“USA/USSR: The Cold War –Rivalry for Global Supremacy: 1945-1962”
(GF pages 170-183)
Background of the Cold War
USSR excluded from the Allied Control Council after the liberation of Italy (set a
precedent for future of country dependent upon who the army of occupation was- and
the USSR was ready to move into a number of E. European countries.
Conferences over future of Europe after Germany was defeatedMoscow (Oct. 43) - Churchill visits Moscow – Britain should have a predominant interest
in Greece and the USSR in Romania & Bulgaria
Teheran (Iran) (Nov. 43) - Churchill, Roosevelt & Stalin plans for post-war Germany
discussed, including partitioning of the country, as well as war strategy. Britain &
America assure Stalin re: his objectives in Central Europe after the war (although
nothing specific is promised). The 3 powers also agree to take part in a new
organization to replace the League of Nations.
Yalta- (Feb.45)- most important conference among the 3 main allies; a difference of
opinion appeared among the Allies re: the future of Germany; agreement on the fact
that Germany should be disarmed and demilitarized, but Stalin wanted to permanently
divide Germany into smaller states and lose 80% of her heavy industry and pay $20
billion in reparations; Churchill could see Germany partitioned (cut in two) but wanted
less harsh reparations (didn’t want to repeat what happened after WWI); the long-term
plan was left undecided; the short-term plan was the military occupation of Germany,
one occupation zone for each Allied Great Power, each with a commander-in-chief who
would together form an Allied Control Council over all Germany. Berlin, although part
of the USSR’s sector, was also to be divided into sectors for occupation (Britain, France,
US, and USSR); at Yalta, the stalemate over the future of Poland continued. They also
affirmed that the peoples in the liberated Europe have the choice of the form of
government under which they would live.
Potsdam (July 45)- Germany had surrendered and occupation plans had come into
operation (Roosevelt had died and had been replaced by Harry Truman; Churchill was
succeeded as PM by Clement Atlee; no more was said re: the partitioning of Germany,
but the Allied powers were still at odds over the issue of reparations.
Nazism was to be rooted out and German political recovery was to be guided along
democratic lines. Eventually the policies of the USSR and Western Allies became very
divergent and 4 power collaboration was unattainable. The Russians treated their
sector as a closed communist preserve, using it to collect reparations, food. The
western sectors ceased any demand for reparations in order to foster economic
recovery and stability to pave the way for democracy. The US and Britain merged their
two zones for economic purposes in 1947 and France’s zone was added the next year.
Plans were made for a federal German government of the three zones. West Germany
made dramatic economic improvement.
Winston Churchill seeing the Stalin’s plans to establish a protective ring of communistrun states in Eastern Europe spoke of an Iron Curtain descending upon the western
democracies and separating East (Communist Bloc) and West (Democratic Bloc).
The Polish Question
A major area of disagreement between the USSR and the West was over the political
future of Poland. Many government leaders had, at the outset of the war, fled to
Britain for asylum. When the war ended, Britain supported this group as the rightful
government of Poland. Stalin, however, had established a puppet government in Lublin
which he supported and had recognized in January 1945. This state was characterized
by dictatorial methods of rule with great restriction on personal liberty and democratic
and social/religious rights. Stalin had also established the western boundary of Poland
at the Oder-Neisse Line forcing the relocation of 6-9 million Germans. Although the
West objected, they were not prepared to force a confrontation with Stalin and his will
prevailed in Poland.
Confrontation
The first serious confrontation between the Soviets and Americans was in Iran (which
had been occupied by both British and Soviet troops during the war to guarantee access
to needed oil. The agreement had been that they would withdraw within 6 months of
the war’s end. The Soviet troops did not do this. They supported a communist revolt in
the northern province of Azerbaijan. The Soviets withdrew under strong diplomatic
pressure.
The second confrontation was in 1945-46 in Turkey (which had remained neutral
throughout the war). Because of Turkey’s strategic location between the Black Sea and
Mediterranean, the USSR tried to persuade Turkey to give them access (control) of the
trade routes in Turkey. When they declined, the Soviets sent in large numbers of
troops. The Americans responded (as Turkey had long been considered part of the
Western sphere of influence) by sending a military presence of their own- as well as a
reminder of their sole possession of nuclear weapons. The Soviets backed down and
Western domination of the eastern Mediterranean continued.
A third crisis was in Greece (also part of the Western sphere). Britain in a wartime
agreement with the USSR (in exchange for Soviet domination of Romania) was expecting
to fulfil the role of protector. They backed the Royalist government of Greece; but the
gov’t was threatened by communist insurgents from northern Greece. Britain could not
afford to maintain their presence in Greece. The US declined to help (continuing their
isolationist foreign policy). The UN Security Council was unable to take action as the
Soviets exercised their veto power. When Britain proclaimed that they would be
leaving at the end of March, 1947, President Truman appealed to the US Congress asking
it to authorize the spending of $400 million in Greece and Turkey. This resulted in the
enactment of the Truman Doctrine stating that the US must adopt a policy “to support
free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.”
The US left isolationist foreign policy in favor of a policy of the containment of
Communist expansion.
De-nazification
One policy that East and West agreed upon was the need to rid Germany of all elements
of Nazism. They disagreed, however, on the methods by which to do this. See p. 174
to compare their methods which serve to illustrate the difference between political
methods employed by the Soviets and the Western democracies.
The Marshall Plan
A second means by which the US planned to contain communist expansion was through
economic assistance to aid the nations of Europe in their reconstruction after the war.
In June of 1947, Secretary of State George Marshall announced an American plan aimed
at providing funds to the countries of Europe so that they could avoid the economic
turmoil experienced in Europe after WWI and instead prosper and benefit under a more
democratic system of government. By doing this Marshall believed that they would be
less likely to be influenced or drawn into the Soviet sphere of influence. Stalin forbade
participation by Eastern bloc countries. This resulted in a great gap in standard of
living between Eastern and Western Europe, a source of irritation in the emerging Cold
War. The Marshall Plan also proved to be of benefit to the US domestically as it
contributed to the boom period that followed the war. The strengthened European
nations could enter into trade relations with the US.
Czechoslovakian Crisis
In 1948 another crisis emerged. While the Communists won the election in 1946, they
only had 38% of the votes so both the Prime Minister, Gottwald, and the President,
Eduard Benes, was communist. Neither was the foreign minister, Jan Masaryk.
Czechoslovakia wanted Marshall Plan assistance, but Stalin had refused to allow it. In
February, 1948, the communists seized complete control of the government. Benes was
removed from office and Masaryk was found dead, with the Communists describing his
apparent murder as a suicide. The communist coup left no doubt that the USSR
intended to secure control of Eastern Europe. The Marshall Plan was thus extended in
March 1948.
Berlin Blockade
The most serious crisis between East and West came over the Soviet move to block rail
and road access by the West to West Berlin. But the West did have guaranteed air
access so a huge airlift was launched at great cost, bringing in required supplies (food,
coal…) in order to sustain the people in the western portion of Berlin. Stalin had hoped
to pressure the West into leaving Berlin to prevent starvation of the people there. The
gap between the resurgent western part of Germany and the economic poverty (in much
part due to the Soviet extraction of reparations and resources after the war) in the
eastern part of Germany. The Americans put B-29 bombers in Britain, once again
warning the Soviets of their nuclear capabilities. The Soviets found the endeavour (the
blockade) to be an expensive one, and after approximately 11 months lifted it on May
12th, 1949. The next month West Germany was declared to be the Federal Republic of
Germany (a recognition of the fact that the two Germanies were not to be reunited.
NATO
The Czechoslovakian coup and the Berlin blockade provided the motivation for the US to
recognize the fact that their commitment to Europe needed to be broadened from the
diplomatic presence of the Truman Doctrine, the economic presence of the Marshall
Plan, to a military presence as well- all three of which were designed to enable their
containment policy.. To that end they joined with the existing regional alliance of the
Brussels Pact (Treaty of Brussels, 1948, Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,
and Britain designed to pool their military capabilities in the face of Soviet aggression)
to form a new alliance. On April 4, 1949, the Brussels Pact joined with the US, plus
Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, and Canada to form the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO) whose purpose was to stand united in the face of any Soviet
expansion.
Cominform
The old Comintern (Communist International), seeing the inability of the Soviets in
spreading a world-wide communist revolution, was replaced by Cominform (Communist
Information Bureau and the economic-based Comecon and the military alliance, the
Warsaw Pact. Its purpose was to consolidate Eastern Europe under Soviet control and
to resist “Western expansionism.” The formation of the Warsaw Pact in May of 1955
(Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany),
Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union) and NATO in 1949 illustrated the everwidening rift between Western democracies (in the American sphere of influence) and
the Eastern Communist Bloc (the Soviet sphere of influence) in a cold war mentality.
(Refer to the map on page 179)
Tito in Yugoslavia
Soviet success in controlling Czechoslovakia in 1948 was a contrast to Soviet failure to
dominate Yugoslavia.
Josip Broz (known as Tito), the leader of communist partisans during WWII had actually
liberated Yugoslavia from German control (the Soviets only came in at the tail end). As
the Soviets tried to gain control of the country, a conflict emerged between Tito and
Stalin. Stalin would not accept Tito as an equal nor Yugoslavia as an independent
communist nation with its own domestic and foreign policy. The people of Yugoslavia
were strong supporters of Tito and the relative isolated geography of Yugoslavia made it
difficult to control for the Soviets.
On June 28, 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled form Cominform and Stalin imposed
economic sanctions against Yugoslavia, resulting in food shortages and rising prices. But
Western help and American aid were extended with no strings attached
Stalin learned from his failure in Yugoslavia and this knowledge helped him to deal more
effectively with the Communists in China, where Mao Zedong had successfully taken
control of the country from Chiang Kai-shek Nationalist army. While Stalin did not trust
Chinese communism, he recognized that a Sino-Soviet agreement (China-USSR) was
necessary, both to maintain trade concessions in Manchuria and to show the world a
united communist front. These events in China occurred at the same time as the
Truman administration was focusing on the threat of Communist expansion in Europe.
On Sept. 22, 1949, Truman announced that the Soviets had just exploded an atomic
bomb, ending the Western monopoly on nuclear power, and establishing a closer
balance of power between East and West. There was a growing fear in America that
the Cold War was being lost.
This fear turned to paranoia when Senator Joseph McCarthy announced that 57
members of the Department of the State in the U.S. were allegedly communists. The
resulting “Red Scare” and wave of “McCarthyism” that resulted in McCarthy looking for
a “Communist under every wood pile” was a low point in East-West relations and in
American domestic policy.
Policy NSC 68 was the most comprehensive statement of a US strategy in the Cold War.
Under its terms funds were allocated to support a massive military buildup in order to
counter communist expansion around the world. It made the US the “global police
officer” for the maintenance of democracy in the world by containing the communist
threat. But the costs of this defence spending were high and would be unpopular with
taxpayers- unless there were crises to promote the fear and create the support for high
military expenditures. The needed crisis was not long in coming.
The Korean War
See your notes from Chapter 9 for details of the Korean War. Some Key Points are
identified below
38th parallel
occupied zones after WWII
invasion of the south by North Korean troops
UN Security Council involvement
Soviet support of Communist China who became involved in the fighting
Shift of foreign policy in both the USSR and US- Stalin saw support of N. Korea as an
opportunity to consolidate communism in Asia; Truman saw it as an obligation to fulfill
his promise to the world that the US would assist in the defence of any nation
threatened by communist forces. The US made a commitment to a stronger presence in
Asia.
On Aug. 30, 1951, an American military agreement between the US and Philippines
reaffirmed American rights to have air and naval bases in the Philippines. On Sept. 1 st
the ANZUS military pact (Australia, New Zealand, and US) established the US as the
protector of those Pacific States.
In 1954 the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) brought together European
and Asian nations as the US, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, the
Republic of the Philippines, and Thailand agreed to mutual defence.
Of even greater significance was the change in the American relationship with Japan.
The US recognized Japan as a “counterweight” to the communist presence in Asia.
They began a program of capital investment and technology transfer to Japan, aiding
them in a spectacular economic recovery. They were also remilitarized in order to
enable them to defend themselves and ensure sovereignty.
The Korean War was a major influence in the rearmament of Western Europe with
increased numbers of American troops posted in Europe as part of NATO. With the
integration of West German troops into the NATO alliance, the Western Military
Defensive Alliance’s “maze of interlocking treaties was consolidated, and stood as a
bulwark against Soviet expansion in Asia as well as Europe.
The Khrushchev Era
Stalin’s death in March of 1953 left no clear successor. Georgi Malenkov became the
Soviet Prime Minister and Nikita Kruschev became the head of the Communist Party. By
1956 it seemed that Kruschev had enough support to take control of the government.
Kruschev had been instrumental in the signing of the Austrian State Treaty (1955)
which provided for the withdrawal of all Allied occupation forces from Austria as long as
Austria agreed to a neutrality policy.
De-Stalinization was one of Kruschev’s main goals- while he praised Stalin’s collectivist
and industrial policies from 1929-33, he condemned Stalin’s autocratic rule and his use
of terror.
“There are many roads to socialism.” Kruschev restated this (Lenin’s philosophy and
also the position being maintained by Tito in Yugoslavia) hoping to bring more voluntary
support of communists in all parts of the Soviet Bloc and even the communist parties in
W. Europe.
A third theme of Kruschev’s was the recognition of the growing importance of the Third
World.
The underlying principle of Kruschev’s new policy was that of “peaceful
coexistence” (the recognition that there are two different social systems and that they
could both exist (victory of world socialism through non-violent transition)
The agricultural production of the USSR had never been able to supply all the needs so
Kruschev undertook agricultural reform- subsequent failure.
Kruschev’s new foreign policy (more involvement in the Third World) disturbed the
Chinese and thus there was a weakening of the Sino-Soviet alliance.
The most significant result of Kruschev ‘s new policies was in Eastern Europe; his
softening of control over the Eastern Bloc seemed to encourage greater resistance to
Soviet control in the Eastern Bloc and with this came demands for more independence.
Polish and Hungarian Unrest
June 1956 saw labor unrest and protest riots over Soviet economic and political
domination
Moscow agreed to allow Poland greater control of its domestic affairs; Kruschev flew to
Warsaw to persuade the Polish Communists to maintain a pro-Soviet position but
leadership refused; Kruschev was considering sending in tanks but reconsidered wanting
to avoid war.
Polish nationalism had been successfully in invoking change without having to face the
Red Army; this led to more liberalization in Hungary as well.
Hungary- Bela Kun had ruled the Communist gov’t in 1919; after Hungary was liberated
from German control by the Red Army in 1945, Matyas Rakosi, a hard-line Stalinist ruled
with terror.
On October 6, 1956 demonstrations in Budapest occurred, protesting Rakosi’s abuses
The Soviets reacted and removed Rakosi form power and installed Imre Nagy as P.M. By
this time Budapest was filled with workers councils that had demands; skirmishes
resulted with Soviet troops
Hungarians wanted to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact, declare neutrality and become a
sovereign nation
On Oct. 30th, Moscow promised negotiations to support the Hungarian national
government and eventually withdraw Soviet troops from Hungary
It seemed as though the Hungarian Revolution and desires would be successfully
attained. However, as Soviet troops were leaving the country, Nagy, on Nov. 1, 1956,
declared Hungarian withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.
Soviet troops and tanks entered Hungary and the end of the revolt was rapid with as
many as 20 000 in Budapest killed and another 20 000 imprisoned
The communist Janos Kadar was installed as the new P.M.; Nagy was taken to Romania
where he was tried and executed.
This brutal suppression of the Hungarian Revolution created even greater rising
nationalism in Eastern European states; it was apparent that it was only military force,
not ideology, that kept the Warsaw Pact and Soviet bloc together- and Easter Europe
was essential to the defence of the USSR.
Because of the recognized “spheres of influence” at the time, American reaction to
Hungarian cries for help were not answered; entry into the conflict would have likely
resulted in a direct conflict between US and USSR.
Berlin: Tension Builds
10 years after the Berlin Blockade (1948) tensions once more arose in Berlin in 1958.
West Germany, governed by Konrad Adenauer, a staunch anti-Communist, contributed a
strong military contingent in NATO; West Germany was thriving (especially in contrast
to the depressed and repressed E. Germany) and over 2 million E. Germans fled to the
West by 1958, many of them the top scholars and valuable labor. (East German “brain
drain”)
E. Germany and Pankow regime
Kruschev gave an ultimatum designed to remove the “Western Showplace” of West
Berlin from the Soviet sphere (remember, W. Berlin was totally surrounded by E.
Germany and not part of W. Germany geographically)
The western allies, however, refused to budge and by March of 1959 Kruschev had to
back down. He proposed a summit meeting with President Dwight Eisenhower and they
met at Camp David in Sept. 1959. The meeting was cordial and détente seemed to be
workable as a moratorium on the Berlin question was achieved. Another summit
meeting (summit, as in a meeting of the country’s leaders) was planned for May of 1960
in Paris. It never occurred because on May 5, 1960 the Soviets announced that they had
shot down a U-2 reconnaissance plane, piloted by American Gary Powers. This “U-2
Incident” ended the détente and summitry that had the potential to settle most of the
pressing issues of the Cold War.
Eisenhower was replaced as US President by John F. Kennedy. At the Vienna summit
(1961), Khrushchev presented Kennedy with an ultimatum demanding a peace treaty
with Germany, the evacuation of troops from Berlin, and the creation of a “free city”.
He also increased the Soviet military budget by 33%. Kennedy responded by increasing
the American defense budget by $3 billion, and by doubling the US draft calls (drafting
soldiers to the US military)
On August 13, 1961 the E. German border between E and W Berlin was permanently
closed and the Berlin Wall was created. “The Berlin wall became the symbol of the
Cold War which separated Eastern and Western Europe.” (see photo p. 189)
A crisis emerged at “Checkpoint Charlie” when Soviet tanks and American tanks came
“nose to nose” from Oct. 25-27 where Khrushchev showed his ability to be tough (as did
Kennedy).
The Cuban Missile Crisis
In 1962 the hot point of the Cold War moved from Europe to the Caribbean
The relationship between the USSR and Cuba began after the fall of Batista and the rise
of Fidel Castro who had overthrown Batista in 1959, making Cuba communist.
Soviet involvement in Cuba included massive aid and military support.
The Americans were very concerned, having this Soviet presence so close to their
mainland.
The American CIA launched a series of raids on Cuba, hoping to upset the Castro
regime. The most infamous of these was the disastrous “Bay of Pigs invasion”. On April
17/61, Cuban émigrés backed by the CIA landed at the Bay of Pigs hoping to gain
control of the whole island. Utter failure and embarrassment for the Kennedy
government.
On Oct. 14/62 an American U-2 flew over Cuba and reconnaissance photos revealed
medium-range ballistic missile sites.
The next 13 days (see the movie!) brought the USSR and US to the brink of nuclear war.
US – the “hawks” wanted an air strike or invasion vs. “doves” who wanted to deal with
the crisis using diplomacy only vs. the “owls” who wanted mild military force to close
Cuba to Soviet ships.
The decision was for a US air and naval quarantine of Cuba
UN involvement involved the sec-general, U Thant, appealing to Khrushchev to suspend
arms shipments to Cuba and Kennedy to suspend the quarantine; Khrushchev accepted
this, but Kennedy refused.
On Oct. 27th Khrushchev proposed a trade of Soviet missiles in Cuba for Jupiter missiles
that the US had in Turkey. That same morning an American U-2 was shot down over
Cuba and the Americans demanded the Soviets immediately dismantle the missiles; the
Americans refused any public trade of missiles (even though the Jupiter missiles in
Turkey were obsolete and scheduled for removal anyway); but they did agree to remove
quarantine measures and promised not to invade Cuba. By this time Khrushchev had
realized how badly he had underestimated the Americans and agreed to the offered
compromise. The crisis was over.
The consequences of the crisis- Soviet missiles were removed from Cuba under UN
supervision and the US quietly dismantled their Jupiter missiles in Turkey. “One of the
lessons of the Cuban Missile Crisis, in fact, was the value of diplomacy. By allowing
an opponent to save face, once could avert disaster.” (190)
Both the Soviets and Americans realized the vulnerability of a world dominated by
nuclear weaponry and in order to avoid accidental nuclear war, established a “Hot line”
between Moscow and Washington.
The also signed the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963) (as did Britain) banning nuclear tests
in the atmosphere, under water, and in space.
1963 began a détente between the US and USSR.
See summary page 191.