Anatomy & Physiology Midterm Study Guide
Chapter One
1. Define anatomy and physiology, and explain why it a good idea to study anatomy & physiology together.
2. Describe the six levels of organization.
3. Describe anatomical position and explain why it is used.
4. Use directional terminology to describe relative locations on the body (for example, the nose is inferior to the forehead).
Know the difference between anterior and posterior, dorsal and ventral, superior and inferior, medial and lateral, proximal
and distal, and superficial and deep.
5. Describe or recognize the three different types of cross-sections.
6. Use the 38 regional terms to identify locations on the body.
7. Identify areas using a combination of directional and regional terminology (for example, name the region of the body distal to
the carpal area).
8. Identify the locations of the four major body cavities, and know what organs they contain.
9. Define homeostasis.
10. Explain and give an example of a negative feedback mechanism in the body.
11. Explain and give an example of a positive feedback mechanism in the body.
12. Define the following terms as they relate to homeostasis, and be able to identify them when a feedback mechanism is
described: variable, receptor, control center, effector, target
13. Be able to identify the primary functions of the eleven primary organ systems.
Chapter Three
14. Describe the function, basic characteristics, and locations of each of the four tissue types.
15. Given an image of slide of a very straightforward characteristic example, be able to identify what tissue type is shown.
16. Be able to classify a straightforward example slide image of epithelial tissue (for example, stratified cuboidal).
17. Know the five types of connective tissue.
18. Know the three types of muscle tissue.
19. Know the two types of nervous tissue.
Chapter Four
20. What is the function of membranes?
21. Name the four types of membranes, and describe their structure, function, and location.
22. Explain the difference between visceral and parietal serosa.
23. What is included in the term “integument”?
24. What are the functions of skin?
25. Where is the hypodermis, and what is its function? Is it part of the skin?
26. Describe the two layers of the dermis and what is found in each (including Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, pain
receptors, glands, and capillaries).
27. Describe the epidermis.
28. Describe the function of the four skin proteins we discussed (keratin, collagen, elastin, melanin).
29. Describe the function of the sebaceous glands.
30. Describe the location & function of the two types of sudoriferous glands.
31. Describe the structure of hair.
32. Describe the function of erector pili.
33. Be able to identify any of the information from questions 25, 26 and 29-32 on a diagram.
34. Explain the phases of hair growth.
35. What are fingernails made of?
36. What is the difference between first, second, and third degree burns?
37. Describe the effects and causes of the following skin disorders: albinism, vitiligo, acne
38. Explain the ABCD’s of skin cancer.
39. Give examples of fungal infections of the skin.
Chapter Five
40. What is the function of the skeletal system?
41. What is the difference between the axial and appendicular skeleton?
42. Describe the four types of bones.
43. Describe the structure of a long bone, including the epiphysis, diaphysis, medullary cavity, red marrow, yellow marrow,
compact bone, and spongy bone.
44. Describe the structure of compact bone, including osteons, osteocytes, lamellae, lacunae, Haversian canals, and Volkmann’s
canals. Be able to recognize them in a diagram.
45. Describe the structure of spongy bone, including trebeculae and red bone marrow.
46. What is the function of red bone marrow?
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55.
Explain the difference between chondrocytes, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.
Describe the process of bone formation.
What is the importance of the epiphyseal plate?
Why are bones remodeled continuously?
Explain the process of bone repair including the hematoma, fibrocartilaginous cartilage, bony callus, and remodeling.
Describe and give examples of the structural and functional classifications of joints.
What four things are always part of the structure of synovial joints? Be able to recognize them in a diagram.
Given a joint, be able to identify what type of synovial joint it is.
Be able to identify the following bones on a skeleton: cranium, clavicle, scapula, sternum, rib, humerus, vertebra, coccyx,
sacrum, coxal bone, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, talus,
calcaneus, frontal bone, parietal bone, temporal bone, maxilla, mandible, zygomatic bone, occipital bone
56. Describe the following disorders and identify their causes: osteoporosis, rickets, scoliosis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis,
bursitis.
Chapter Six
57. Describe the function of the muscular system.
58. Explain the differences between the three types of muscle tissue.
59. What is the difference between a tendon and a ligament?
60. Describe the structure of skeletal muscle, including the epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, sarcolemma, endomysium,
myofibrils, sarcomeres, actin, and myosin. (I eliminated the Z line, A zone, etc.) Be able to recognize them in a diagram.
61. Describe the steps of a muscle contraction and relaxation in detail (should include acetylcholine, action potential, calcium,
tropomyosin, troponin complex, the sliding filament theory, acetylcholinesterase, and ATP).
62. What is the difference between twitch and tetanus?
63. What are three ways of powering muscle contractions, and which is most long lasting?
64. What is aerobic exercise and how is it beneficial?
65. What is anaerobic exercise and how is it beneficial?
66. What is the difference between isometric and isotonic muscle contractions?
67. What are the origin and insertion?
68. Describe how prime movers, antagonists, and synergists work together to move your bones.
69. Describe (or be able to recognize) the following muscle movements: flexion, extension, circumduction, rotation, abduction,
adduction
70. Explain how muscles are named.
71. What is an aponeurosis?
72. Identify the following muscles: trapezius, deltoid, pectoralis major, biceps brachii, triceps brachii, brachioradialis, gluteus
maximus, quadriceps, lattisimus dorsi, rectus abdominus, oblique, and gastrocnemius
Chapter 7
1. Describe the functions of the nervous system.
2. How does the nervous system differ from the endocrine system?
3. Describe the two major divisions of the nervous system.
4. Describe the two major divisions of the peripheral nervous system.
5. Describe the two major divisions of the efferent division of the peripheral nervous system.
6. Describe the organization of the autonomic division, and characterize activities as belonging to one division or the other (for
example, digestion is parasympathetic).
7. Describe the structure and function of a neuron.
8. Name and give the function of the four types of neuroglia in the CNS.
9. Name and give the function of the two types of neuroglia in the PNS.
10. What is the purpose of the blood-brain barrier?
11. Know the difference between nuclei, ganglia, tracts, and nerves.
12. Describe the three ways of classifying a neuron structurally.
13. Describe the three ways of classifying a neuron functionally.
14. Why do many reflex arcs of the limbs rely only on the spinal cord and bypass the brain?
15. Describe the steps of an action potential in detail, including both synaptic and axonal transmission. You should include the
roles of calcium, sodium, potassium, sodium-potassium pumps, neurotransmitters such as dopamine and acetylcholine, and
how the terms presynaptic neuron, post-synaptic neuron, inhibition, activation, depolarization, and repolarization relate.
16. Why is nerve transmission considered electrochemical?
17. Explain the difference in neural transmission between myelinated and unmyelinated neurons.
18. Locate and describe the function of the following parts of the brain: cerebrum, cerebellum, corpus callosum, brain stem,
thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary, meninges, frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, hippocampus, auditory
cortex, motor cortex, visual cortex, Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, hippocampus, amygdala
19. What are gyri and sulci?
20. What is the difference between gray matter and white matter in the brain?
21. What is a stroke and what causes it?
22. Explain the causes and effects of Alzheimer’s disease.
Chapter 8
23. Identify the location and function of the external eye structures (lacrimal glands, six muscles).
24. Describe the three layers of the eyeball, and be able to identify the following parts on a diagram: sclera, cornea, iris, pupil,
aqueous humor, lens, ciliary bodies, choroid, retina, vitreous humor, optic nerve.
25. Explain the function of rods and cones and describe where they are most concentrated.
26. Explain why we have a blind spot.
27. Describe how images are perceived on the retina.
28. What are the optic tracts and the optic chiasma?
29. How do we determine depth?
30. Explain the causes and effects of the following eye disorders: myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, glaucoma, cataracts, color
blindness, astigmatism.
31. Identify structures of the outer ear and describe their functions.
32. Identify structures of the middle ear and describe their functions.
33. Identify structures of the inner ear and describe their functions.
34. Explain the steps that occur when people hear.
35. Explain how we sense the positions of our heads.
36. Explain how we sense acceleration.
37. Explain what causes an ear infection.
38. Explain some common causes of hearing damage.
39. Explain how olfaction occurs.
40. Explain how tasting occurs.
41. Describe the five types of taste receptors and identify the chemicals each responds to.
Chapter 9
42. Explain the function of the endocrine system.
43. Identify the locations of the major endocrine glands and name the hormones produced by them.
44. What are target cells and target organs?
45. Explain the difference between the function of steroidal and nonsteroidal hormones.
46. Explain how negative feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis.
47. Describe the three mechanisms by which endocrine glands are stimulated.
48. Identify the functions of the following hormones: GH, ADH, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, catecholamines.
49. Explain how TSH, T3, & T4 maintain homeostatic balance of body temperature and energy levels.
50. Explain the causes of dwarfism, gigantism, acromegaly, goiter, Graves disease, and diabetes.
51. Explain how calcitonin and PTH regulate homeostasis of blood calcium levels.
52. Explain how ACTH, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, epinephrine, and norepinephrine regulate fight-or-flight response.
53. Explain how insulin, glucagon, and the liver regulate homeostasis of glucose and glycogen.