this
phase children will likely be orienteering by themselves on simple orienteering courses. As such
they will also have been introduced to basic decision-making processes that are a cornerstone
of orienteering. Coaches should ensure that participants have at least 1 to 2 sessions in
orienteering technique per event during the season if skills are to become more proficient.
Note that normal club events themselves can be used as training sessions for this and all other
stages of LTPD. This is supported by the Youth Orienteering Challenge Skills Quest, which is a
scheme that is supported and funded by the SAOF for implementation by the clubs at local
events.
Orienteers should concentrate on building upon competencies learnt during the Fundamentals
stage, including motor skill and co-ordination development, with an emphasis on further
development of robust Orienteering skills. Whilst participants are learning to be become better
participants all programs should be fun and activity based.
Participants are introduced to general physical conditioning and an awareness program to
highlight the importance of physical development for future success in Orienteering.
Coaches need to be positive role models by helping shape the correct values and beliefs.
Coaches should encourage positive attitudes when faced with challenges and help form coping
strategies for winning and losing.
It is important that both participants and coaches place a positive emphasis on the link
between physical conditioning and Orienteering success. Orienteering requires a combination
of endurance and strength. Not only is running efficiency important in orienteering, but so too
is uphill running efficiency and the ability to run quickly over uneven terrain. Since the sport
involves map reading in technical terrain and decision-making on the move, success in
orienteering requires the ability to perform these functions during maximal physical effort.
This phase is likely to pattern a youngster’s future attitude toward training and how being fit
helps both to achieve high performance in the Orienteering terrain and leads to a healthier
lifestyle.
Both parents and coaches should note that early maturing participants are undoubtedly better
participants during childhood. However, research strongly suggests that late maturing children
may have greater potential to reach elite levels in the long term. They are likely to benefit from
spending longer in the important early stages that pattern future physical literacy.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE FOUR:
2011
TRAIN TO TRAIN (Expert Explorer)
Ages: Females: 11-15 years of age
Males: 12-16 years of age
This is a critical stage of LTPD. The range of maturation is likely to be wide during this phase.
Many of a child’s important physical attributes will be shaped over the next 4 or 5 years. The
window of opportunity (see Figure 3 and the Trainability diagram in Appendix 61) to train
stamina, speed, and strength exists during the Train to Train phase. The window for the
training of technical orienteering skills also opens during this stage. The children develop the
capability for abstract thought during this period, and so it should become apparent which
children have an aptitude for the sport. In addition to maintaining the ABC’s and introducing
more advanced Orienteering skills, this stage is about “Building the Engine”.

Aerobic capacity emphasis from onset of PHV to PHV (e.g. Long Slow Distance, Fartlek
with little or no lactate accumulation)

Aerobic power from PHV to slow deceleration (e.g. anaerobic interval training)

Speed window: 11- 13 females and 13-16 males

Monitor flexibility carefully during PHV

Strength training for females toward the end of the stage (i.e. onset of Menarche)

Begin focused sessions on critical orienteering skills (i.e. abstraction, critical thinking)
Whilst it remains important that participants continue to play other sports, for variety and
cross-training, the balance during this phase is now firmly toward Orienteering. (Cross-Country
running, Athletics & Mountain Biking)
Careful monitoring of the growth of the participant is critical during this phase using simple
height and weight measurements and visual assessment, to ensure that the most appropriate
training is introduced at the most appropriate time (see Monitoring Growth in LTPD). Again it is
emphasised that although early maturing participants are undoubtedly better athletes during
childhood, research strongly suggests that late maturing children may have greater potential to
reach elite levels in the long term. They are likely to benefit from spending longer in the
important early stages that develop future physical literacy.
1

Maintain physical conditioning during the Growth spurt

Competition is secondary
Extract from Athletics Canada’s LTAD Model
30
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011

Regular monitoring, e.g. biokinetics

Monitor the Growth spurt: non-impact, aerobic & non weight-bearing exercises
31
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE FIVE:
2011
LEARN TO COMPETE (Adventurer)
Ages: Females: 15-17+/- years of age
Males: 16-19+/- years of age
By the age of 16 for boys and 15 for girls, the participants will enter the Learn to Compete
stage. During this stage the window for critical mental and cognitive skills is fully open and they
will further develop their Orienteering skills. There should be a focus on technical and tactical
work in competitive situations. Coaches will need to encourage participants to become more
independent and will also need to create an environment conducive for the mastery of
technique and development of mental toughness to perform.
Individually tailored physical and mental development programs are an integral part of
improving performance in most sports.
Orienteers will be competing in school, club and/or provincial age group categories.
Prioritisation of competition and suitable compete: train: rest ratios will need to be considered.
It is important to establish a Provincial and National Junior squad (W16, M16 and W20, M20) to
provide adequate competition at the elite level. This will offer more retention of promising
participants at this level.
The most talented Orienteers are likely to be selected for more advanced coaching
interventions at a regional level. Towards the end of the phase they will likely start closing the
gap on some adult Orienteers.
During this phase important transition points take place. It will be important for coaches to
consider appropriate training regimes to ensure that participants retain a balanced lifestyle
during this important time.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE SIX:
2011
TRAIN TO COMPETE (Navigator)
Ages: Females: 17-22 +/- years of age
Males: 19-23+/- years of age
During this stage participants will strive to master their Orienteering skills, including technical
and tactical work in high-intensity competitive situations. Coaches will need to continue to
emphasise autonomy and independence as well as create the right environment for the
participant to achieve mastery of technique and mental toughness to perform.
This stage will see full individualisation of all physical, recovery and mental development
programs. This will include further development of self-awareness and the ability to identify
and correct weaknesses.
Participants should make the transition from national Junior to national Senior squad and be
given increased international exposure. Opportunities to optimise decision making in highintensity situations must be maximised.
Physical and medical monitoring systems are increasingly sophisticated, with strong adherence
to sport science best practice.
Performance at the highest level is only possible with strong mental preparation. The
participant needs to improve their ability to adjust emotions and focus to gain control over
confidence and performance outcome.
33
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE SEVEN:
2011
TRAIN TO WIN (Elite Navigator)
Ages: Females: 22+ years of age
Males: 23+ years of age
The Train to Win stage should see the participants have
most of the capacities in place to perform at the
highest level. There should be a focus on improving all
three components: Physical Conditioning, Mental
Toughness and Orienteering Technique.
For top
provincial Orienteers the training year will be divided
into a double periodisation while the international
calendar may result in multiple periodisations for the
national team Orienteers. In addition this stage may
involve:
Participants should strive for a split of
1-2 hours of technical training for
every 7-12 hours of physical training.
The emphasis should be on quality
rather than quantity.
To in their
technical skills orienteers should gain
a lot of experience in different terrain.
To be internationally competitive they
should have enough ground speed,
e.g. 9:15 (men) & 10:45 (women) for
3000m (Salmi, 2010)

Striving to master decision making skills

Regular use of Sport science

Full individualisation of all training aspects

Regular sophisticated physical and medical monitoring

Fine-tuning of mental preparation

Fine-tuning physical preparation (develop further fitness)

Continued critical analysis and correction of deficiencies.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE EIGHT:
2011
ACTIVE FOR LIFE
Enter at any age
This is the stage when an individual makes the transition from competitive sport to life-long
physical activity, and it may occur at any age.
They will continue to be physically active in orienteering or in any other sport. This stage is also
characterised by people who continue to be involved in the orienteering community in different
capacities.
The sport system should encourage participants to move from one sport to another with ease
and from one aspect of sport to another.
Active for life may also involve moving from competitive sport to:
 Recreational activities such as running, swimming, hiking, cycling, etc.;
 Lifelong competitive sport through age group competition such as Master’s Games;
 Sport-related careers, such as coaching, officiating, sport administration, small business
enterprises, or media;
 Volunteer positions, as coaches, officials, or administrators.
Training, racing and recovery programs should fit the needs of the participants for whom they
are intended. Masters participants need programs that take into account how aging affects
strength, flexibility and endurance.
A positive experience in sport is the key to retaining participants after they leave the
competitive stream.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Assessment of Orienteering in South Africa
Before we can begin to develop a strategy for orienteering in South Africa, we need to have a
clear understanding of the current state of the sport in South Africa, and also a clear vision of
where we are going. In this chapter we discuss these aspects before presenting our strategy in
the following chapter. This assessment was carried out in March 2010.
WHERE ARE WE NOW?
Orienteering in South Africa is assessed under the five headings of: Participants, Coaches,
Officials, Parents and Facilities. In each case a brief description is presented followed by a table
which summarises the strengths and weaknesses.
In summary the weakness of Orienteering in South
Africa relates to the small number of active
participants in the sport as well as the lack of an
effective education system to lower the barriers to
entry inherent in the sport. In addition the small size
of the active membership does not reflect South
Africa’s demographics, which means we are not
exposing possible future champions to the sport.
In 2008 the SAOF adopted as its vision
Development Growth Excellence. This
reflects the belief that in order to grow the
sport, development and roll-out of
education pathways is required in order to
reduce the Barriers to Entry inherent in the
sport. This vision also recognises that
excellence,
which
includes
being
internationally competitive at the highest
level, will not be possible without the
foundation of development and growth of
the sport.
It is the SAOF’s belief that in order to grow
orienteering in South Africa we need to skill-up more
people in the making of maps, in the coaching of
participants and the in organising of events. Coupled to these problems is the challenge of
volunteerism. Any initiatives to achieve the SAOF’s vision are constrained by the fact that their
implementation relies on the efforts of a small number of volunteers.
Strengths and Weaknesses Analysis
Participants
Our participants can best be described as amateur. Whilst many of the younger participants
have the potential to become much more competitive in the sport, the sport in South Africa is
too small to foster the dedication required for participants to become competitive on the elite
international stage. This can be attributed to the lack of qualified coaches, the small
competitor base and the limited frequency of competitive orienteering on technical terrain.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
Strengths
 Enjoyment
 Passionate
 Competitive
 Potential
 Active for life
 Social spirit
 Well-rounded people
2011
Weaknesses
 Low numbers
 Poor demographics
 Age Group distribution gaps (juniors)
 Lack of competition
 Poor coaching
 Not focused (24/7) at the elite level
 No goals
 Lack of ancillary capacities
 Maintenance training only
 Serious lack of technical training
 Lack of periodised programme for
participants
Coaches
The South African Orienteering Federation (SAOF) currently has no coach education pathway
and no formally qualified orienteering coaches. From time to time, subject to availability of
funds, the SAOF has used international coaches to deliver coaching clinics to groups of
promising local participants. In recent times efforts have been made to encourage local
participants to provide such coaching.
Historically the various clubs have offered informal training in orienteering technique to their
members. In many cases coaching is conducted by volunteers with extensive international or
local orienteering experience. However, the type and level of coaching was determined by the
coaches themselves, in whatever manner they saw fit. Whilst these coaches may be reasonably
proficient at providing instruction in orienteering technique at various levels, they are invariably
not well skilled in the other aspects of participant coaching.
The SAOF has recognised the need to implement a formal orienteering-specific coach education
system and to that end a Coaching Commission was established in 2010.
Strengths
 Volunteerism
 Keen & Skilled untapped pool
 Structures being developed
 Giving back
Weaknesses
 Too few
 Lack of qualified coaches
 Lack of coach education & qualification
 Lack of coaching skills/ inexperience
 Lack of knowledge of growth and maturation
 Lack of knowledge of periodisation
 Lack of knowledge of Sport Science and Sport
Medicine
 Keen but overwhelmed
 Too reliant on outsourced participant
coaching.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Officials
Once again the problem with orienteering officials in South Africa is that there are too few. The
relatively small number of experienced officials invariably means that individuals are required
to perform too many functions across all levels of the sport. The root causes probably include
the small number of active orienteers, as well as poor education and mentoring programs at all
levels (club, province, national).
Strengths
Weaknesses














Passionate and Devoted
Knowledgeable
IOF blueprint (Rules, etc)
Professionalism
Transparency
Growing volunteerism
Overburdened
Too few
Too many hats
Lack of Job Description (overwhelming)
Lack of formal mentoring
No local/regional/provincial structures
Lack of remuneration (professionalism)
Lack of diversity (demographic)
Parents
Orienteering is suitable for competitors of all ages. As such it is a family focused sport.
Invariably this means that whole families participate and hence are supportive of one another.
One of the problems with this, however, is that it is difficult to attract new families to the sport.
The small scale of the sport in South Africa means that there is a general ignorance of the sport
and a lack of appreciation for the talents of elite orienteers.
Strengths
Weaknesses
 Involvement (whole family competes)
 Supportive
 Volunteer
 Not serious about Orienteering as a sport
 Apathetic parents (outsiders)
 Uneducated about O (outsiders)
Facilities
Whilst facilities are potentially limitless there are a number of significant challenges in this
regard. Orienteering does not occur in a simple playing ground that is easily constructed, like
other sports. In order to provide a continual challenge, new areas must be mapped for
orienteering events. This presents a number of challenges such as guaranteed access to the
terrain, distance to the terrain and the need to refresh old maps.
In addition orienteering clubs in South Africa have no clubhouse that can be called home.
38
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Strengths
Weaknesses
 Potentially limitless
 Modern Technological enablers







o
Base maps
(orthophotos, Google)
o
GPS
o
OCAD
o
Digital contours
Lack of geographic spread in SA
Lack of clubhouses
Geographic spread of club members
Lack of technical training opportunities
Easy access to facilities/ land
Cost of access to land
High barriers to entry (making maps, setting
courses)
Where do we want to be?
Participants
We would like to see the orienteering clubs and schools strive to introduce many new people to
the sport of orienteering. We would like to see improved levels of retention of these
participants within the sport of orienteering.
The SAOF will operate a National Squad system (senior elite, junior elite, youth and
development). Talented participants that are identified at club and regional level are selected
into one of these squads. Squad members will be exposed to national and international level
coaching and competition experiences. The squads will be coached by world-class, accredited,
South African coaches.
We would like to see talented participants dedicate themselves to orienteering as their first
sport. We would like to see South African orienteers routinely qualify for A-finals at WOC (no
SA participant has yet managed this), and eventually attain podium finishes on the world stage.









First choice sport for talented participants.
Retain talented participants.
Retain greater numbers of regular participants
Coaching of individual participants including periodisation
Proper management of pre-JWOC juniors (i.e. Youth squad)
Recognition at various levels (via publicity/ Media – see next)
Raise the profile of the sport of Orienteering
Create an athletes’ commission (with Male and Female representation)
International exposure at home
Coaches
We would like to have a permanent coaching commission as part of the SAOF. We would like
to have a 3-4 level coach qualification system with training courses and an accreditation
39
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
process at each level. We would like to see all clubs offering regular coaching. We recognise
that coaching at the introductory level is crucial if newcomers are to have a positive experience,
and hence continue with the sport.
We would also like to see appropriate coaching of talented individuals at provincial and
national level. We would like to see coaches qualified in orienteering-specific training as well as
in all physical, mental and emotional aspects of participant development.
 A recognised coach education pathway with competence-based accreditation (we aim to
align this with SASCOC efforts, i.e. SA Coaching Framework)
 Ensure knowledge of ancillary capacities
 A strong and active coach’s forum for knowledge sharing.
 A coordinated mentoring programme.
 An appointed high performance director (responsible for a bottom to top programme)
 Appointed National Coaches for youth, junior and national squads.
Officials
We would like to have sufficient active members such that there are more than enough
motivated people who are keen to take up official positions at all levels, i.e. club, provincial and
national. In order to achieve this we need to provide a clear structure within which to operate
as well as clear job descriptions and well defined responsibilities. We recognise that
volunteerism is under threat and that we need to take measures to ensure that volunteers
enjoy a rewarding experience. Coupled to this is a recognition that we need to become more
professional in our approach. This includes employing people in key positions. We need to put
a suitable mentoring programme in place so that we can ensure smooth succession in various
official positions.
At the event level we need to develop an education pathway with an associated accreditation
system. This would be for Event Advising, which includes various components of event
organising, mapping, planning and controlling.
 National organogram (i.e. organisation structure chart) cascading down to provincial level
(* including roles and responsibilities)
 Proper job descriptions (for bite-size functions/ jobs)
 National secretariat
 Develop a mentoring programme
Parents
We need to develop material to sell the advantages of orienteering to parents. We also need to
equip parents with the knowledge they will need to manage the athletic development of their
40
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
children. Finally we need to find ways to encourage parents to participate in the administrative
component of the sport.




Emphasise advantages of Orienteering to the parents
Easily accessible information/ guides
Parent’s guide at different levels (entry, intermediate, elite)
Encourage parents into administration
Facilities
In order to develop and grow the sport of orienteering in South Africa we need to develop
event standards that are appropriate for all event levels. This is especially true at the
introductory level. At the same time we need to ensure that high event standards are
maintained at regional and national level. To this end we need to develop a training and
accreditation system for mapping and event advising.
In our aims to grow the sport we will focus specifically on schools. To this end we also aim to
undertake an extensive school mapping programme.
We need to ensure accessibility to orienteering terrain. In cities this may involve negotiation
with, for example, City Parks (Gauteng) and equivalent bodies in other cities and provinces. In
commercial plantation areas this may involve obtaining adequate public liability insurance.
In order to facilitate the coaching of talented orienteers at all levels we need to ensure an
adequate supply of up-to-date maps in technically appropriate terrain.
 Develop event standards for different events (e.g. school, park, sprint, colour-coded,
etc.)
 Maintain high event standards at regional and national events.
 Extensive school mapping programme
 Accessibility to land (e.g. City Parks, Safcol, Mondi, etc.)
 Ensure up-to-date National/Regional training maps
 Training and accreditation system for event advising and mapping
How to get there?
The LTPD Model provides a framework that we can use to develop our sport. Since early in
2008, the SAOF has been in the process of developing a new strategy to take Orienteering
forward in South Africa. Our adopted vision statement of Development Growth Excellence
encapsulates the intent of our strategy. The current embodiment of our strategy is in the form
of our Development Plan, Expansion Plan, and Technical Plan. These plans will be constantly
41
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
reviewed and refined in light of our LTPD assessment of Orienteering in South Africa discussed
above.
We are currently very far from the ideals stated above. In the next chapter we discuss our
various strategic initiatives as we begin our planning to implement.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Strategic initiatives: Planning to Implement
The analysis of the state of orienteering in South Africa, presented in the previous section,
allows us to develop plans that will enable us to achieve our vision of Development Growth
Excellence. Our plans will be guided by LTPD principles so that as our plans bear fruit, we will
build a sport system that is best-in-class.
Our current focus is to develop our Expansion Plan. The plan itself is conceptual at this point
and is in the process of being turned into a detailed implementation plan. This plan aims to
develop sustainable clubs in 5 more provinces. An integral part of this plan is to encourage new
and existing clubs to expose more children to orienteering by running schools leagues.
Underpinning the plan is the provision of a comprehensive Introduction to Orienteering training
course together with a high-quality resource pack.
We also aim to free-up capacity within the SAOF by employing a part-time administrator.
Successful implementation of our expansion plan requires active project management. The
time demands of successful project management are beyond most of the volunteers who
would be needed to implement these projects. The SAOF therefore aims to employ a part-time
project manager. Demonstrably successful projects will enable the SAOF to secure more
funding for further expansion of these projects, which will enable the SAOF to offer full-time
employment for such positions.
We aim to capitalise on the development that orienteering is now part of the Life Orientation
component of the school curriculum. This provides us with an opportunity to present
orienteering at high schools, many of which had rejected previous advances on the basis that
they already had a full allocation of traditional school sports.
Another key strategy to expand our reach has been identified. The aim is to form strategic
partnerships with organisations that are involved in sport delivery and to piggy-back on their
well-established delivery networks. The idea being that for a relatively small financial
commitment we could support a coach who would offer orienteering in addition to the
activities already offered by the partner organisation.
Tackling these various initiatives with limited people and financial resources is a massive
challenge. At all times we need to be aware of our capacity to implement stated projects.
Within our constraints it is of great importance that any goals follow the SMART principles, i.e.
that all goals are:
S – Specific; M – Measurable; A – Attainable; R – Realistic; T – Time-bound
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Regular monitoring of progress against particular “measures of success” will enable us to finetune project implementation, or even close projects that are not effective. Below are listed our
short-term and longer-term objectives.
Short-term objectives 3-5 years

Deliver an awareness program to educate the SA orienteering community about LTPD.

Develop LTPD and competition structure & “sell” it to stakeholders!
o Power Point presentation to deliver the LTPD message
o Promotional Orienteering Video, DVD

Active Orienteering clubs in 5 provinces (currently we are active in two provinces)

Improve Participation Levels across all demographics

Improve Performance Levels

Target World Games Performance Improvement (2013)
Long-term Objectives: 2020

Active Orienteering clubs in 7 of 9 provinces

5 Constituted Provincial Bodies

Further extend participation in Orienteering across all demographics.

Improved demographic representation on administrative bodies.

Improve international Performance further

Continued Improvement at World Games
Coach Education and Development
The role of the coach will be central to any successful introduction of a new sports system. It is
therefore crucial that an initial step in the implementation of a LTPD model for orienteering is
to develop a long term coach development pathway. In this the SAOF will align its efforts with
those of SASCOC to ensure consistency with national initiatives. There are a number of specific
activities that will be performed to this end.
44
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011

Development of SAOF coach qualification and accreditation system following LTPD
principles.

To seek to formalise the qualifications within National Qualifications Framework (NQF)
as administered by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA). This is part of the
SA Coach Framework project being driven by SASCOC.

To design and deliver Coach Development Workshops on LTPD with special emphasis on
the delivery of the Fundamentals, Learning to Train and Training to Train stages.

Our initial emphasis will be to develop a course to train teachers about Orienteering
(part of Life Orientation in grade 10-12 syllabus)

To fast-track this development by seeking partnerships with well-established
orienteering nations to utilise and modify (if necessary) their systems.

To extend our reach in delivering this material by forming strategic partnerships with
organisation that already have the delivery infrastructure in place.

To encourage existing clubs to offer more training opportunities by qualified coaches.
Officials Education and Development
Orienteering, even at its most basic form, has relatively high barriers to entry compared to
other sports. In order to host an orienteering event, one needs a map, a timing system and
some basic knowledge of how to set courses that are fair to all competitors.
Even though many course variations are possible, and indeed various types of orienteering
event are possible, repeated events in the same area lead to familiarity with the map and hence
a reduced challenge. There is thus a need to have a range of nearby areas that are mapped.
Initial exposure to the sport should be in simple terrains like school grounds or simple
parklands. Some participants will quickly master these most simple of events and seek out
more complicated challenges.
This progression is highly demanding on the sport. It requires maps of more technical areas
(which are more expensive to produce) and it also places greater demands on officials who
have to learn to set more challenging courses that still adhere to the paramount requirement
that they are fair to all competitors.
This progression from Introductory-level orienteering all the way to the International-level
means that an education pathway is required to ensure that organisers and officials develop
the necessary skills. In the interests of maintaining standards within a growing sport it is
necessary for the SAOF to develop an education pathway for officials.
45
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Parents education
Few adults who were physically inactive as children become active as adults. Inactive adults
tend to produce inactive children and the reverse is also true. Encouraging children to enjoy
moving and promoting confidence in movement skills at an early age helps to ensure later
participation in physical activity.
Children have their own reasons for participating in sports and physical activities but coaches
and parents are not always in harmony with their motives. Children commonly play sports:

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




to have fun.
to experience thrills.
to be with friends or make new friends.
to do something they are good at.
to feel good about themselves.
to feel accepted.
to improve and learn new skills.
Parents often have their own reasons for seeing their children in sports, and problems arise
when their motives conflict with those of their son or daughter. The result can be a very
negative sporting experience for the child. Some common problems arise when parents:



place too much emphasis on winning.
push their children to specialise in one sport too early.
live their own dreams through their children.
The ideal situation is when your child finds intrinsic reward in participating in the activity
– otherwise known as FUN!
Children are far more likely to continue in the activity if they are satisfying their own motives
and have the support of their parents. They are also more likely to want to achieve excellence
in competition for the same reasons.
When the emphasis shifts towards external rewards from parents (extrinsic motives) or being
“pushed” to participate, children are far less likely to enjoy and continue in the activity and they
become more susceptible to burnout and dropout.
Long Term Participant Development




helps all children to be physically literate (competent in fundamental movement skills
for sport and physical activity).
recognises that children play to have FUN.
is a pathway to excellence from playground or pond to podium.
allows all South Africans to be physically active through sport and recreation
participation.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
More importantly for parents, LTPD equips parents with the understanding required to support
their children in their sporting development. More information can be found in the document:
“Parents guide to LTAD” on the www.canadiansportforlife.ca website.
47
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Summary
In summary, the LTPD approach to athletic development:
 is an initiative of SASCOC to further sport excellence and the wellness of South Africans;
 provides an opportunity for change and improvement;
 identifies the shortcomings of the broader South African sport system as well as the
sport system for orienteering, and provides guidelines for addressing them;
 provides a framework for reviewing current practices, developing new initiatives and
standardising programs;
 provides key partners with a coordinated structure;
 is participant-centred, from a child’s first involvement in orienteering to the transition to
lifelong physical activity or other sport-related activities;
 establishes a clear pathway from early exploration to podium and/or being active for
life;
 helps all children to be physically literate (competent in fundamental movement skills
for sport and physical activity);
 provides guidelines for planning for optimal performance for all stages of participant
development;
 establishes clearly that during the early stages of development it is imperative that sport
development programs should be designed around critical periods of accelerated
adaptation to training;
 recognises that children play sport to have FUN;
 provides an aligned and integrated model for delivering systems including:
 long-term participant development – technical, physical, tactical and behavioural;
 physical activity programming, and
 long-term coaching development.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
SELECTED Bibliography
Balyi I., “Sport system building and long-term athlete development in Canada. The situation and
solutions, in Coaches Report”, The Official Publication of the Canadian Professional Coaches
Association. Summer 2001. Vol.8, No.1, pp.25-28.
Balyi I., Cardinal C., Higgs C., Norris S., and Way R., “Long-Term Athlete Development: Canadian
Sport for Life”. Canadian Sport Centres, 2005.
Balyi I., and Way R., “The Role of Monitoring Growth in Long-Term Athlete Development”,
2009, (http://www.canadiansportforlife.ca/default.aspx?PageID=1076&LangID=en)
Borms J., “The child and exercise: an overview”, Journal of Sports Sciences, 1986, 4, pp3-20.
British Orienteering website, 2010 (http://www.britishorienteering.org.uk/page/programme),
accessed February 2011
Calder A., “Recovery and Regeneration for Long-Term Athlete Development”, Canadian Sport
for Life document, (2009), (http://www.canadiansportforlife.ca/default.aspx?PageID=1076&LangID=en)
Coyle D., “The Talent Code”, published by Bantam Dell, 2009
Ericsson K.A. and Charness N., “Expert Performance. Its Structure and Acquisition”, American
Psychologist, August 1994, pp725-747.
Ericsson K.A., Kramp R.Th. and Tesch-Romer, “The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition
of expert performance”, Psychological Review, 1993, Vol 100, pp363-406.
Higgs C., Balyi I., Bluechard M., Cardinal C., Norris S., and Way R. “Long-Term Athlete
Development: No Accidental Champions. Athletes with a Disability”, Canadian Sport Centres,
2006.
Gladwell M., “Outliers”, published by Little, Brown and Company, 2008
Higgs C., Balyi I., Bluechard M., Cardinal C., Norris S., and Way R., “Developing Physical
Literacy”, Canadian Sport Centres, 2007.
Malina R.M. and Bouchard C., “Growth, Maturation, and Physical Activity”. Champaigne, IL:
Human Kinetics, 1991.
Rushall B., “The Growth of Physical Characteristics in Male and Female Children”, In Sports
Coach, Vol. 20, Summer 1998. pp. 25 – 27.
49
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Syed M., “Bounce”, published by Harper Collins, 2010
Taylor B., “Long-term Athlete Development Plan for Rowing. An overview”, Rowing Canada,
Victoria, BC, Canada, 2005.
Viru A., “Adaptation in Sports Training”, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1995
Viru A., Loko J., Volver A., Laaneots L., Karlesom K. and Viru M., “Age periods of accelerated
improvements of muscle strength, power, speed and endurance in age interval 6-18 years”, In
"Biology of Sport" , Warsaw, Vol 15 (4), 1998, pp211-227
Viru A., Loko J., Harro M., Volver A., Laaneots L., Viru M., “Critical periods in the development of
performance capacity during childhood and adolescence”, Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy, 4:1, 1999, pp75-119.
Whitehead M., “The concept of physical literacy”, European Journal of Physical Education (6),
2001, pp12-138.
LTPD Resources
Canadian Sport for Life (CS4L) website, www.canadiansportforlife.ca
Athletics Canada - Long-Term Athlete Development, 2006,
(http://www.canadiansportforlife.ca/default.aspx?PageID=1181&LangID=en)
Cross-Country Canada – “Cross-Country Skiing – A Sport for Life”, Long-Term Athlete
Development, 2007, (http://www.canadiansportforlife.ca/default.aspx?PageID=1181&LangID=en)
Canadian Sport for Life, 2005. Balyi, I., Cardinal, C., Higgs, C., Norris, S. & Way, R. Canadian Sport
Centres, Vancouver, BC. ISBN 0-9738274-0-8
Canadian Sport for Life, A Sport Parent’s Guide. Balyi, I., Cardinal, C., Higgs, C., Norris, S. & Way,
R. (LTAD Expert Group) with Jim Grove
Orienteering specific material
Andersson G. (year unknown), “Becoming World Class”, British Orienteering’s squad training
book. (translated by Jamie Stevenson, http://www.britishorienteering.org.uk/page/
improving_performance, accessed February 2011)
50
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Bryan-Jones G., McNeill C., Peck G. and Thornley T., “Orienteering – Training and Coaching”,
British Orienteering Federation, 1987
Junevik P. and Yttergren L., “Part 1: Orienteering Technique – Beginners Levels”, Special Ed. for
O-Ringen Academy, SISU Idrottsböcker, translated by Jane Forrest, 2009
Junevik P. and Yttergren L., “Teaching Orienteering Technique – Advanced Levels”, Special Ed.
for O-Ringen Academy, SISU Idrottsböcker, translated by Jane Forrest, 2009
McNeill C., Cory-Wright J. and Renfrew T., “Teaching Orienteering”, 2nd Ed., British Orienteering
Federation and Harveys, 1998
McNeill C., “Orienteering: Skills, Techniques, Training”, The Crowood Press, 2010
Norman B. and Yngström A, “Orienteering Technique from start to finish”, Swedish
Orienteering Federation, 1991Salmi, J. (2010), “How to become a WOC medal-winner”,
http://o-training.net/blog/2010/12/05/how-to-become-a-woc-medal-winner/
Wehlin A., “Part 2: Orienteering Exercises”, Special Ed. for O-Ringen Academy, SISU
Idrottsböcker, translated by Jane Forrest, 2009
Zürcher S, Clénin G and Marti B, “Uphill running capacity in Swiss elite orienteers”, Sci. J. of
Orienteering, 16, (2005), pp 4-11
51
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
APPENDIX ONE – SKILLS MATRIX
LTAD Stages
Orienteering
Specific
Development
Focus
.
Physical
Active Start
All: 0 - 6
FUNdamentals
F: 6 - 8
M: 6 - 9
Learn to Train
F: 8 - 11
M: 9 - 12
Train to Train
F: 11 - 15
M: 12 - 16
Learn to Compete
F: 15 - 17
M: 16 - 19
Train to Compete
F: 17 - 22+
M: 19 - 23+
Train to Win
F: 22+
M: 23+
Treasure Hunt
Path Finder
Explorer
Expert Explorer
Adventurer
Navigator
Elite Navigator
Physical Literacy
Basic Skills:
Running,
Jumping,
Twisting,
Throwing,
Balancing,
Kicking,
Catching
Pysical Literacy
Develop ABC's Agility, Balance,
Coordination, Speed
General Intro. to physical
conditioning for O.
Physical literacy - ABC's
Running in rough terrain,
Hopping, Bounding,
Hills.
Intro to flexibility
Building aerobic
capacity, speed &
strength.
Systematic medical
monitoring.
Introduce periodisation.
Emphasise flexibility
Develop aerobic capcity
& power; anaerobic
power. Develop and refine
all 10 Skills, Technique.
Sport science & medical
support
Recovery strategies.
Monitor training &
recovery.
Double periodisation
Optimise aerobic capcity
& power; anaerobic power.
Mastery of all 10 Skills,
Technique.
Regular sport science &
medical support
Recovery strategies.
Monitor training &
recovery.
Double / triple
periodisation
Improve physical
capacities by maximising
training load.
Maximise sport science
& medical support
Recovery strategies
Utilise single, double or
multiple periodisation to
optimise performance
Balance of work life,
family life.
Maintain fitness,
flexibility and
strength as
appropriate to the
competition level of
the individual
Basic Ethics
Mental Skills.
Basic psychology of Mental Preparation &
Positive thinking
link to performance
Mental, emotional &
cognitive skills.
Race preparation.
Introduction of ancilliary
capacities - nutrition,
sport science, hydration
Refined mental, cognitive
& emotional skills.
Tactical development;
Psychological preparation,
concentration, focus.
Ancilliary capacities
Optimise mental, cognitive
& emotional skills.
Tactical mastery;
Psychological preparation,
concentration, focus.
Ancilliary capacities
Improve ability to selfregulate and adjust
focus under pressure.
Develop mental
toughness
As appropriate for
the competition
level of the
individual.
Other
Active for Life
Any Age
Development
Focus
.
Orienteering
Obstacle Course,
Puzzle Games,
Hide & Seek,
Treasure Hunt,
Basic Mazes,
Emphasize
Adventure
Understanding the
map (colours &
common symbols);
Map orientation;
Build independence;
Obstacle course,
More complex mazes,
Puzzles,
Adventure focus
Basic abstraction;
Cutting corners;
Catching features;
Distance judgement;
Basic compass direction,
Aiming off.
Reinforcement of basic
skills
Simplification
techniques.
Use of attackpoints.
Simple route choice.
Refine distance
judgement.
Running on rough
compass bearings;
Pacing.
Introduction of simple
contour navigation.
Develop detailed contour
navigation. Advanced
simplification techniques.
Leg-appropriate technique
selection.
Use of indistinct attack
points and catch features.
Refinement of techniques
for more complex terrain.
Planning ahead; Flow.
Master application of skills Refinement of technique. As appropriate to
and techniques in race /
Build on strengths,
the skill level of the
pressure situations.
improve on weaknesses. individual.
Head to head training at
speed.
Optimise the use of
technology to complement
field work
Competition
String Course - one String Course, White
control visible from Navigate along
the next
paths, decisions at
control points
Orange (M10, W10)
Orienteer along
(obvious) line features.
Decision points not at
controls. Orienteer over
short distance with catch
features.
Light Green
(M12, M16, W12, W16)
Several decision points
per leg.
Route choices
Green, Blue, Brown
(M20, M21, W20, W21)
Provincial & National &
International
Green, Blue, Brown
(M21, W21) Provincial,
National & International
National & International All Classes - All
(M21, W21)
age groups
Longer distances.
Table: A summary the progression of physical, mental and orienteering skills in the development of the participant.
Appendix 1: Skills Matrix
52
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
APPENDIX TWO – PHYSICAL, MENTAL / COGNITIVE
AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPEMNT FOR ALL STAGES†
STAGE 1:
Active Start
Ages: 0 to Six years of age
This is an important period for acquiring the fundamental movement skills that lay the
foundation for more complex movements, thereby preparing children for a physically active
lifestyle.
Physical activity is essential for healthy development of children. Among its other benefits,
physical activity:
 enhances development of brain function, coordination, social skills, gross motor skills,
emotions, leadership and imagination;
 helps to build confidence and positive self-esteem;
 helps to build strong bones and muscles, improve flexibility, develop good posture and
balance, improve fitness, reduce stress and improve sleep;
 promotes healthy weight; and
 helps children learn to move skillfully and learn to enjoy being active.
Young children should be physically active through active play. Physical activity should be fun
and a part of the child’s daily life, not something required. Organised physical activity and
active play are particularly important for the healthy development of children with a disability if
they are to acquire habits of lifelong activity.
Objective & Goals
 To develop fundamental movements and link them together into play.
 Providing organised physical activity (including outdoor activities) for at least 30 minutes
a day for toddlers and 60 minutes a day for preschoolers.
†
Adapted from Canadian Cross-Country Skiing LTAD model, ECB LTAD model and Canadian Sport for Life Resource
paper
Appendix 2: Stage 1 - Active Start
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 Providing unstructured physical activity - active play – for at least 60 minutes a day, and
up to several hours per day for toddlers and preschoolers. Toddlers and preschoolers
should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes at a time except while sleeping.
 Introducing children to Orienteering early (e.g. three years of age), through String Courses
at events.
 Other activities relevant to Orienteering include: puzzles, treasure hunts, hide and seek,
basic mazes, activities with an adventure focus.
 Developing fitness and movement skills as a FUN part of daily life.
 Improving basic movement skills such as gliding, running, jumping, twisting, balance while
moving, kicking, throwing and catching. This means introducing children to activities that
incorporate a variety of movement skills - activities such as running, gymnastics, dance,
swimming, cycling, etc.
These basic movement skills are the building blocks for more complex movements.
 Designing activities that help children to feel competent and comfortable.
 Ensuring that games are non-competitive and focus on participation.
 Ensuring that activities are gender-neutral and inclusive so that active living is equally
valued and promoted for all children (because girls tend to be less active than boys and
children with a disability less active than their peers).
Suggested Material
Young Orienteers Challenge (YOC) – Participation Scheme
Young Orienteers Challenge (YOC) – Skills Quest, Ground Stage
Part 1: Orienteering Technique – Beginners Levels, Junevik P. and Yttergren L.
Appendix 2: Stage 1 - Active Start
54
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE 2:
2011
FUNdamentals
Ages: Females: 6-8 years of age
Males: 6-9 years of age
Windows of Optimal Trainability:
 Speed development. (Females 6-8 Males 7-9)
 Flexibility development. (Window is 6 – 10)
Physical development
Basic characteristics
 Larger muscle groups are more developed than smaller ones.
 The size of the heart is increasing in relation to the rest of the body. The cardiovascular
system is still developing.
 Ligament structures are becoming stronger, but the ends of the bones are still
cartilaginous and continue to ossify.
 Basic motor patterns become more refined towards the end of this phase and the balance
mechanism in the inner ear is gradually maturing.
 During this phase, girls develop co-ordination skills faster than boys but the
developmental differences between boys and girls are negligible.
Performance capabilities & limitations
 Children are more skillful in gross movements involving large muscle groups than in
precisely coordinated movements involving the interaction of many smaller muscles.
 Endurance capacity of the young participants is more than adequate for most activities.
 The young person’s body is very susceptible to injury through excessive stress or heavy
pressure.
 There is a great improvement in agility, balance, co-ordination and speed (ABC’s) towards
the end of this phase.
 Sex differences are not of any great consequence at this stage in development.
Appendix 2: Stage 2 - FUNdamentals
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Develop the ABCs of athleticism - agility, balance, coordination and speed.
 Introducing basic flexibility exercises.
 Short duration anaerobic alactic activities should be planned (age appropriate speed
development, e.g. short, sharp sprint activities 4-5 secs).
 Use slow progressions in hopping and bounding. Strength training limited only to own
body weight or appropriate medicine ball and Swiss ball (neural recruitment i.e. nervous
system adaptation).
 Training and playing in combination should be emphasised at these ages and during this
phase. Utilise games to develop technique, speed, skills and fitness.
Mental/cognitive development
Basic characteristics
 Attention span is short and children are action orientated.
progressively.
Memory is developing
 Children in this phase have limited reasoning ability. Later on during the phase there is
growing capacity for more abstract thought.
 The repetition of activities is greatly enjoyed. Young participants improve their abilities
through experience.
 Imagination is blossoming.
Performance capabilities & limitations
 Young participants cannot sit and listen for long periods of time.
 Children are generally leader-orientated: they love to be led!
 Young participants do not learn the skills correctly by trial and error.
 Experimentation and creativity should be encouraged.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Use short, clear and simple instructions. Children want to move and participate. Coaches
with excellent communication skills must work at this level.
 Coaches should adopt a “follow me” or “follow your leader” approach and ensure that all
activities are fun and well-planned. For example, take a warm up and encourage children
to follow you tumble, forward roll, touch the floor/walls etc.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 While playing and practicing encourage input (opinion) from the children. They will love
to try things out! Create a non-judgmental environment.
Emotional development
Basic characteristics
 The children’s self-concept is developing through experience and comments from others.
 Children like to be the centre of focus and attention.
 The influence of peers becomes a very strong driving force behind all activities.
 The child begins to understand the needs for rules and structure.
Performance capabilities & limitations
 Children perceive these experiences as a form of self-evaluation: “I am a good person if I
do well. I’m a bad person if I do poorly.”
 When a situation becomes threatening they quickly lose confidence.
 Acceptance into a peer group often depends upon one’s abilities in physical skills and
activities.
 Children can understand and play simple games with simple rules and will tend to
question rules and expect thoughtful answers.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Children need positive perceptions of themselves and need positive reinforcement on a
regular basis. This will provide the motivation to continue with the activity.
 Plan and structure technical and tactical activities so that success is virtually guaranteed.
This means progressing from simple to more complex activities.
 Coaches must be capable of assessing the basic skills and of providing a varied program of
practical opportunities for technical and tactical development and improvement.
 Children need equal praise for all forms of effort. Participation and fun to be emphasised
over winning. Focus is on the process, not on the outcome!
 Gain an awareness of the importance of mental skills.
 Exposure to positive thinking skills to build confidence and the ability to cope with stress.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Objective & Goals
 To develop all fundamental movement skills and build overall motor skills.
 Encouraging FUN and participation.
 Participation in many activities/sports 4-6 times a week, year-round.
 Develop basic orienteering technique habits: Setting the map, Folding, Thumbing.
 Improve basic understanding of the Orienteering map: - map colours, commonly used
symbols, basic abstraction.
 Build Orienteering independence
 Be able to Orienteer along paths, making decisions at Control Points.
 Provision of programs that are well-structured and monitored, (e.g. YOC Skills Quest). No
periodisation.
Suggested Material
Young Orienteers Challenge (YOC) – Skills Quest, Ground Stage, Foundation Stage 1 and 2
The YOC Skills Quest programme is heavily parent driven. There is, however, an opportunity for
coaches to utilse this material within a skills development framework.
Part 1: Orienteering Technique – Beginners Levels, Junevik P. and Yttergren L.
Appendix 2: Stage 2 - FUNdamentals
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE 3:
2011
Learn to Train
Ages: Females: 8-11 years of age
Males: 9-12 years of age
Windows of Optimal Trainability:
 Accelerated adaptation to motor coordination
 Major skill learning phase. Before the onset of PHV
Physical development
Basic characteristics
 Smaller muscle groups are becoming more developed.
Performance capabilities & limitations
 Early specialisation in late specialisation sports can be detrimental to later stages of skill
development and to refinement of the fundamental sport skills.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Continued refinement of ABC’s
 Introducing hopping and bounding exercises or routines, or wheeling up gradients, to aid
in strength development.
 Utilizing games to develop skills, speed, power and aerobic fitness.
 Further developing strength using exercises that incorporate the child’s own body weight
as well as medicine balls and Swiss balls.
Mental/ cognitive development
Basic characteristics
 Children are developmentally ready to acquire the general sports skills that are the
cornerstones of all athletic development.
 Abstract thinking capabilities begin to emerge.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Performance capabilities & limitations
 Children are now ready to build an awareness of how performance unfolds from a mental
perspective.
 Children are ready to develop an understanding of the importance of basic mental skills
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Introduce pre-race preparation.
 Introduce tactical skills.
 Introduce more advanced navigation concepts (see skills matrix in Appendix 1)
 Introduce the mental skills of:
-
Constructive self-talk.
-
Imagery
-
Confident behaviour.
Emotional development
Basic characteristics
 Children are developing their self-concept.
 Children feel secure with routine and structure to training.
Performance capabilities & limitations
 Introduce change gradually and sensitively.
 Children like things to be fair.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Build a structure that is progressive, but that maintains continuity.
 Be consistent and treat each child equally.
 Build adventure-based activities into the seasonal plan
Objective & Goals
 To perfect all fundamental movement skills and improve overall motor skills.
 Encouraging FUN and participation.
 Narrow the focus to 3 sports 4-6 times a week, year-round.
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2011
 Developing all basic sport skills (physical literacy) before the participant enters the
Training to Train stage.
 Further developing flexibility through exercises.
 Introducing ancillary capacities.
 Integrating mental, cognitive and emotional development.
 Master basic orienteering technique habits: Setting the map, Folding, Thumbing.
 Refined use of map legend and control descriptions. Exposure to more technical features,
i.e. point features.
 Progress from simple “cutting-corners” to more complex “free orienteering”, i.e.
navigating without a line feature using catching features, aiming off and attack points.
 Introduction to simplification – simplify legs into several decision points.
 Introduction to basic compass work and distance judgment.
 Introduction to route choices and relocation techniques.
 Develop a basic understanding of contours
 Provision of programs that are well-structured and monitored, (e.g. YOC Skills Quest).
 No periodisation.
Suggested Material
Young Orienteers Challenge (YOC) – Skills Quest, Intermediate Stage 1 and 2
The YOC Skills Quest programme is heavily parent driven. There is, however, an opportunity for
coaches to utilse this material within a skills development framework.
Part 1: Orienteering Technique – Beginners Levels, Junevik P. and Yttergren L.
Appendix 2: Stage 3 - Learn to Train
61
SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE 4:
2011
Train to Train
Ages: Females: 11-15 years of age
Males: 12-16 years of age
Windows of Optimal Trainability:
 Aerobic capacity development. With the onset of PHV
 Aerobic power after growth decelerates
 Strength development (females) with the onset of Menarche
 Speed development for females 11-13 (at the start of this stage) and males 13-16 (at the
end of this stage)
 Flexibility impact of sudden growth on the body
Physical development
Basic characteristics
 Significant proportional changes occur in bone, muscle and fat tissue.
 Girls begin their growth spurt between ages 12.5-14, boys between ages 12.5-15. Girls
attain a maximum rate of growth at average age 12-13, boys at average age 14.
 Smaller muscle groups are becoming more developed.
 During this phase the various parts of the body do not grow at the same rate. The growth
rate of the legs and arms will reach a peak prior to that of the trunk.
 A significant increase in red blood cells occurs – especially in boys due to the male
hormone testosterone.
 The central nervous system is almost fully developed.
Performance capabilities & limitations
 During growth spurts adaptation is influenced by sudden changes of body proportions.
 Early in this phase, girls are faster and stronger than boys are. This situation is reversed
later on in the phase.
 Speed, agility and co-ordination are still improving rapidly during this phase.
 A change in the centre of gravity, length of limbs and core strength will determine the
content of training.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 The oxygen transportation system is still developing and aerobic endurance is continuing
to increase.
 Agility, balance and co-ordination are fully trainable.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Monitor training carefully and individualise the content of training to ensure adaptation.
 Chronological age might not be the most appropriate way to group participants.
 Situations when fear, guilt or anxiety brought about by sexual development should be
avoided.
 With the improvement of fine motor skill movement all basic technical skills to be
mastered. Participants should learn how to train including physical, technical, tactical and
ancillary capacities (e.g. warm up, cool down, diet, nutrition, hydration etc.)
 Some of the already learned skills might need to be relearned again due to growth of
limbs which might affect technique. The increase in body mass requires more structured
aerobic training. Only short duration of anaerobic activities are recommended.
Mental/cognitive development
Basic characteristics
 Abstract thinking becomes more firmly established.
 Young participants develop a new form of egocentric thought. Much emphasis is placed
on self-identity.
 Young participants are eager to perfect their skills.
Performance capabilities & limitations
 Decision making through more complex technical training/practice should be introduced
(e.g. contours, simplification).
 This may result in a strong fear of failure.
 Individual specific direction and structure in the learning process is required. A variety of
methods to measure success are important to maintain motivation.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Decision making on technique application should be based upon the skill level of the
orienteer.
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2011
 Create the optimum learning environment, match skill and drill levels. Focus on mastery.
Introduce simple coping strategies for winning and losing, positive reaction to challenges.
 Provide a strong role model by modeling “winning mind” values and beliefs.
 Positive reinforcement is imperative. The difference between the physical and mental
development can vary greatly and care must be taken not to pick the early developers
and neglect or deselect the late-developers.
 The coach’s ability to demonstrate specific skills is important.
 Further develop pre-race preparation, tactical skills and time-management skills.
 Further develop the mental skills of:
o Constructive self-talk.
o Imagery
o Confident behaviour.
Emotional development
Basic characteristics
 There is a tremendous influence on behavior from peer groups.
 During this phase participants are capable of co-operating and accepting some
responsibility.
 Tension generally exists between adults and adolescents.
 It is important at this developmental level that young participants are able to display
tenderness, admiration and appreciation.
 Physical, mental and emotional maturity does not necessarily develop at the same rate.
 There is a desire to have friends of the opposite sex.
Performance capabilities & limitations
 Values and attitudes are being created and reinforced by the group.
 Some participants may be less responsible mainly due to a fear of failure.
 Communication channels should be kept open by adults as all teenagers need help even
though they do not recognise the need or seem grateful for the help.
 Deprivation of these qualities often leads to exaggerated and/or unacceptable behaviour.
 Feelings of confusion or anxiety may exist as a result.
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2011
 Social activities are important events for this age group.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 The coach should exercise strong direction and supervision. A role model for young
participants at this phase is very important.
 Coach must have open communication with participants.
 Coach is usually better accepted than other adults and should always attempt to foster
two-way communication. Coaches should create environment for opportunities to make
decisions, decide on methods, make judgments and make mistakes.
 Early maturers often become leaders and excel in performance. Coaches must not create
“in and out” groups as this can have negative effects on other participant’s development.
Objective & Goals
 Ensuring social and emotional considerations are addressed by placing an appropriate
emphasis on team-building, group interaction and social activities.
 Ensuring the training focus is tied to individual stage of maturation.
 Making aerobic training a priority after the onset of PHV while maintaining or further
developing levels of skill, speed, strength and flexibility.
 Emphasizing flexibility training given the rapid growth of bones, tendons, ligaments and
muscles.
 Frequent musculoskeletal evaluations during PHV.
 Introduce systematic medical monitoring.
 Narrowing the focus to two sports based on preference.
 Further developing ancillary capacities.
 Educating participants about the nutritional needs of competitive cross-country skiers.
 Introduction of Simplification techniques.
 Integrate use of attack points.
 Develop simple route choice capability.
 Refine distance judgment.
 Develop ability to run on rough compass bearings;
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 Introduce Pacing skills.
 Introduction of simple contour navigation.
 Planning and preparing for a best performance at one event; utilizing single and double
periodisation as the optimal framework of preparation.
 Ensuring the focus during competitions is on learning the basics as opposed to competing,
although participants should compete to win and to do their best.
 Introducing basic sport science and sport medicine support.
Suggested Material
Young Orienteers Challenge (YOC) – Skills Quest, Intermediate Stage 2 and Advanced Stage
The YOC Skills Quest programme is heavily parent driven. There is, however, an increasing
requirement for experienced technique coaching at the advanced level within this development
framework.
Appendix 2: Stage 4 - Train to Train
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
Stage 5:
2011
Learn to Compete
Ages: Females: 15-17 years of age
Males: 16-19 years of age
Windows of Optimal Trainability:
 Strength development (males).
 Post PHV aerobic power development
Physical development
Basic characteristics
 The circulatory and respiratory systems reach maturity.
 Increases in height and weight gradually slow down and stabilisation occurs in the
muscular system.
 Skeletal maturation continues in males and females.
 By age 17, girls generally have reached adult proportions, whereas boys do not generally
reach such proportions until several years later.
Performance capabilities and limitations
 All systems are fully trainable generally capable of giving maximum output.
 Muscles have grown to their mature size but muscular strength continues to increase
reaching its peak in the late twenties.
 Connective tissues are still strengthening.
 Proportionally, girls gain more weight than boys during this phase.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Aerobic and anaerobic systems can be trained for maximum output. Full Orienteeringspecific energy system training should be implemented.
 Strength training can be maximised to improve overall strength development.
Neuromuscular training should be optimised during this phase.
 Progressive overloading in training should be continued.
 Aerobic training for girls to be optimised. Coaches should be aware how to deal with
weight gain and effect on figure.
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2011
 Participants should learn how to compete including all technical, tactical and ancillary
components.
 Improving technique efficiency when dealing with a high level of fatigue.
 Coaches to encourage development of pre-habilitation routines (e.g. backwards running
uphill for hamstrings).
 Ensure regular assessment of critical alignments, i.e. ankles, knees, hips, shoulders and
vertebrae, through a biokineticist or physiotherapist.
Mental/cognitive development
Basic characteristics
 Generally, by age 16, the brain has reached its adult size but continues to mature
neurologically for several more years.
 Critical thinking is well developed during this phase.
Performance capabilities and limitations
 Participants can cope with multiple strategies and tactics, particularly near the end of the
phase.
 The capacity of self-analysis and correction is developing
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Coaches should ensure the refinement of all technical and tactical skills.
 Decision making should be developed further through technical and tactical development.
 Coaches to promote autonomy and independence.
 Coaches to encourage further development of pre-habilitation routines.
 Coaches to create environment where participants are encouraged to make decisions,
decide on methods and make judgments.
 A structured environment in order to maintain a strong mastery competitive value base.
Basic characteristics
 Peer group influence is still a powerful force.
 Participants are searching for a stable, balanced self-image.
 Activities and interaction with the opposite sex are important during this phase.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
Performance capabilities and limitations
 Independent decision making and leadership skills are becoming more developed.
 Self-concept is still very much influenced by success and failure. Coping techniques are
useful.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Participants should be given the opportunity to develop through participation in
appropriate leadership or responsible role, but strong direction and discipline must be
maintained.
 Positive evaluation of performances and positive reinforcement are imperative
Objective & Goals
 Introducing hopping-bounding strength workouts.
 Maintaining flexibility
 Further developing ancillary capacities.
 Educating participants about the nutritional needs of competitive orienteering
 Providing appropriate sport science and sport medicine support.
 Consistent monitoring of training and recovery.
 Developing/implementing systematic post-intensity recovery strategies.
 Appropriate adjustment of nutritional intake to accommodate increased training load.
 Utilising single, double and triple periodisation as the optimal framework of preparation.
 Individually tailoring fitness programs, recovery programs, psychological preparation and
technical development.
 International competitive experience, at the end of this stage, for top level athletes.
 Develop detailed contour navigation.
 Develop advanced simplification techniques.
 Develop leg-appropriate technique selection.
 Develop the use of indistinct attack points and catch features.
 Develop techniques for more complex terrain.
 Introduce racing strategies: Traffic light orienteering, Planning ahead, Flow.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 Develop tactical skills.
 Increase self-awareness of personal psychological performance factors (e.g. confidence,
competitiveness, mental toughness, work ethic, etc.) in order to identify personal
performance needs.
 Learn to self-evaluate psychological performance – for both training and competitive
situations.
 Refinement of pre-race preparation and race plans.
 Apply mental plans to practice sessions.
 Introduce mental performance monitoring for practice and competitive situations.
 Further develop time-management skills.
Suggested Material
“Becoming World Class”, British Orienteering’s squad training book. (Göran Andersson)
“Orienteering: Skills, Techniques, Training”, Carol McNeill
Appendix 2: Stage 5 - Learn to Compete
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE 6:
2011
Train to Compete
Ages: Females: 17-22+/- years of age
Males: 19-23+/- years of age
Physical development
Basic characteristics
 Physiologically, the body reaches maturity during this stage.
 Final skeletal maturation in females occurs at about 19-20 years and in males about 3
years later.
Performance capabilities and limitations
 All physiological systems are fully trainable.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Ensure that physical training programs employ the most advanced techniques and sport
science information to facilitate maximum adaptation and minimise injuries.
 Ensure that all muscle groups and body alignments are well-balanced, complemented
with optimum flexibility ranges.
 Use state-of-the-art testing and monitoring programs.
 Carefully monitor overtraining and overstress.
 Organise regular medical monitoring. Schedule additional blood tests for females in case
of anemia.
Mental/cognitive development
Basic characteristics
 Neurologically, the brain matures at about 19-20 years of age.
 There is a complete understanding and acceptance of the need for rules, regulations, and
structure.
Performance capabilities and limitations
 Participants are capable of self-analyzing and correcting and refining skills. Participants
can analyse and conceptualise all facets of their sport.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 Well-developed information processing skills improve the participant’s ability to visualise
verbal instructions.
 The young adult must perceive the rules and structure as being clearly defined and fair.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Establish winning as the major objective.
 Implement principles of adult learning.
 Involve participants in decision making and planning team or group activities.
Emotional development
Basic characteristics
 There is a need to be self-directed and independent
 Self-actualisation and self-expression are important.
 Major decisions on career, education, and lifestyle are priority at some point in this stage.
 Interactions with the opposite sex continue to be a strong priority with lasting
relationships developing.
Performance capabilities and limitations
 Participants are ready to assume responsibility and accept the consequences of their
actions.
 Major changes in interests, hobbies, and physical activities occur.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Emphasise goal setting to give definite direction and purpose to the participant’s overall
program.
 Treat participants as adults and with respect. Remember that the coach’s direction and
structure remain important.
 Make professional guidance available, considering off-season and educational pursuits.
 Provide participants with ample opportunities for independent social interaction.
Objective & Goals
 Improving individual areas of weakness.
 Optimising both lifestyle and training environment for high performance goals.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 Optimising ancillary capacities.
 Sport specific technical, tactical and fitness training 9-12 times per week.
 Implementing well-developed post-intensity recovery strategies.
 Appropriate sport science and sport medicine support.
 Appropriate monitoring of training and recovery.
 Appropriate nutritional intake to accommodate increased training load.
 Individually tailor to a greater degree - fitness programs, recovery programs,
psychological preparation and technical development.
 Optimising technical skills in competitive situations (at high intensity).
 Single, double or triple periodisation.
 Optimising fitness preparation and advanced mental preparation.
 Preparation that addresses each participant’s individual strengths and weaknesses.
 Optimising all technical skills in competitive situations (at high intensity).
 Learning to compete internationally.
 Further refining all orienteering techniques.
 Optimising technique deployment to various event and terrain conditions.
 Ongoing refinement of personalised practice, recovery and race plans.
 Further developing self-awareness and independence.
 Increased attention to monitored psychological performance.
 Gain a comprehensive understanding of the critical factors that affect the participant’s
ideal performance state.
 Improve the ability to adjust emotions and focus to gain control over confidence and
performance outcome.
Suggested Material
“Becoming World Class”, British Orienteering’s squad training book. (Göran Andersson)
“Orienteering: Skills, Techniques, Training”, Carol McNeill
Appendix 2: Stage 6 - Train to Compete
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
STAGE 7:
2011
Training to win
Ages: Females: 22+/- years of age
Males: 23+/- years of age
Physical development
Basic characteristics
 Physiologically the body enters this phase fully mature during this phase.
Performance capabilities and limitations
 All physiological systems are fully trainable
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Improving physical capacities by increasing and maximising the training load (volume and
intensity) that an participant can handle.
 Maximising high performance sport specialist support, including fitness and medical
monitoring.
 Frequent prophylactic breaks.
 Regular appropriate medical monitoring should be conducted, with additional blood tests
for female participants to prevent iron deficiency.
 Utilising single, double, triple and multiple periodisation as the optimal framework of
preparation.
Mental/cognitive development
Basic characteristics
 No further neurological development.
Performance capabilities and limitations
 Participants are capable of self-analysing and correcting and refining skills. Participants
can analyse and conceptualise all important facets of their sport.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Allowing frequent preventative breaks to prevent physical and mental burnouts.
 Refining technical, tactical and mental skills.
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 Modelling all possible aspects of training and performance.
 Continue mental performance monitoring for practice and competitive situations.
 Refine the ability to adjust emotions and focus to gain control over confidence and
performance outcome.
 Further develop tactical skills.
Emotional development
Basic characteristics
 Focus on being self-motivated and independent.
 Ensure a healthy balance between training, competing and lifestyle.
Performance capabilities and limitations
 The participant has the ability to self-regulate and adjust focus when under pressure.
 The participant has the capacity to perform successfully in stressful situations; become
more focussed and effective under pressure (that is, exhibit mental toughness).
 Demonstrate decision accuracy so that race decisions are rarely flawed and errors are a
consequence of conditions/situations beyond the participant’s control.
Implications for the Orienteering coach
 Encourage total focus on orienteering performance.
Objective & Goals
 Maximising ancillary capacities.
 Learning to win internationally.
 All of the participant’s physical, technical, tactical (including decision-making skills),
mental, and personal and lifestyle capacities are fully established and the focus of training
has shifted to the maximisation of performance.
 Implementing well-developed post-training and competition recovery strategies.
 Appropriate sport science and sport medicine support.
 Appropriate monitoring of training and recovery.
 Appropriate nutritional intake to accommodate increased training load.
 Refining technical, tactical and mental skills in competitive situations (at high intensity).
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SAOF’s LTPD Guide for Orienteering
2011
 Single, double or triple periodisation as the optimal framework for preparation.
 Sport specific technical, tactical and fitness training 9-15 times per week.
 Further refining all Orienteering techniques.
 Improving individual areas of weakness and capitalising on strengths.
Suggested Material
“Becoming World Class”, British Orienteering’s squad training book. (Göran Andersson)
“Orienteering: Skills, Techniques, Training”, Carol McNeill
Appendix 2: Stage 7 - Train to Win
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2011
APPENDIX THREE - COMPETITION GUIDELINES
The SAOF has embarked upon a strategy to grow the sport of orienteering in South Africa.
Given the state of development of orienteering in South Africa, the current competition
calendar is appropriate. As the number of provinces in which there is active orienteering
increases, the competition calendar will have to be reviewed to ensure that developmentally
appropriate periodisation is encouraged. It will therefore be necessary for the SAOF to review
the competition calendar on an annual or bi-annual basis. This appendix presents a set of
guidelines for the competition calendar in a scenario of active orienteering in many provinces (3
or more) throughout South Africa.
Current Situation
The current event calendar is well constructed given the state of development of Orienteering
in South Africa. Orienteering events are generally held throughout the year in South Africa.
This caters well for the Active for Life participant.
Historically the two active orienteering regions have typically hosted a summer, short-course
series (in the first 4 months of the year) and a winter, colour-coded series that culminates in the
South African Championships towards the end of September. In terms of appropriate
periodised training schedules, the national squad and national team athletes should be
dissuaded from taking too seriously the short-course series, rather using the events as
opportunities improve their technique and mental skills.
From a high-performance perspective, the competition calendar is informed by the pinnacle of
the international elite calendar, i.e. the annual Junior (JWOC) and Senior World Orienteering
Championships (WOC). The international elite calendar has its peak competition period over
the European summer. Important South African national championships should be aligned with
this peak competition period. The South African Orienteering Championships has historically
taken place during the last week of September and so falls in this period.
A calendar depicting the important national (WCOC – western Cape orienteering
championships, GOC – Gauteng orienteering championships and SAOC – South African
orienteering championships) is illustrated below together with the important elite events in the
international season (JWOC, WOC and the World Cup). Included is a generalised training guide
that is appropriate for the international season. Annual periodised training guides appropriate
for the various LTPD stages are presented in Appendix 8.
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1
2
3
nov
4
5
6
7
8
9
2011
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
dec
jan
feb
mar
General Preparation Period Specific Preparation Period (incl. in-terrain training camps)
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
apr
may
june
Pre-Competition Period Early Competition Period
WCOC
GOC
july
aug
Peak Competition Period
World Cup
JWOC
WOC
sept
oct
Recovery
SAOC
The above calendar is therefore well aligned for South African elite orienteers who wish to
compete on the international circuit. Currently South Africa does not have any elite orienteers
in this class. In principle such elite athletes could compete in the provincial championships
(GOC in the above example) at the beginning of the World Cup season, and then move over to
Europe to compete at World Cup events, including WOC and return to SA for the national
championships. This is the preserve of the professional athlete.
At present there is, however, a lack of sufficient quality preparation for home-based athletes or
athletes wishing to make the transition from the national squad to the national team. Currently
this selection is made after the South African Orienteering Championship in September. With
the lack of sufficient quality preparation events, it is possible that home-based athletes selected
the previous September are ill-prepared for JWOC or WOC in the current year. The current
SAOF Selection Policy is in the process of being changed to allow the final selection for the
JWOC and WOC teams to be made much later, e.g. at the Western Cape Orienteering
Championships (WCOC) for JWOC.
Developmentally Appropriate Competition
Orienteering is naturally well-aligned with the LTPD principles of developmental ageappropriate competition. At all events a range of courses are offered that vary in both
technical and physical difficulty. Importantly, the most technically challenging courses are
available in a range of lengths. Thus younger orienteers with advanced technical skills, but who
are not physically mature are able to tackle the shorter, technically complex courses. This is
also true of older competitors who once again may be technically strong, but not able to cope
with the most physically demanding courses. In Colour-Coded events, courses are set for
technical difficulty according to the LTPD stages as described in Appendix 1.
Coordination across sports
Orienteering is only practiced actively in a small number of schools in South Africa. In the
schools in which orienteering is offered it is not a priority sport and so it has to fit in with other
Appendix 3: Competition Guidelines
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sports. For example the dates of the schools’ league in Gauteng are chosen to avoid clashes
with other sports that directly compete with orienteering for participants.
This means that there is a high risk that the most talented young participants over-compete in
their various sports. Over-competing in a multitude of sports can lead to a high risk of injury,
especially when combined with insufficient fitness levels, poor footwear and physiological
imbalances. It can also lead to early burn-out and exit from the sport. If a sports system is to
be truly “participant centered” then coordination across sports needs to be addressed. This
sensitive issue will require agreement, co-operation and consensus on calendar planning from
different coaches, parents, participants and others involved in a talented athlete’s
development.
Future Calendar
In this section the competition calendar is described for a future scenario when orienteering in
South Africa has expanded to the extent that it is practiced in more provinces, with more
provincial championships.
Eventually there should be nothing against having provincial championships on the same
weekend as JWOC or WOC. In fact this scenario will be desired when national squad and team
athletes are distinct from development athletes and Active for Life participants.
Multiple Provinces
Historically the regional championships in the Western Cape and Gauteng have taken place in
late-April and mid-June, respectively. These dates fall within the pre-competition period and
early competition period, respectively. The separation has been maintained to enable
orienteers from both regions to participate in the each other’s regional championships.
In a future scenario where there are more provincial championships this will be unsuitable.
Ideally a number of provinces should have their championships on the same weekend. This will
dissuade high performance athletes from attempting to compete in all these championships.
When there are a sufficient number of provincial championships, some should form part of a
national league (see below), whilst others would not enjoy national status. In order to ensure
fairness, the most important provincial championships, i.e. those forming part of the national
league, should be rotated amongst the active provinces on an annual basis.
National League Events
The high-performance athletes, together with their coach(es) should take responsibility for
their own competition schedule to ensure optimum performance at the most important events.
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The SAOF (and in future the provincial bodies) can influence this behavior by appropriately
specifying the most important events. In time this should result in the formation of a national
league. The timing of this league can be used to address the previously mentioned shortcomings of the current calendar with respect to the provision of sufficient high-quality
competitive events for home-based athletes during the Peak Competition Period.
This would result in all important provincial and national championships occurring over the
Peak Competition Period. It should be noted that national team athletes would not be
expected to compete at these events. Rather they should be participating on the elite circuit in
Europe in preparation for high performance at WOC and the World Cup.
The envisaged calendar is ideally suited for national squad members who are aiming to gain
selection into the national team to compete internationally in the following year.
National Squad and Team Selection
In the future where orienteering is widely practiced in most provinces in South Africa it is
envisaged that there will be a national league as described above. Performance in this league
would be used as a basis for selection into the national team. The most important events for
national team selection would be the South African Orienteering Championships and one of the
provincial championship events. In order to be fair, the status of premier provincial
championship event would be rotated between the provinces on an annual basis.
In the interim, i.e. before this future scenario is realised, the Selection Committee has reviewed
the final national team selection process. The revision was necessary to reduce the risk that
national team athletes, selected at the previous national championships, are not in good shape
by the time JWOC or WOC comes around. The proposed amendment to the selection process,
being evaluated in 2011, will see national squad athletes participate in three time trials over
3000m. Demonstrable improvement in fitness and time will be required for final selection to
the national team.
Youth and Junior
Whilst it is desirable for Active for Life participants to have a full calendar of events to select
from, great care must be taken to ensure that participants in the developmental stages
(Treasure Hunt to Adventurer) do not over-compete. An unbalanced competition calendar and
an unbalanced competition to practice ratio will interfere with skill development and training
opportunities, which in turn will affect an orienteer's skill and ability levels in later years.
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Over-competing for children less than 12 years old can be reduced in orienteering by ensuring
that these children all receive participation certificates rather than compete for medals at
championship orienteering events.
Competition Review Strategy
The future scenario described above is a long way off. As discussed in the Chapters on the
Assessment of Orienteering in South African and the Strategic Initiatives: Planning to
Implement, we are embarking on a serious effort to grow participation levels in orienteering
across South Africa. As our various initiatives bear fruit, there will be a need to review the
current Competition Calendar to ensure that it still fulfills the LTPD requirements.
Appendix 3: Competition Guidelines
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APPENDIX FOUR: THE ROLE OF THE SAOF AND
OTHER SPORTING BODIES
In its role as national governing body for orienteering, the SAOF would take on the
implementation of many of the structural and framework changes required. Policy decided at a
national level would then be delivered locally and in line with local needs.
In regard to LTPD, specific roles and responsibilities of the SAOF would include the following:

To ensure that any relevant current and future programs and initiatives affecting the
performer’s development are consistent with the aims of the Long-Term Participant
Development sports system for orienteering.

Through the Coaching commission, the design and delivery of a coach education and
development system will incorporate LTPD principles.

Where new strategies in the areas of Ethics, Equity, Child Welfare, Facilities, Disabilities,
and Volunteering are developed, these are aligned with LTPD principles.

To ensure that competition rules and guidelines are designed to be consistent with LTPD
principles.

To ensure that appropriate funding levels support the LTPD sports system and are
targeted towards the young performer’s Growth and Development key stages at School,
Club and Provincial level.

To put in place effective Detection, Identification, Selection and Development criteria
for Talent Identification for use by Schools, Clubs, Provinces and National Squads. This
would include a system of objective measurement to monitor competencies achieved.

Ensure that new initiatives and programs introduced by outside bodies and agencies are
appropriately introduced into and are consistent with the LTPD sports system.

Be responsible for setting up and overseeing an effective monitoring system to evaluate
the LTPD process.
Appendix 4: Role of SAOF and other Sporting Bodies
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APPENDIX FIVE – MONITOING GROWTH
Coaches and parents can use height measurements before, during and after maturation as a
guide for tracking the development age of children. Tracking allows coaches to identify and
address the sensitive periods of physical development (endurance, strength, speed and
flexibility) and skill development. The age of a participant can be examined from a number
different perspectives:
 Chronological Age: the number of years and days elapsed since birth.
 Relative Age: refers to differences in age among children born in the same calendar year
 Skeletal age: refers to the maturity of the skeleton determined by the degree of
ossification of the bone structure. It is a measure of age that takes into consideration
how far given bones have progressed toward maturity, not in size, but with respect to
shape and position to one another.
 Developmental Age refers to the degree of physical, mental, cognitive, and emotional
maturity. Physical developmental age can be determined by skeletal maturity or bone age
after which mental, cognitive, and emotional maturity is incorporated.
 General Training Age refers to the number of years in training, sampling different sports.
 Sport-specific Training Age refers to the number of years since an participant decided to
specialise in one particular sport
How to Measure Growth Spurt

Stand straight against a wall, no shoes, with heels touching the wall.

Measure from floor to top of head.

Measurements should be taken at the same time of day (AM or PM).

The frequency of measurements during each of the size growth phases (see Figure
below) is described below.
Phase 1: Age 0 to 6

Very rapid growth.

Measure standing height and weight on birthday.
Phase 2: Age 6 to the Onset of Growth Spurt

Steady growth until the onset of growth spurt.

Measure standing height and weight every three months.

If measurement takes place outside of home, replace birthday with an annual starting
point of measurements.
Appendix 5: Monitoring Growth
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Phase 3: From the Onset of Growth Spurt to Peak of Growth Spurt

Rapid growth until peak is reached.

Measure standing height, sitting height and arm span every three months.
Phase 4: Peak of Growth Spurt to Slow Deceleration

Rapid deceleration.

Measure standing height, sitting height and arm span every three months.
Phase 5: From Slow Deceleration to Cessation

Slow deceleration of growth until cessation of growth.

Measure standing height every three months.
Phase 6: Cessation

Cessation of growth.

Measure height and weight on birthday.
Further information can be found in the document: Balyi, I., and Way, R., “The Role of
Monitoring Growth in Long-Term Athlete Development”, (2009), available on the
www.canadiansportforlife.ca website
Appendix 5: Monitoring Growth
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APPENDIX SIX – OPTIMUM TRAINABILITY
Figure: Schematic summarising Optimal Trainability (modified after Balyi, Devlin, Lauzière, Moore and Way, 2006)
Appendix 6: Optimum Trainability
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APPENDIX SEVEN – RECOVERY AND REGENERATION
The main role of recovery is to help athletes adapt faster to training. In order to maximise the
receptivity of athletes to the training effort, it is important for them to begin any training
session or event in a non-fatigued state. In order to ensure effective training, recovery is as
important as the training effort. This is true at all LTPD stages. In order to ensure sufficient
recovery the athlete must be able to monitor and manage their recovery.
The type and amount of recovery an athlete needs depends on the type and amount of fatigue
they experience. A brief summary of the various types of fatigue are as follows:
Metabolic Fatigue (energy stores)

As an example, the athlete fatigues sooner than is normal for that athlete
Neurological Fatigue (nervous system) and Peripheral Nervous System Fatigue (muscles)

The athlete suffers from reduced localised force production e.g. reduced acceleration,
poor technique, etc.
Neurological Fatigue (nervous system) and Central Nervous System Fatigue (brain)

The athlete exhibits a lack of drive and displays lack of motivation
Psychological Fatigue (emotional, social, cultural)

The athlete loses self-confidence or self-esteem, and their quality of sleep is poor
This is a brief overview of the importance of recover and regeneration. A fuller account,
including specific guidelines for all LTPD stages can be found in Calder’s, “Recover and
Regeneration for Long-Term Athlete Development” article.
Appendix 7: Recovery and Regeneration
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APPENDIX EIGHT – PERIODISATION
Periodisation is time management applied to training. As a planning technique, it provides the framework for arranging the complex
array of training processes into a logical and scientifically-based schedule to bring about optimal improvements in performance.
Periodisation sequences the training and competition components into months, weeks, days and sessions. It is situation specific
depending upon priorities and the time available to bring about the required training and competition improvement. Longer term
planning involving the training/competition year and multiples of years is required in order to truly formulate a logical and
sequenced overall activity/sports experience (“Cross-Country Skiing – A Sport for Life”, 2007). In the LTPD context, periodisation
connects the stage the orienteer is in to the requirements of that stage. It is therefore an essential component of optimal sports
programming and athlete development at all levels.
Single, double, triple, and multiple periodisation formats follow the same principles with frequently introduced prophylactic breaks,
i.e. programmed and prioritised recovery and regeneration components. The terminology that describes the smaller subsets of time
— organised blocks of training or competition — is macro, meso, and micro cycles.
Macro cycles are the largest blocks within a phase of training and are usually 8 to 16 weeks in length and culminate in a desired peak
performance for a chosen event.
Meso cycles are smaller blocks of time, usually about a month, within the macro cycle. It is defined by the number of micro cycles
contained therein. Typically the Meso cycle will involve a load, overload and recover pattern in 3 or 4 micro cycles.
The micro cycle is the smallest training block and is usually 7 days out of convenience, coinciding with 1 week. The introduction of a
recovery micro cycle determines the length of a meso cycle after 1 (1:1), 2 (2:1), 3 (3:1) or 4 (4:1) loading micro cycles. The phases of
an annual plan for a single or double periodisation are listed below as an example.
Different stages in athlete development require different degrees of periodisation. And Participants involved in multiple sporting
codes will need customised annual periodisation plans taking into consideration the competitions where the athlete needs to peak,
and ensuring sufficient recovery is planned during the year.
Appendix 8: Periodisation
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Developing a periodised plan can be assisted with further reading (e.g. McNeill, 2010) and the use of the Polar training plan
downloadable from the resources section of the SAOF website (www.orienteering.co.za - with permission and acknowledgement to
Polar SA)
Five Phases of a Single Periodised Annual Plan
General Preparation Phase (GPP)
Specific Preparation Phase (SPP)
Pre-Competition Phase (PCP)
Competition Phase - Peak (CP)
Transition Phase (TP)
Eight Phases of a Double Periodised Annual Plan
General Preparation Phase (GPP)
Specific Preparation Phase (SPP) 1
Pre-Competition Phase (PCP) 1
Competition Phase (CP) 1 - Peak One
Specific Preparation Phase (SPP) 2
Pre-Competition Phase (PCP) 2
Competition Phase (CP) 2 - Peak Two
Transition Phase (TP)
Appendix 8: Periodisation
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110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
Figure 8.1: Illustration of an annual 3 cycle periodisation plan.
Figure 8.1 contains an example of an annual training plan based on the 2010 orienteering year in South Africa (Intensity – line,
volume – bars). The scale for volume (bars) is not defined, but is indicative of training hours. The scale for intensity (line) is on the
left of the plot and relates to the percentage of training that is above lactate
threshold. This is discussed further in Figure 8.2. Performance Peaks in the
above training plan were targeted for Provincial Championships in week 29,
World Championships in week 40 and National Championships in week 47.
Figure 8.2: 16 week Macro cycle with 3 week meso-cycles.
Bar colours reflect percent of maximum heart rate.
Appendix 8: Periodisation
The example is based on a 4 week meso-cycle and a significant taper before
each peak. The year starts with a 14 week base training phase (General
Preparation Phase) building basic fitness. The base phase is also based on a 4
week meso-cycle with very low intensity building slowly across the phase. The
volume is dependent on the athlete involved. The example above has a very
low volume. Intensity peaks at weeks 29, 40 and 47 correspond with training
volume minima and peak performance corresponding to Provincial
Championships, World Championships and National Championships for the
2010 calendar year. Each year and each Participant would develop their own
annual plan based on their goals. Their cross-training plans (i.e. other sports
for which they have goals) and their training volume commitment (i.e. time
available to train) will dictate the specifics of their periodisation plan.
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contains a more detailed look at an example 16-week macro-cycle. In this example there is a 10 hour maximum weekly training
volume in week 11. The rest of the weeks are scaled to that week to enable a performance peak at the end of week 16. Within this
cycle there are a number of three week meso-cycles based on a load week, an overload week and a recovery week, with a maximum
of 10% increase in training volume week to week. In this example the meso-cycles all follow the pattern of a two week increase in
volume, followed by a third week at a reduced volume for recovery. A 4 week cycle would be equally effective with 3 weeks of
increasing training before a reduced week for recovery. The 16 week cycle has an increasing proportion of training at high (above
lactate threshold) intensity levels as the cycle progresses. This is analogous to the increased intensity shown in Figure 8.1. The final
3 week meso-cycle is a taper cycle where the overall training volume drops dramatically, but the percentage of training at elevated
heart rates continues to rise, i.e. the training intensity peaks to correspond to the peak performance.
(Acknowledgement to Polar HRM for the macro cycle computer program, available from Polar SA or www.orienteering.co.za
resources section).
Figure 8.3: The supercompensation effect.
Adaptation is based on the super compensation or training effect illustrated in Figure 8.3
(Calder, 2009) Error! Reference source not found.. When the body is loaded it experiences
fatigue and is broken down. The body then reacts during recovery by building itself up to a
higher level than before the training in anticipation of another load, in this case the next
training session. Recovery is essential in the training to allow for super compensation to occur.
There are many techniques to facilitate accelerated recovery, but by far the best one is rest.
Each participant will need a different recovery time before the next session.
am
pm
M
X
F
Tu
T
F
W
X
F
Th
T
F
F
X
x
Sa
T
F
Su
F
F
Table 1. Micro-cycle for 1 weeks training
Table 1 contains an example of a micro-cycle, illustrating the training schedule for a single week. Each day has two potential
sessions with T referring to a technical session and F referring to a fitness session. The X’s represent rest sessions. The rest day is
very important allowing the participant to recover and ensure that overtraining is avoided. A pattern of hard day easy day is
Appendix 8: Periodisation
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followed to ensure sufficient recovery before the following hard session. Typically a mini-taper can be applied in the later part of the
week where there is an event on the weekend. This ensures that athletes can perform without heavy legs, even though the event is
not the one chosen for the peak performance, (i.e. rest day Friday). In reality the rest day will be a function of the other
commitments an orienteer has and may vary from week to week. It is however essentially that one or two rest days per Micro-cycle
are included in the orienteer’s training schedule.
The Annual and macro-cycles of elite squad members is fairly predictable with likely peaks for provincial, national and world
championship events. The administrators responsible for the calendar must keep this in mind and ensure sufficient time between
events that a suitable macro cycle can be developed that will enable a performance peak at the important championship events (see
Appendix 3). A 12 or 16 week macro cycle should be used for the first cycle in the annual plan, and a minimum of 9 weeks should be
provided for a second and/or third macro cycle in the year.
Finally a rest/recover period should be built into the calendar to allow the athlete to recover prior to the next competitive year and
the beginning of the following year’s annual plan. The format of a Competition Calendar that takes these factors into account is
discussed in Appendix 3 (Competition Guidelines).
Multiple Sport Periodisation
In South Africa where orienteering is not considered a major school sport, many of the competitors participate in additional sports.
It is therefore necessary for the coach to develop a multiple periodised plan based on the event calendar for both sports. A typical
example is cross-country running, which is complementary with Orienteering. In Gauteng this is illustrated in that the schools
orienteering league is scheduled for the first school term, which is therefore a build-up for the cross-country season, which takes
place in the second term.
A schematic overview of periodisation for the different LTPD stages is presented below.
Appendix 8: Periodisation
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Figure: Schematic summarising Periodisation in the Orienteering specific LTPD model.
Appendix 8: Periodisation
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APPENDIX NINE – GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Adaptation: A response to a stimulus or a series of stimuli that induces functional and/or
morphological changes in the organism. Naturally, the level or degree of adaptation is
dependent upon the genetic endowment of an individual. However, the general trends or
patterns of adaptation are identified by physiological research, and guidelines are clearly
delineated of the various adaptation processes, such as adaptation to muscular endurance or
maximum strength.
Aerobic Capacity: the total amount of energy that one can produce aerobically in the presence
of oxygen. This is usually synonymous with endurance, which is the ability to perform at a high
level for many tens of minutes.
Aerobic Power: the rate at which energy can be produced aerobically. This will tend to
influence maximal effort events or repetitions lasting in the range of two to eight minutes. It
should also be realised that ‘anaerobic’ processes are heavily involved in such power
outputs/performance levels
Anaerobic Alactic Capacity: the total amount of energy that one can produce without the
presence of oxygen. The metabolic pathways involved have the ability to produce high power
outputs in the 45 second to two minute range.
Anaerobic Alactic Power: the rate at which energy can be produced by the ATP-CP system: it is
maximal effort and can only be sustained for short bursts, i.e. 0-8sec.
Ancillary capacities: the knowledge and experience base of an participant, including warm-up
and cool-down procedures, stretching, nutrition, hydration, rest, recovery, restoration,
regeneration, mental preparation, and taper and peak. The more knowledgeable participants
are about these training and performance factors, the more their training and performance
levels will be enhanced.
Bounding: the simplest form of jumps training, consisting of low amplitude work using mostly
ankles with very little knee or hip involvement.
Childhood: A time period from the end of infancy (the first birthday) to the onset of puberty
which is characterized by relatively steady progress in growth and maturation and rapid
progress in neuromuscular or motor development. This time period is often divided into early
childhood (which includes preschool children aged one to five years), and late childhood (which
includes children aged six through to the onset of puberty).
Competition: The period of time when all components of an athlete's training are successfully
integrated in to achieve excellence.
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Development: The passage toward, or percentage of maturity achieved, of various traits
including social, emotional, intellectual, physical and motor qualities.
Growth and Maturation: The terms “growth” and “maturation” are often used together and
sometimes synonymously. However, each refers to specific biological activities. Growth refers
to “observable, step-by-step, measurable changes in body size such as height, weight, and
percentage of body fat.” Maturation refers to “qualitative system changes, both structural and
functional in nature, in the organism’s progress toward maturity; for example, the change of
cartilage to bone in the skeleton.”
Participant: One can participate in recreation and/or physical activities and in sport as a
recreational or competitive athlete.
Peak Height Velocity (PHV): The maximum rate of growth in stature during growth spurt. The
age of maximum velocity of growth is called the age at PHV.
Periodisation: is structuring of short and long-term training, competition and recovery periods
to provide optimum performances at a given date.



Single peak refers to one preparatory and one competition period within the year
Double peak refers to two preparatory and two competition periods within the year
Multiple peak refers to competing all year round while maintaining physical and
technical skills
Physical Literacy: is the mastery of fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills.
“A physically literate person moves with poise, economy and confidence in a wide variety of
physically challenging situations, is perceptive in reading all aspects of the physical
environment, anticipates movement needs or possibilities and responds appropriately with
intelligence and imagination” (Whitehead, 2001)
Puberty: The phase of growth that begins with onset of hormonal changes in the reproductive
system and ends with sexual maturity.
Readiness: refers to the level of growth, maturity, and development that enables a child to
perform tasks and meet demands through training and competition. Readiness and optimal
periods of trainability during growth and development of young participants are also referred to
as the correct time for the programming of certain stimuli to achieve optimum adaptation with
regard to motor skills, muscular and/or aerobic power.
Specialisation: refers to athletes who are limiting their athletic participation to one sport which
is practiced, trained for, and competed in throughout the year
Trainability: refers to the genetic endowment of athletes as they respond individually to specific
stimuli and adapt to it accordingly. Malina and Bouchard (1991) defined trainability as “the
responsiveness of developing individuals at different stages of growth and maturation to the
training stimulus.”
Appendix 9: Glossary of Terms
94