Employability of Young Rural Women
Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Corporate Secretary
Kalinangan Youth Foundation Incorporated
E-mail: charisma_castro@yahoo.com ; chinky_castro@hotmail.com
Abstract
United Nations Estimates (2002) records that there are 510 million young
women and one person in five is between the ages of 15-24 years old. Majority of
these young people- 85% live in the developing countries – 60% of them are in
Asia. A reason for this rests in the irrelevance of the educational and training
systems to the manpower demand and in the ill adaptiveness of the formal school
to the world of work.
Studies have shown that women have been largely “invisibilized” by labour
force statistics and thus there is a need to improve the data base on their
participation in labor. A policy gap also exists in the way the government seldom
integrates the concerns and interest of women into mainstream development
policies, The problem of youth unemployment particularly young women
unemployment is of special interest because this problem if left to its own will
pose a threat to the smooth development of the nation as a whole.
This paper on young rural women is anchored on the following hypotheses:
1) The type of employment that young rural women will take on will be
determined by the skills, competencies and knowledge that they have 2) The
employability status of these women is affected by the accessibility of programs
offered by government and non-government organizations 3) The demands of the
labor market will affect the type of employment of these women.
A combination of the survey and personal observation methods were used in
this study. The survey method was used to gather data to answer the following
question: what is the correlation between knowledge, skills , attitudes and
educational attainment of young rural women to their employability or nonemployability status. Descriptive statistics, chi square and Logistic regression
were used to determine the relationship between the variables.
Keywords：Employability, Youth Unemployment, Young rural women
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Introduction
A concern faced by the three major actors of industrial relations is the issue of
unemployment. The three actors identified by John Dunlop’s Systems Theory, employermanagement, labor – organized and unorganized and government are confronted by this
problem. Many studies have shown that this phenomenon had resulted from the economic
changes brought about by globalization and liberalization.
The problem of unemployment had been more extensively felt by young people. To
respond to this growing concern, international organizations such as the International Labor
Organization (ILO) have been pioneering extensive studies on it. They had recently
reported that the unemployed youth as of August 2004 comprised 47% of the total 186
million people out of work worldwide in 2003. Global Employment Trends for Youth 2004
also found that rising worldwide unemployment had hit young people hard, especially
young women. Youth unemployment if not heeded can threaten industrial peace and will
pose an obstacle to development.
In addition to ILO’s agencies other international bodies like the UN Youth
Employment Network, World Bank have identified the growing challenge of youth
unemployment as an important area of study. Trade unions have also shown interest as
these young people are the future members of these organizations. They have recommended
that diverse partners at the global, national and local scenes must collaborate for workable
solutions. Considering that unemployment is highest among young people especially young
women in rural communities it is therefore imperative to look into their employability
status.
Getting an insight into their employability status will help specify the ways on how the
three actors can effectively cooperate to alleviate this problem.
The study is limited to the young rural women ages 15-30 years old from the
municipality of Munoz, Nueva Ecija. It is an appropriate area of study because it is a rural
farming community. It covered 195 respondents of employed and unemployed young
women. Time, budget and incomplete listing of all the young rural women in the
municipality limited the choices for the sample population. The survey questionnaires were
administered within a limited time frame.
The paper focused on one industrial relations actor- the young rural women and their
employability status. It is a perception study on employability and the perspective is that of
labor. Findings may be confined to the municipality and may not generalize cases of other
rural communities because of the differences in circumstances.
Employability of Women
The subject of women and the labor market have received considerable attention in the
last decade especially from those directly concerned with the policy implications of a
“gendered” labor force.
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In a study on Global Perspectives Greve (2000) noted that women were more affected
by heightened technological and economic change.
Globalization and the WTO have affected the status of women and their employment
rates. Many found jobs in the formal sector but a majority have increasingly turned to work
in the informal sector. These women were not covered by a comprehensive labor
legislation. This finding was substantiated by Aganon (2000) that women were usually
confronted with: lack of capital, lack of technology, low productivity, too much
competition, harassment from police authorities, lack of help and child care facilities, lack
of basic services and domestic violence. A combination of factors in the macro and micro
economic environment contributed to this situation. Women in general have no job
security. Mangahas (1989 as cited in Aganon, 2000) reported that most of these females
were young and had no work experience. Some were engaged in work that were a
mismatch for their skills. The informal sector as reported in a UN study (1991) has been
seen as essential for the economic survival of women. Smaller enterprises tended to be
more feminized and women were recruited more extensively than men into more casual
forms of labor- short term labor, disguised wage work (Tham Rin 2000). Brigham (2001)
also posited that the employability of young women had become increasingly important but
traditional socialization placed their career development at a lower priority especially for
poor and working class families.
Women’s concerns have largely been ignored in national and international programs.
While men’s work consisted of paid time in the market, women’s traditional work consists
of unpaid, non market work which national censuses did not usually report as economically
gainful ( dela Torre 1991). The UN study reported that governments gave little or no
support to activities which women predominated notably in the informal sector or in
subsistence agriculture. Usually, the household became the major center of work for
women. Normally, within the family household, power and authority rested on the men
such that the national figure for male-headed households was much higher than those for
many parts of Asia (UNDP 1996). Statistics usually counted the men automatically as the
head, Illo (1997) noted even if the house were jointly managed, or it is the woman who is
the breadwinner. Women only became household heads and thus figured in statistics upon
the demise of their spouses. In the country, women’s employment improved during the
time of President Corazon Aquino, with the opening up of the export processing zones
nationwide. Women’s participation in work was favored especially in the electronics
industries (Aganon: 2000).
Labor Force Participation of Women
The ILO report on Global Employment Trends for Women (March 2004) stated that
more women were working and they comprised 1.1B of the world’s 2.8 B workers noting
an increase of 40% for the past ten years. The woman’s desire for work here and abroad
and other reasons brought about by individual concerns and culture have been the cause of
the rising entry of women into the labor force. These observations of Ofreneo (1986),
Marquez (1959) and Lee (2004-) were highly noticeable. Although available statistics
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showed that men have higher labor participation rates, the entry to the workforce of women
was rising because of this need. This was prompted by an awakening of a strong economic
sense in them. ILO’s World Employment Report cited by Greve (2000) stated that “any
strategy to build a competitive and highly- skilled workforce in today’s economy required
attention to ensuring the access of women to education and training”. However, they still
faced higher unemployment rates, received lower wages than men and represented 60% of
the world’s working poor. Their participation in the labor force was subordinated to the
prevailing family system.
Amante (2001) reported that the skilled workforce in the Philippines was
predominantly a male world. Generally, women experienced discrimination and have lower
average earnings than men. The reasons included shorter working hours and concentration
of women workers in low productive occupations ( Jian Li and Zhao 2004; Jamieson 2004;
Ishii 2004; Choi 2004 and Amante 2001). Kochan (2004) added that policies and labor
markets should be made more equitable for them especially in Asian countries.
National statistics taken in October 2003 showed that labor force participation rate of
women was registered at 50.9% while that of men was at 83.4% .Unemployment rate of
women was 10.3% while that of men was 10% for the same reference period. The
employed women were mostly laborers and unskilled workers. This figure showed explain
the need for skills formation in them. Some women workers employed in labor intensive
industries were hired because of experience but many of them had no formal education. In
regions which did not have a concentration of industrial firms, more female children
dropped out of school to assume housework duties as reported by Amante (2001). It is not
merely a problem of unemployment but also of irregular, insecure, unstable and
discontinuous employment, low wages and productivity and hence of poverty.
Thamarajakshi and Amante both believed that a greater part of the contribution of women
in developing societies went unrecorded statistically. This pulled down the female
participation rates in these societies which were already lower than those in developed
economies.
The discouraged worker hypothesis, Barretto and Javier (1977) cited was a
contributory factor in the labor force participation rates of women. This hypothesis started
with the contention that with certain pecuniary and psychic costs in looking for work in the
labor market, entering the labor force depended not only on the expected wage but also on
the likelihood that he will find a job within a given period of time. The probability of
finding work decreased at high levels of unemployment making over all costs of
employment search weigh heavier than its benefit thus discouraging the entrant to the labor
force.
The crisis of 1997 affected many females (Aganon 2000) Many females were hit by it
more than the males especially in the garment, electronic and textile firms. Many found
themselves on reduced work time, temporary or permanent layoffs. Unemployment rates
have been fluctuating due to the effects of macro economic policies. There were hints of
mismatch of skills of jobs available for women. Ofreneo (1991) noted that in this situation ,
the government must find ways to create full time jobs as well as highlight the role of skills
development in the young people.
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Women workers were a distinct minority in the modern sector. Andam and Malilong
(1996), Ishii ( 2004) and Choi (2004) stated that there existed gaps or differentials between
males and females with respect to labor force participation rates and monthly earnings.
Women received lower wages than men and were unequally distributed across occupations.
However, in recent years, prospects for both men and women have improved with
regard to literacy and education which also contributed in a major way to greater realization
of the human potential. Rural women’s chances of gaining access to productive resources
and credit have been eased because of being organized.
Human capital
According to the ILO report on Learning and Training for Work in the Knowledge
Society and Shankar (2001), knowledge and skills endowed in a country’s labour force
determine its ability to compete in the world economy. The individual’s possession of
knowledge and skills increasingly determine their employment outcomes and lifetime
incomes. Adjlbolosoo ( 1993,142) defined human factor as " a spectrum of personality
characteristics and other dimensions of human performance that enable social, political and
economic institutions to function and to remain functional over time. "The human factor,
therefore, involves personal characteristics such as integrity, dedication, responsibility, and
accountability”. Countries which do not pay attention to the human factor and are
experiencing human factor underdevelopment are in peril. Further stagnation will be
destructive in all aspects. However, it has been observed that nations emphasizing programs
aimed at human factor development will attain growth in the long term and will be able to
get out of poverty. Schultz (1981) noted that a good number of low income countries have a
positive record in improving population quality and on acquiring useful knowledge when
they invested in education. He reiterated that schooling was more than a consumption
activity incurred deliberately to acquire a productive stock and its services consisted in
future earnings and future ability in self employment. This gives basis to the Human Capital
Theory which states that the more education, skills, knowledge and proper attitude one
acquires, the more productive he is. Assuming all things being equal, schooling raised
productivity by providing additional knowledge and skills to the individual. It has been
noted that education and training were two proven investments in human capital. Increasing
the productivity of labor through improvements in education, training, health and nutrition
would most likely improve earnings of workers. This highlighted the role that education
played in enhancing the employability of the individual.
An ILO project in 2002 reported that basic education ensures the full development of
the human personality and citizenship and lays the foundation for employability. Initial
training develops further employability by providing general core work skills, and the
underpinning knowledge, and industry based and professional competencies which were
portable and facilitated the transition into the world of work. Further, basic education is the
foundation for lifelong learning and human development and influences an individual’s
capacity to find or retain a job.
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Naganawa (2000) pointed out that firms have traditionally assumed that it is academic
ability and educational career that guarantee the ability to learn, and this has been used as a
criteria especially for hiring white collar workers. One needs to be qualified so as to have
access to employment and the appropriate qualifications for specific jobs. This provides a
sound basis for recruitment into formal employment. Becker (1993) and Tan (1999)
however argued that additional components of human capital should be taken into account
like quality of education and experience of the workforce. Bowlby (1999) also confirmed in
a study that he made that graduates remarked that their university education lacked a
practical dimension and that job specific skills should have been learned.
Employability of the Individual
Employability which springs forth from the foundations of the human factor has been
much discussed because of its utility and growing relevance. What makes a person
employable? For many theorists and practitioners, a composite of factors can explain
employability. Baker and Tippin (1999) said that its main feature is the focus on individual
characteristics, such as educational level, job seeking skills, work habits….general attitude.
It is basically an individual capacity. Brown et. al., (2003) also defined it as relative
chances of acquiring and maintaining different kinds of employment. It is also referred to as
skills, attitudes and behaviors that one needs to participate and progress in today’s dynamic
world of work.
One way of looking at employability is through defining competencies in terms of
inputs – underlying characteristics of a person which results in effective performance on the
job. Sparrow (1997) called this the behavioral approach. Tufnell, Cave and Neale (1998)
identified that employability skills as those general skills which were not necessarily
subject/job specific but which enabled an individual to operate effectively within an
organization. Ainsworth (2001) agreed with Tufnell et. al that the following were correlated
with employability: cognitive abilities, personal qualities and attitudes and practical
competencies. The team conducted a study and respondents were asked to rank the
competencies according to importance. The results showed that there was a correlation
between practical competencies and employability skills. Practical competencies were rated
as higher than personal qualities and attitudes. The Conference Board of Canada and
Tufnell et. al., agreed on the following as employability skills: ability to cooperate with
others, motivation in the accomplishment of tasks, job specific skills, initiative, persistence
and self discipline, ability to comprehend through listening, reading and doing, honesty,
reliability, application of knowledge in the solution of practical problems, ability to
analyze, sense of social responsibility, intelligence, business understanding, academic,
attitude, open to criticism, willingness to learn, professionalism, punctuality, common
sense, acceptance of responsibility, ability to communicate, ability to comprehend through
listening, reading and doing, ability to handle factual information, perseverance, ability to
organize things, ability to reflect and think independently, personal management skills,
attitudes and behaviors that drive one’s potential for growth. A study of 25 workplace
education programs across the United States categorized the following as workplace basic
skills: literacy skills, new attitudes such as greater willingness and ability to learn for life..,
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Employability of Young Rural Women
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other basic skills such as improved ability to use technology, better ability to communicate
in English, better ability to build and work in teams.
The SCANS ( Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills) report
identified the following as important for work: interpersonal skills , applying technology to
specific tasks, basic skills such as reading, writing, arithmetic and mathematics, speaking
and listening,.. personal qualities such as responsibility, integrity. Also included were
occupationally specific skills, generic skills and personal competencies and overarching
capabilities such as team working, business thinking. Skills that were identified as most
useful in the study done by Shah, Anita et. al. (2004) were oral and written communication,
team working, personal organization, self motivation and subject knowledge and areas
recommended for curriculum development were subject specific practical skills and
information technology.
Individuals were most employable when they have a broad based foundation in
education and training, basic and portable high level skills, problem solving ICT
communication and language skills, learning to learn skills, competencies to protect
themselves from occupational hazards and diseases. The type of education that an
individual should have must provide the preparation for non-linear paths and likelihood if
career changes in one’s lifetime.
The study of Hillage and Pollard (1998, p.1 cited in Brown, Hesketh and Williams
2003) and embodied in the self concept theory of Super pointed out that graduates manage
their employability in different ways but closely linked to their sense of personal identity.
Increasing Employability through Government
The competitive advantage of nations have come to depend on the knowledge, skills
and entrepreneurial zeal of the workforce and employability policies of government
(Brown, Hesketh and Williams, 2003).
With the creation of the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA) in 1994, the demand for reforms in skills training was addressed. The TESDA
was tasked as an authority in skills training of the youth in the country. TESDA mandated
to initiate appropriate training programs in partnerships with the private sector. The Dual
Training Act of 1994 was enacted to strengthen manpower education and training in the
Philippines. The Dual Training System (DTS) became the instructional delivery system for
the technical vocational education in the country.
The government through the Department of Labor and Employment (DOLE) listed
several employment programs for the young people. The objective was to provide the
mechanisms to facilitate the placement of job seekers.
The Kabataan 2000 is a program for high school, college, vocational students and out
of school youths which provided short term employment opportunities to support career
advancement.
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The Public Employment Service Office (RA 8759 PESO Act of 1999) is a community
based employment service referral and information service which functions to provide
persons with entrepreneurship access to the various livelihood and self employment
programs offered by government and non-government organizations.
Related Studies on Employability
Noora (1982) in a dissertation concluded that employers gave relatively low
importance to the various skills of high school leavers seeking jobs. The perception of both
employers and employees’ experience in previous employment was perceived the most
important factor which facilitates employment and apprenticeship. The important traits for
increased employability of this type of group are: industry, honesty, initiative and
dependability.
Dumlao (1994) made a study on “Employability and earnings of graduates of degree
and non-degree programs and job relevance of their schooling” using the following
hypotheses: 1) type of schooling, baccalaureate degree, non-degree have different relative
effects on employability and earnings 2) that schooling contributes to job relevance with
respect to present and first job. She recommended that researches should be conducted to
explore other variables that affected relationship of schooling and employability.
Manas (1993) in a dissertation on “Personality factors and employability skills as
predictors of occupational career values of college seniors in Metro Manila” concluded that
the ability to choose a career is congruent with one’s personality traits, aptitude, mental
abilities, interests and work values.
A study on “School and Socio Psychology Psychological Determinants of the
Employability of the Graduates of the Technical Vocational Education Programs of Two
institutions of Higher Learning in Region X” by Rodriguez (1991) measured employability
in terms of waiting time (degree of hardship) or facility in finding the initial job after
graduation. She listed that waiting time was affected by social and economic factors.
Palomo (1993) made a study on the profile of rural women in Bulacan including their
economic status and found out that home economics education and training have influenced
their economic activities.
Wright (1984) said that the success of programs for young rural women depended on
many factors. Wright specified that knowledge and skills were required to maximize the
potential of available resources. The educational attainment of rural women was important
in training. Lazo (1984) noted that training is a strategy that should be used to enhance the
employability of women under conditions of economic crisis. Aganon (2000) recommended
that women have to to multi-skill themselves in order to ensure job security. Their
initiatives should also be matched with available government safety nets.
Paraiso and Santos (1980) said that labor force participation rate varied positively with
the schooling factor and has also included and that work places in the rural areas required
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lower skills. The human capital model used by Palma and Tamayo (2000) stated that
differences in earnings were due to differences in educational attainment, training and work
experiences. Andam and Malilong (1996) said that an area for future research is to look into
reasons for labor market differentials between the male and female worker. They have
identified gender discrimination and difference in human capital endowments as reasons.
Other reasons aside from those cited would provide greater understanding on this area. It is
also important to determine if the worker’s individual attitudes, knowledge, skills and effort
were major determinants of employment.
Literature cited made it clear that the role of women as actors in the industrial relations
scene cannot be neglected. For many decades they have been disenfranchised due to lack of
data on their concerns. In recent years, global economic movements have largely affected
their employment status owing to lack of social and legislated forms of protection.
Statistics highlighted the need to improve their employment situation. Much of the
work that they do is still confined to informal, unstable farm work resulting from a lack of
access to education and training.
Thus, the recognition of their inherent qualities as irreplaceable human capital can be
properly addressed through the examination of the internal components of their
employability. Government has tried to address this need through programs but its positive
effect still needs to be evaluated.
Framework
Terms are defined based on the context and perspective of the study.
Employability in this framework took the perspective of labor and is founded on the
human capital theory. It explored the women’s perceptions on employability based on
personal characteristics, attitudes, personal knowledge and skills and educational
attainment. The effect of external factors like employment opportunity in the area and
availability/accessibility to capital on their employability were also studied.
The focus of this study was mainly the internal dimensions of employability but has
also considered the external environment and its effects. The perspectives of employers
which ratified the demand side of employment extracted through interviews enriched the
results of the study.
For the purposes of this paper, the following independent variables: personal
characteristics, attitudes, personal knowledge and skills, educational attainment and those
external to the person like employment opportunities in the area and
availability/accessibility to capital will be correlated to employability or non employability
of young rural women.
Employability is defined as the ability of the individual to take on a specific
employment status e.g., as formally employed by government or private entities or
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Employability of Young Rural Women
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informally employed as self employed (vendors), unpaid family workers, contractual
workers, caregivers/domestic workers, farm workers. The factors that contribute to
employability are her attitudes, personal knowledge and skills, educational attainment and
secondarily based on availability of employment opportunities and availability/accessibility
to capital in the area. Employability is also defined as the possession by an individual of
qualities and competencies required to meet the changing needs of employers and thereby
realizing her aspirations and potential in work (Confederation of British Industry: 1998).
Non employability is operationally defined as a condition of being out of work.
The Human Capital Theory provides a foundation for the framework of this study. It
states that more education leads to more skills, knowledge and proper attitude which will
make the person more productive. It is therefore assumed that with all things being equal,
the individual who possesses the characteristics mentioned above would probably have
more positive chances of being employed.
The framework considers actual competencies of the individual as the composite of
attitudes, knowledge and skills shaped by one’s educational attainment as positively
correlated to one’s employability.
In this research, attitudes mean specific dispositions related to a work-related task.
These work related attitudes are: Industriousness, Perseverance, Honesty, Initiative, Being
responsible, Punctuality, Loyalty, Self discipline, Orderly, Ability to work with others, and
Ability to accept mistakes.
Knowledge means the composite of intellectual proficiencies in Basic literacy e.g.,
Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Actual Job Knowledge, General Knowledge and knowledge
about business.
The independent variable skills mean specialized potential in a specific area, which
enables a person to handle tasks related to it with facility. These skills are information
technology, language proficiency, mechanical, agricultural, vocational and other skills (care
giving, child care etc.).
Educational attainment is the highest grade level or schooling obtained. This can be
either grade school, high school, vocational school or college level.
Availability/Accessibility to capital is defined as the degree of facility that an
individual has to sources of funds in the municipality. Capital can be in the form of equity
(savings and other sources), loans from various sources or grants and aids.
Employment opportunities are a composite of employment programs implemented by
the government, non-government or local government entities for the women belonging to
the 15-30 year old bracket in the area. This is the definition of youth provided by RA 8044.
These programs could be giving financial assistance, help in job placement or creation, or
providing work experience.
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Employability of Young Rural Women
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In this study, the external factors are: employment opportunities in the area and
availability/accessibility to capital. These factors may also affect the employability or non
employability of young rural women. This effect is presumed to be lesser as compared to
the effect of actual competencies of the individual.
Methodology
The survey, personal observation and case study methods were used to gather
primary data for the study. The methods were used to answer research questions which
sought to identify the perceptions of employability of young rural women, type of
possible programs that will improve their employability status, training needs of this
sector, validate the correlation between personal characteristics, personal skills,
knowledge and attitudes, educational attainment, employment opportunity and
accessibility to capital to their employability or non employability status, and
determine the predictors of employability. Multistage design was used in the study.
This technique was suitable as a complete list of all members of the population does
not exist. The main data gathering instrument was the questionnaire complemented by
personal interviews and focus group discussions with the employed and unemployed
women. Interviews with key local, non government officials and employers were also
undertaken. Quantitative data were processed using the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences version 9.0 and 10.0 . Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used.
The crosstabs procedure was used in the analysis of the perception and assessment of
knowledge , skills and attitudes of the respondents. Chi square tests were used to establish
the significant relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
In order to determine the predictors of employability a logistic regression test was
done. This test was appropriate because the dependent variables were dichotomous.
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The Locale of the Study
The Science City of Muñoz is one of the four cities of the province of Nueva Ecija. It
is located in the northern part of the province, around 147 kilometers north of Manila with a
land area of 157.78 sq. km. which are mostly agricultural. The Science City of Muñoz is
traversed by the national highway going to Cagayan Valley and a secondary national road
going to the Province of Pangasinan, passing through the Town of Lupao, Nueva Ecija. It is
bouded by five municipalities and one city namely: Lupao on the north, Talugtug on the
northwest, Sto. Domingo and Talavera on the Southwest, Guimba on the West, and San
Jose City in the East. The terrain of Muñoz is generally flat and is equivalent to 0-3% slope.
The soil is generally classified under the following physiographic groupings: La Paz Fine
Sandy-Loam; Antipolo Clay; and Quingua Silt-Loam (city profile).
Location map of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija
Demographic Profile
Muñoz has a population of 67,081. Annual growth rate is 2.28% . Total household
population is 65,581. It has a crude birth rate of 4.82% and crude death rate of 1.89%
There are 13,940 households in the municipality ( Updated brief profile: October 2003).
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Employability of Young Rural Women
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Research and Development Environment
By virtue of R.A. 8977, Muñoz became a science city in late 2000. Muñoz is home to
16 Research and Development Centers. Among the major research entities in the
municipality are the Philippine-Sino Agricultural Technology Center, National Center for
Rural Development, Philippine Rice Research Institute, Philippine Carabao Center,
National Freshwater Fisheries Technology Center, Regional Crop Protection Center, and
Bureau of Postharvest and Research Extension. The Central Luzon State University, a
forerunner in agricultural research is also located in the vicinity. The university has been
conducting several scientific researches in agriculture , fisheries and other agri-related
fields since its establishment.
The research institutions have offered employment opportunities for those who meet
the qualification standards set by the civil service commission.
Economic Environment
Muñoz is basically an agriculture dependent community. Agriculture and its related
industries are its main source of income. Most of the land area (60.22%) are agricultural
lands. Unirrigated rice fields comprise 31.06% of the land area. Majority of the land area
are ricelands. Other parts are planted with corn, onion and garlic, root crops (cassava,gabi),
legumes (peanut, mongo, bush sitao), cabbage, and pechay. Inland fishing activities are also
carried out.
There are limited opportunities in the manufacturing and services sector restricting
altenative employment choices.
Agricultural efficiency and productivity is hampered by the inadequate irrigation
facilities in the place. The northern portion of the municipality experiences constant
drought during the dry season. Much of its waterways are silted and contributes to limited
water supply for the rice fields.
Being landlocked, there are no commercial ports in the area. Mode of transport is
mainly through land. Farm-to-market roads were in a very bad state before the 1990s. This
contributed to some business losses for many of the farmers. At pesent, there are
continuous efforts to improve roads because of its vital importance to the industry.
There are eight banks in the municipality. However, they have limited positions that
cannot absorb many of the graduates. There is one insurance company and lending
institution. The cooperative movement is not vibrant in the area.
Muñoz has an organized public market which is a main selling destination of farm
goods. Young women workers work as salesgirls in this area.
Social Environment
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Many of the households have access to electricity (99%). However, the access to piped
water can still be expanded (16.49%). Crime rate is low (0.6%). Household poverty ratio is
high at 81%. They are composed of farmers, vendors, tricycle drivers among others (City
Development Strategy Report:2003).
At present, elementary and secondary schools are congested with an average of 1:60
classroom to pupil ratio. There is also an increasing volume of out-of-school youth because
of financial difficulties and the need of additional wage earners in the family.
Human Resources
Most of the labor force are employed in agriculture and agriculture related
occupations. There are 26,238 males and 25,528 females (Municipal Profile: 2001). The
young population represent a substantial volume in the total population.
Investment Climate
There are newly built and refurbished commercial buildings in the central business
district. A variety of stores can be found here. Major trading enterprises and buying
stations are located in this central area.
State of Governance
The mayor together with the elected officials handles all local government matters.
The problems of lack of professionalism, political differences and political patronage
continue to hamper the efficient business of government and development.
Age Profile
There were 195 respondents in the survey. Majority of them (39%) were in the 23-26
age bracket. A minority (6%) comprised the 15-18 years old age group.
Employment Profile
Table 1-1. Employment Profile of Respondents
Employed
Unemployed
TOTAL
Frequency
77
116
193
Percent
40
60
100
The unemployed respondents at the time of the survey comprised (60%). Majority of
the young rural women in the municipality were in that group (Table 5-1). Of the 77
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42 Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Employability of Young Rural Women
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
employed respondents, 41 were in the informal sector working as store owners, domestic
and farm workers. The rest were employed by government and private entities.
Unemployed respondents were discouraged about their state saying “ when will we ever be
out of this situation?”
Government entities in the municipality revealed that there were many applicants for
limited vacancies posted. Streamlining in the bureaucracy have restricted the chances for
employment of these graduates.
“Farm work is open to anyone who wants to work there. There is no discrimination as
long as you can bear the physical demands of long and exhausting work. But this is only
available during planting and harvesting seasons. Many of the women in our barangay work
in the farm because there is no other option or else we go hungry ” revealed a farm
supervisor.
Economic Profile
Figure 1-1. Monthly Income of Respondents(in Php)
1000019999
3%
5000-9999
16%
Lower than
5000
81%
Majority of the respondents earned incomes less than Php 5000 (81%), not enough to
meet the basic needs of the family. The daily wage for a regular farm job was pegged at a
minimum of Php 90 and maximum level at 135.50 (City Development Strategy Report:
2003). However, the farm workers received a variable rate based on their efficiency.
The Focus group discussion participants disclosed the need for more income and
showed apprehension over acquisition of loans. One participant mentioned “…collateral
and high interest on loans threatens our very unstable financial situation…” Low earnings
limited credit access for them. Interviewees manifested their predicaments in securing loans
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Charisma Rhea S. Castro 43
Employability of Young Rural Women
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
for business, personal and family needs. Many admitted this problem (77.2%). In view of
the difficulty of looking for outside funding, they have to rely on informal sources. For
those in farm work, salaries were usually redeemed in advance (vale) to pay for daily
needs.
Educational Background
Figure 1-2. Educational Profile of Respondents
Elementary
11%
College
41%
High school
Vocational
42%
6%
The respondents have all received basic education. The greatest percentage (42%)
have either reached or finished high school. The smallest proportion were those who have
either had or finished vocational education ( 6%). The women agreed that education was a
basic requirement for employment. One participant convincingly said “education is the
passport to a higher position in society”. Another one cited that “education is needed for
one to be competitive”.
Human resource officers of the government institutions emphasized the importance of
educational attainment in the selection criteria of possible employees. Employers in the
informal sector stated “we do not require an education ..what is important is that they can
do the job which required simple skills like watching over the merchandise and selling.”
Ofreneo (2001) confirmed this finding by saying that for those who did not reach high
school or have not finished formal schooling they would likely find themselves in
agriculture or in the informal sector. However, for career positions a college diploma,
professional eligibility, training are required. Vacancies in almost all the possible
employment options were scarce except in farm work.
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44 Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Employability of Young Rural Women
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The respondents expressed discouragement over the high unemployment rate even
among the educated sector. Amante (2001) cited an ILO report that the Philippines had the
highest percentage of uneducated unemployed at the college level (31.6%).
Civil Status
Most of the respondents were married at a young age. They thought that marriage
would lead to economic improvement. However, this was not the case for many of them
because of the few and low paying job opportunities in the area. Kim (2000) confirmed that
marital status was correlated with low wage employment for women.
Table 1-2 Effect of civil status on employment
occupation
Civil status
single
Count
employed
34
unemployed
40
Total
74
45.9%
54.1%
100.0%
% within civil status
married
Count
42
75
117
Count
35.9%
76
64.1%
115
100.0%
191
% within civil status
39.8%
60.2%
100.0%
% within civil status
Total
Those who were married were most likely to be unemployed (64.1%). One employer
specifically stated “we do not take in married women because of the work schedule.
Another stall owner disclosed “we have observed that once the women get married they
quit their jobs with us because they need to be with their children. They only work with us
for two to three years.”
Studies have shown that once the woman marries, she usually gives up her career for
her family.
Perception and Assessment of Competencies
The women rated themselves positively in basic literacy, general knowledge and
actual job knowledge.
In terms of skills, the respondents needed further training in technical and mechanical
skills. They were competent in agricultural skills, language proficiency, vocational and
other skills (care giving etc.). Baker and Tippin (1999) said that skills development is
needed to create jobs. A local official commented “..skills to be acquired by the women
should be what an agricultural community needed. These skills should also make use of
materials readily available in the area.”
Respondents viewed most of the attitudes as important for work.
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Charisma Rhea S. Castro 45
Employability of Young Rural Women
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Naganawa (2000) observed that perception and assessment of attitudes could change
with exposure to real worklife experiences and can affect rating later on. This could be the
case for these young rural women. Furthermore, these values may be modified as the result
of the continuing process of socialization in the groups of which these individuals have
membership related Lovell (1980).
Awareness Level of Government and Non-government programs
Majority of the respondents were not aware of national and non government programs.
A local official commented that “national programs sometimes would not trickle down to
the local level because of “some interests” among the implementers..” This was confirmed
by the respondents and they lamented the situation. Several manifested surprise upon
knowing of the existence of some programs. The PESO office of the municipality had to be
reinforced with manpower to make national programs reach the majority. The PESO
manager pointed out that “…am not able to do what needs to be done because of lack of
people and funds…”
Figure 1-3. Awareness of National Government Programs
33% Yes
Y
N
67%No
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46 Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Employability of Young Rural Women
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Figure 1-4. Awareness of Local Government Programs
No
43%
Yes
57%
Y
N
Figure 1-5. Awareness of Non government Programs
Yes
36%
Y
N
No
64%
Information dissemination at the local level made them aware of the existence of local
programs. However, not all were reached by this information. Several women said “when
did these programs start?..how come we do not know all of them?” Generally, respondents
revealed their desires to know more about the programs. They expressed interest to
participate in them to augment income.
Impact of Programs
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Charisma Rhea S. Castro 47
Employability of Young Rural Women
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The combination of few industries, low awareness and participation level in the
various programs posed a challenging issue for employability. The experience of rural
Kenya, which is the case of Munoz related by Freeman et al. (2004) demonstrated that
levels of rural poverty are closely related to the presence or absence of migration and urban
employment opportunities and will be reversed by stimulating investments.
At 5% level of significance the variables vocational and agricultural skills were
significant predictors of employability of young rural women in Muñoz, Nueva Ecija.
Table 1-3 Predictor of Employability
Variable
Vocational and Agricultural skills
p-value
0.0002
Table 1-4 Agricultural skills as predictor of employability
occupation
Assessment
of agricultural
skill
Competent
Count
% within
assessment
of agricultural
skill
Neutral
Count
% within
assessment
of agricultural
skill
Not competent
Count
% within
assessment
of agricultural
skill
Total
Count
% within
assessment
of agricultural
skill
employed
43
unemployed
56
Total
99
43.4%
56.6%
100%
15
23
38
39.5%
60.5%
100%
19
36
55
34.5%
65.5%
100%
77
115
192
40.1%
59.9%
100%
The results showed that assessment of agricultural skills predicted employability.
Those who were not skilled in agriculture were most likely to be unemployed (65.5%).
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48 Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Employability of Young Rural Women
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Interviews revealed their apprehension over this type of work because of its physical
demands and low compensation. Many interviewees said “although these jobs do not pay
well jobs they were readily available.” “Where else will the women go but to do farm work
because there is no industry in the municipality except agriculture” lamented one barangay
official. “The women who work in this type of job will probably die with it unless there are
livelihood projects during the lean months to occupy them” explained by a farm supervisor.
This phenomenon was confirmed by Sison (1989) when he wrote that roughly half of
the female labor force participation were in agriculture, half in industry and services. This
meant that half of the economically active adult women were in agriculture (Sison:1989).
Employment in this sector was centered on jobs which were low paying and unstable. One
participant emotionally shared her experience “..even when it was hard I had to do work in
the farm to be able to send my three children to college, they could not stop schooling
because they were scholars and I had to earn the money for their daily transportation to
school.” However, the lack of access to financial resources and competence in skills
(technical, mechanical) posed difficulties.
Table 1-5 Vocational skill as predictor of employability
Occupation
Assessment
of vocational
skill
Competent
Count
% within
assessment of
vocational skill
Neutral
Count
% within
assessment of
vocational skill
Not competent
Count
% within
assessment of
vocational skill
Total
Count
% within
assessment of
vocational skill
employed
52
unemployed
71
Total
123
42.3%
57.7%
100.0%
19
23
42
45.2%
54.8%
100.0%
6
21
27
22.2%
77.8%
100.0%
77
115
192
40.1%
59.9%
100.0%
Respondents who were not competent in vocational skills were most likely to be
unemployed (77.8%). Several of them expressed their desire to receive training in these
skills. One said “..if I acquire these skills then I can earn some money for myself and the
family since people need (referring to cosmetology skills) these services.” They have seen
that acquisition of such skills were practical and useful. Achieving competence in these
skills could help them improve employment status. Jobs employing these skills were
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Charisma Rhea S. Castro 49
Employability of Young Rural Women
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
domestic in nature. Domestic staff were employed by older married and working women
who needed help in managing the house chores.
The FGD participants expressed the need for better dissemination and funding of these
programs. One remembered “there were many who were interested to undergo the training
for cosmetology skills but there was no money for transportation to go to the training site.”
The local officials concurred and added that a marketing plan should also accompany these
training programs.
Training can be expanded to enhance employability skills since usually in times of
economic crises, women are “first out and last in” (Lazo 1984, Choi 2004).
Barangay officials agreed in their views that “there has to a be a clear link from
training to production then to marketing for it to be a stable means of livelihood.”
At 5% level of significance the variable Age was a significant predictor of
employability of young rural women in Munoz, Nueva Ecija.
Table 1-6 Age as predictor of employability
Variable
Age
p-value
0.0121
Occupation
Age
15-18
Count
% within
age
19-22
Count
23-26
% within
age
Count
% within
age
27-30
Count
% within
age
Total
Count
% within
age
employed
1
unemployed
10
Total
11
9.1%
90.9%
100.0%
9
28
37
24.3%
75.7%
100.0%
33
36
69
47.8%
52.2%
100.0%
28
36
64
43.8%
56.3%
100.0%
71
110
181
39.2%
60.8%
100.0%
The table confirmed that there was a preponderance of the young in the unemployed
sector (90.9%). Amante(2001) cited that employment of young people were often part time,
casual, temporary and insecure. Kim (2000) mentioned that low wage workers were
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50 Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Employability of Young Rural Women
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disproportionately young and less educated which the findings also affirmed. Domestic
help were career options for women in the 25 to 30 year old age bracket.
The respondents traced difficulties in employment to the following: many applicants
for a job, no opportunities for the job desired, lack of knowledge and qualifications for the
job and absence of a referral system. The older FGD respondents expressed “We need to be
employed because of our family’s growing needs.” The single younger respondents were
not as concerned because they can still depend on their parents. One interviewee said “think
it is still okay to rest for some time and be with my parents.. since there is no work
available also.” Alba further explained that labor force participation may be relatively more
unstable at the younger ages. This is because they have not completed their schooling
decisions or being unmarried , they have less need to earn incomes on a regular basis
At 5% level of significance, the variable Educational attainment was a significant
predictor of employability of young rural women in Munoz, Nueva Ecija.
Table 1-7 Educational Attainment as predictor of employability
Variable
Educational Attainment
p-value
0.0045
Occupation
Educational
attainment
elementary under
grad/grad
highschool
grad/undergrad
vocational
undergrad/grad
college undergrad/grad
Count
% within
educational
attainment
Count
% within
educational
attainment
Count
% within
educational
attainment
Count
% within
educational
attainment
Total
Count
% within
educational
attainment
employed
8
unemployed
12
Total
20
40.0%
60.0%
100.0%
20
61
81
24.7%
75.3%
100.0%
6
6
12
50.0%
50.0%
100.0%
42
33
75
56.0%
44.0%
100.0%
76
112
188
40.4%
59.6%
100.0%
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Charisma Rhea S. Castro 51
Employability of Young Rural Women
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Respondents who have lower educational attainments were most likely to be
unemployed (75.3%). Discussions with local officials and respondents affirmed the
importance of educational attainment to employability. One of them recounted sad realities
in this area “many of them drop out of school because of financial reasons, many take short
courses which are in demand at present and were not interested to finish college, some get
married and do not finish school.” These situations hampered the full development of
potentials of these women. Schultz (1981) confirmed that education played a role in the
improvement of population quality and that it increased the productivity of the individual.
This was evident in responses of educated respondents saying “ the next step will be taking
graduate studies because we cannot be satisfied with what we have achieved so far and this
will make us more employable.” However, persistent high unemployment rates could
discourage young women from investing in education. One participant complained “for
what is education if one ends up unemployed?”
Access to education to a certain extent made one competent to participate in
occupational life. It also helped improve the quality of the labor force and increased its
ability to absorb new information (Tan, 1999). The interviewees agreed on the link between
educational attainment and employability. One respondent said that “ it was easier to find a
job if one was educated”. Another added that “opportunities were scarce for women who
were not educated”. These responses confirmed the comments of Potter (2002) that in an
increasingly mobile economy, the possession of a degree was a tangible certification of
accomplishment and was a valuable job market asset.
Formal employment required specific educational attainments from the women. An
HR head asserted “if she is not educated chances are her employment will not be permanent
or stable..it is one of the basic things that we look into in pre-selection.” Only a few of the
women respondents finished degrees required by the research institutions thus the most
accessible employment option was still farm work.
Kim (2000) linked low wage employment to the worker’s educational level and added
that as the educational level increased women were less likely to be paid low wages. Mary
(1999) agreed with Kim and stated that women’s education moderated the disadvantage in
pay for women compared to men. In addition, an ILO study on Youth Employment done in
1999 observed that investment in better and longer education might be more effective in
developing the attitudes and competencies required for the world of work. The ILO also
saw that taking the high road by improving human capital through widening the access to
education will raise technology, social and intellectual abilities (Brand 2000).
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52 Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Employability of Young Rural Women
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Table 1-8 Education correlated with employability
Chi-Square Tests
3
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
.001
Likelihood Ratio
Linear-by-Linear
Association
16.697
3
.001
11.117
1
.001
N of Valid Cases
188
Value
16.339
Pearson Chi-Square
df
Symmetric Measures
Interval by Interval
Pearson's R
Ordinal by Ordinal
Spearman Correlation
N of Valid Cases
Value
-.244
Asymp.
a
Std. Error
.072
-.240
.073
Approx. T
-3.429
-3.365
b
Approx. Sig.
.001 c
.001
c
188
a. Not assuming the null hypothesis.
b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.
c. Based on normal approximation.
A link existed between education and employability. Investments in education for the
woman is a wise move. Tan (1999) mentioned that countries which developed the only
resource that they possessed – labour , reaped economic rewards.
Summary
Most of the respondents were unemployed, have received basic education, married
early and earned low monthly incomes.
The study determined the perceptions of employability of young rural women through
personal assessment of their competencies.
In terms of knowledge, they assessed themselves good in basic literacy, general
knowledge and actual job knowledge. They felt however not competent in knowledge about
business and need training in it.
On their skills profile, the women respondents felt competent in language proficiency,
vocational , agricultural skills, and other skills (care giving, domestic care). However, they
revealed that they needed training in mechanical and technical skills.
They assessed themselves positively in almost all the work related attitudes except in
loyalty, self discipline and ability to accept mistakes.
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Charisma Rhea S. Castro 53
Employability of Young Rural Women
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The women respondents have a low awareness level of national and non government
programs because of insufficient delivery mechanisms from these entities. Local
government programs were
known to them because of barangay information
dissemination.The programs did not meet the sufficiently the training needs of the women
in order to qualify for stable employment.
Participation and involvement in national, local and non government programs were
low. This was linked to their low level of awareness of these programs. Those who have not
participated in national and local programs were most likely to be unemployed. The women
expressed difficulty in getting access to sources of capital.
The women revealed their need for training in business, technical and mechanical
skills as they were not competent in them. These skills were needed for employment in the
area.
Employability was high in farm and domestic work because there was a match of
possessed and needed skills. Formal work was only accessible to those who met
qualification standards. Other employment opportunities could not absorb labor supply
because of financial considerations. Employment opportunities were scarce. Employment
creation was not very dynamic because of the lack of access to sources of capital and
political reasons.
Logistic regression tests done validated the predicting ability of vocational and
agricultural skills, educational attainment and age to the employability of young rural
women.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the findings of the study:
1) Young rural women perceived their employability positively. However, they can
only be employed in farm and domestic work because of their skills and the employment
opportunities available in the area.
2) Limited employment opportunities available in formal employment required basic
qualification standards. The selection process was competitive and tinted by politics. Only
a few of the young rural women were absorbed in this sector.
3) Participation in national, local government programs will improve their
employability status.
4) They need help in acquiring business knowledge as well as training in mechanical
and technical skills.
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54 Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Employability of Young Rural Women
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5)Based on logistic regression results, the following variables were predictive of
employability: age, vocational skills, agricultural skills and educational attainment. Thus,
programs can have these components to improve employability.
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Charisma Rhea S. Castro 55
Employability of Young Rural Women
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Interviews
Mayor Nestor Alvarez- Mayor Science City of Munoz, interview by author, 23 July 2004,
Munoz, Nueva Ecija.
Cecille Abo – Personnel Officer Philippine Carabao Center, interview by author October
11, 2004. Muñoz,Nueva Ecija.
Maria Angelita Agaton – Human Resource Head Philrice, interview by author October 11,
2004. Muñoz,Nueva Ecija.
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60 Charisma Rhea S. Castro
Employability of Young Rural Women
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Jona Banez, Head Public Employment Service Office (PESO), interview by author, 24 July
2004, Munoz, Nueva Ecija.
Jimmy Barutu – Secretary of City Council , interview by author, 22 July 2004, Munoz,
Nueva Ecija.
Evelyn Bustamante- Grocery owner., , interview by author October 11, 2004.
Muñoz,Nueva Ecija.
Pablo Capa Jr., Baranggay Captain of Baranggay Magtanggol, interview by author, 18
November 2003.
Dolores Carrido- Head Negosyong Pangkabuhayan sa Lungsod Agham (Organization of all
women in Munoz), interview by author, 23 July 2004, Munoz, Nueva Ecija.
Councilor Myrna Corpuz – Committee on Gender Chairperson, interview by author, 22
July 2004, Munoz, Nueva Ecija.
Hermogenes de Guzman – Stall owner, Muñoz Public Market, interview by author
October11,2004. Muñoz, Nueva Ecija.
Eric Tubalinal - City Planning Development Officer , interview by author, 22 July 2004
Munoz, Nueva Ecija.
Corazon Gambito- Municipal Human Resource Officer, interview by author, October
11,2004. Muñoz, Nueva Ecija.
Grandeur, Gaspar.- East West Seed Company, interview by author, October 10,2004.
Muñoz, Nueva Ecija.
Reynato Mones- Barangay Captain, interview by author, October 11,2004. Muñoz, Nueva
Ecija.
Adrian Quero- Barangay Captain, interview by author , October 11,2004. Muñoz, Nueva
Ecija.
Corazon Santiago – Stall owner, Muñoz Public Market, interview by author, October
11,2004. Muñoz, Nueva Ecija.
Cristy Sicat – Human Resource Office Central Luzon State University, interview by author
October 11, 2004. Muñoz,Nueva Ecija.
Yolly – Farm Supervisor, interview by author October11,2004. Muñoz,Nueva Ecija.
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Charisma Rhea S. Castro 61