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PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
By
Benedict C. E. Agoha
Department of psychology
Covenant university Ota
Meaning of Psychopathology
Psychopathology is a broad term used to refer to the scientific study of the mental disorders i.e.
The attempt to understand the biological, genetic, and psycho-social underpinnings of the mental
disorders, and their classifications, manifestations and treatment.
Professions within Psychopathology
Efforts at understanding and treating psychopathology has been long, perhaps as old as humanity,
and over these so many years many professions rooted in such disciplines as biology, medicine,
psychology, and sociology have emerged that contribute to our understanding of the mental
disorders.
Psychiatry
The oldest of these professions is psychiatry, the medical subspecialty devoted to the study and
treatment of the mental disorders. This is by far the oldest field in psychopathology. Throughout
history man has been afflicted with mental disorder (We live this for the section on history of
psychopathology) and the responsibility to treat resided with the medical practitioners whose
practice overtime differentiated into various sub-disciplines of medicine, surgery, neurology,
psychiatry, pharmacy and so on. Psychiatric began to stand out as a distinct discipline of medicine
with the forming of the Association of the Medical Superintendents of American Institutions for the
Insane (AMSAII) in 1844 (Galt, 1853). In 1892 the AMSAII was re-named the American
Medico-Psychological Association, before it was changed to the American Psychiatric Association
in 1821, the same year that the American Journal of Psychiatry was founded (Ref).
Training of a Psychiatrist
Psychiatry approaches abnormal behaviour/mental illness from the biomedical/disease perspective.
Therefore, a psychiatrist typically holds a Bachelors Degree in Medicine and Surgery and a M.D in
psychiatry. in addition to a four-year, multi-part, residency or supervised practice under a qualified
and licensed psychiatrist. Most Psychiatrists in Nigeria hold the MBBS before going into residency.
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Clinical Psychology
By the beginning of the 20th century only psychiatry and neurology were interested in
psychopathology. Psychologists were merely interested in understanding the mind. Most of the
assumptions were not tested. However, a major shift began to take place with the establishment of
psychological laboratories across the world following the example of Wilhelm Wundt (1879).
The laboratories enabled psychological principles to be tested in various fields like education and
medicine. The first psychological clinic was established in 1896 by Lightner Witmer majorly for the
purpose of attending to behavioural problems associated with school children. As indicated in Hugo
Munsterberg book psychotherapy written in 1903, these early efforts
met with very limited
success. However, later successes recorded with the military during both the first and second world
wars saw the emergence of clinical psychology as a front line service provider, in addition to being
a mental testing profession.
Training and Qualifications
Essentially a Clinical Psychologist is trained in the psychosocial model and treats psychopathology
using psychotherapy. The clinical Psychologist has a Bachelors degree , a Master of Science and a
Ph.D. in Psychology or Psy.D or D.Clin. Psych. This sums up to about 8 to 9 years of training in
addition to one or two years of internship . In Nigeria and some other countries of the world a
Masters Degree holder is allowed to practice Clinical Psychology, provided the period of internship
is served.
Psychiatric Social Work (PSW)
Psychiatric Social Work. The psychiatric social Worker holds a M.S.W in Psychiatric social work.
They work from a purely social model. In mental health care the Social Worker seeks to manipulate
the social milieu to get the Patient stabilised. Their services, target individuals with high needs.
Psychiatric Social Workers may diagnose psychopathology and also use psychotherapy to treat their
patient.
There other people who play ancillary roles in the care of the mentally ill such as the Occupational
therapist, Pharmacist, Radiologist etc. But they are not regarded as mental health professionals.
Models of Psychopathology
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A model is a simplified pattern used for analysing and solving problems. There are different models
of abnormal behaviour within and outside of Psychology. Models of psychopathology attempt to
explain the origins of psychopathology and, by extension, provide approach to treatment. Some of
these are discussed in the following section.
Biological/Medical model
The biological model of abnormal behaviour assumes that psychopathology result from specific
disease process, or biological dysfunction. And therefore, People with behavioural disorders are to
be treated with specific physical means such as pharmacological intervention, electroshock or even
surgery. The model is also referred to as the organic model, the traditional medical model, or the
disease model (Tyrer & Steinberg, 1998). The medical model received a boost in 1913 when
Treponema pallidum, syphilis bacteria that caused general paresis was isolated by Noguchi and
Moore from brain tissue (Fullford, Thornton & Graham, 2006). With this demonstration of a
neurological cause for a psychiatric disorder the search for causes of other psychiatric conditions
received re-energising. Cerebral malaria and HIV/AIDS delirium are other examples of how disease
process may manifest in psychiatric disorders. Biochemical imbalances such as hormonal
fluctuations may also lead to abnormal behaviour.
Some of the contributions of the biological model include the classificatory system currently
rpresented in the Internatio in chapter 5 of The International Classification of Diseases—Tenth
Edition (ICD-10) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders -5th edition
(DSM-V) and the mental health law. e.g. The Nigerian lunacy act 1958. other contributions
include physical treatment, scientific research methods like case-control studies and randomized
control trial.
Psychoanalytic Model
This model is associated with Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a Swiss neurologist. Freud undertook
the challenge to finding solution to the neuroses which had no demonstrable organic basis in his
day.
Assumptions.
The psychoanalytic model assumes that abnormal behaviour results from intrapsychic conflicts
within the individual. Freud believed that all of human behaviour derived from physiological need
states, drives. These states generate psychic or mental energy called libido which constantly seeks
to break from the unconscious portion of the mind into consciousness. The libido seeks to be
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satisfied instantly and always. Freud also held that the preconscious layer of the psyché, the ego
provides censorship for id impulses (libido) that contradict superego (Conscious portion) content. It
operates on reality principle i.e. helps direct libido in line with reality and socially accepted
standards. Any unacceptable wishes, memories, or desires are driven back to the unconscious, a
mechanism called repression, or modified using the ego defence mechanisms.
Initially he argued that repressed memory of early sexual seduction was the main underlying cause
of psychopathology (Freedheim & Weiner, 2003 Freud & Breuer, 1895). Early sexual seduction
experiences that were repressed were said to re-emerge in later life to give rise to hysteric
symptoms. This is known as seduction theory. This theory derived from the analysis of five case
histories, including Bertha Pappenheim, popularly known as Anna O, Breuer’s Patient who suffered
from multiple somatic complaints. Anna O had claimed that simply reporting her stream of
thoughts made her feel better. Freud
introduced the structural model to be able to revise his
seduction theory. He believed that excessive repression led to a compromise between antithetical
thoughts which got deflected into a neurosis.
SUPEREGO
Conscious
Preconscious
EGO
(IT)
Unconscious
ID (IT)
Figure 1: A schematisation of the topographical model of consciousness
ID content is completely unconscious and operates on the pleasure principle; the Ego corresponds
to the pre-conscious state and operates on reality principle. It helps the ID achieve its aims in
consultation with the superego that is a representation of the social moors and taboos.
Contributions of psychoanalytic model
Consciousness.
The work of Freud and his associates led to a new way of viewing consciousness. It
demonstrated that mental life contained material acquired over years for which the individual
lacked conscious awareness. These unconscious contents may intrude and influence consciousness
in very practical ways and also play active role in the emergence of psychopathology. The model
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also showed that people can voluntarily keep unwanted thoughts and ideas out of conscious
awareness. So humans are not passive recipients but also active processors of information.
Effects of early life experience on later adult life
We learn from psychoanalysis that experience in early life may shape their behaviour and
interpersonal relationships in later years.
Psychotherapy, a method of treating people through talking, was a major contribution of
psychoanalysis. In this way mental health practice was no longer the preserve of psychiatry and
neurology as medical training was no longer necessary prerequisite to treating psychopathology.
The emergence of clinical psychology owe much to this contribution of psychoanalysis.
Criticism of psychoanalysis
Untestable hypothesis- Many of the core assumptions underlying psychoanalysis were simply
untestable. Concepts like the id, ego and superego could neither be observed nor tested. A second
issue pertained to overemphasis on sex. Classical psychoanalysis placed too much emphasis on sex.
For instance even sucking behaviour of infants was explained in erotic terms.
Economic Wastefulness. Once in therapy a person was expected to continue in it for so many years.
In fact, it was believed that analysis can never be completed. So the Patient had to return for
analysis periodically.
Another the availability of Alternative Explanations. The phenomena that Freud described can be
described in different ways. For instance Dollard and Miller (1959) recast the whole of
psychoanalysis in behaviouristic mould. Also many of his associates, even in his life time proffered
alternative explanations. Examples include Fred Adler, Carl G Jung, Karen Horney, and Erik
Erikson. Moreover, more efficacious and less time consuming versions of psychoanalytic/dynamic
resemble approaches derived from other models. For example, Supportive-expressive Dynamic
psychotherapy bears very close semblance to Cognitive-Behavioural therapy (CBT).
Cognitive-Behavioural Model.
This model is a blend of cognitive and behavioural theories. In recent times the distinction between
behavioural model and cognitive models has narrowed so much that experts now prefer to capture
both of them with the term cognitive-behavioural.
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Assumptions
All behaviours, normal or abnormal are learned through the same processes of classical and operant
conditioning; abnormal behaviour is considered to be a set of habits that can be changed through
unlearning the undesirable behaviour and replacing them with new sets of behaviour. In classical
cognitive theory (Beck, Lazarus) psychopathology result from the set of faulty thinking patterns
and beliefs a person has about the events that happen to them and the world around them.
Achievement
Development of fast and specific techniques
Therapeutic approaches that are based on Cognitive-behavioural model provide specific and
flexible means of treating disorders. A CBT package can be easily modified to suit any specific
conditions. Besides prescriptions for home practice could be made in the same way that drugs could
be prescribed to be taken for specific ailments and at specific times. This reduces the burden on
both client and therapist, as well as shorten the duration of treatment.
Evidence-Based Practice
The effectiveness of CBT has been proved in controlled trial experiments. Sometimes its
effectiveness has been equal or superior to medication. It also holds some promise for the treatment
of complex disorders like schizophrenia.
Family Systems Model
Assumptions
This model assumes that patterns of interaction, shared cognitive styles, within the family and in
the wider social context of the Client. Family system approaches may be grouped focus one of three
areas of concern (Carr, 2001):
(1) problem-maintaining behaviour patterns
(2) problematic and constraining belief systems
(3) Historical, contextual and constitutional predisposing factors.
Adherents to the first school of thought emphasise the role of patterns of interaction among family
members in maintaining abnormal behaviour. They therefore aim at disrupting these patterns of
interaction. The second group target the central belief system of the family that gives rise to
repetitive patterns which maintain abnormal behaviour; and the third group. The therapeutic effort
for this group of practitioners is directed towards the modification of the pathogenic belief system;
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and finally, the third group highlight those historical, contextual and constitutional factors which
predispose family members to adopt particular problem-causing belief systems. The practices
employed by adherents to this school address those historical, contextual and constitutional
factors (Carr, 2001, p193). Typically a wide network of family relatives is made to partake in the
therapy sessions.
Achievements.
Firstly, System theory highlight the role of social milieu in the aetiology and treatment of abnormal
behaviour. Secondly, it is cost effective in terms of time given that many people may be treated at
the same time and in the same venue. Another high point of this approach is its proven effectiveness;
it has been shown to be effective for a wide variety of problems in Adults and children. Systems
theory can offer an integrative framework for comprehending not just the role of social factors but
also those of biological and intra-psychic factors in the understanding and treatment of
psychological difficulties. And it is suited for complex cases involving family members.
A Case.
Mrs Akpan is a 38 year old mother of mother of 4 children aged between 7 and 2 the last of which
was born with a developmental disorder that left her grossly retarded. She presented with verbal
and physical aggression, paranoia, second person auditory, and visual hallucinations. In addition
to her role as wife and mother she also worked as a Matron in a busy ICU ward for children.
Although she responded to treatment she did not recover from her negative symptoms that included
anhedonia. When her husband was invited to a family therapy session the faulty communication
between the couple and their wider family context was brought to the fore. And therapy effort
targeted on these. An appreciable improvement was noticed within 3 weeks. (Author’s file).
Limitations
The limitations of the systems approach includes the danger of losing sight of the individual, and
the tendency to overlook the contributions of organic factors to a particular condition of an
individual.
Classifying Psychopathology
Modern classification in science can be traced to the efforts of the botanist, Caroleus Linnaeus and
the influence of Darwinism. There was also the desire of psychiatry to follow the age-long medical
tradition of classifying diseases. However, the entire history of classification reach far beyond
modern times, perhaps to the earliest anthropological era. The ancient biblical writer noted that:
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‘...And out of the ground Yahweh God formed every beast of the field and every bird of the sky, and
he brought each to the man to see what he would call it. And whatever the man called that living
creature was its name’ (Gen.2:19).
We are as humans faced with a plethora of phenomena which require that we name and remember
them. We are thus compelled by the limited capacity of our cognitive apparatus to organise
information about the world around us by reducing them into distinct categories. This allows
adequate processing. We speak for instance of tall/short, white/black, high/low, men/women etc.
In prehistoric times persons with psychological problems were classified is demonised. All cases
were said to be caused by demons. But Plato in the 4th century BC distinguished between natural
madness and divine madness. His contemporary, Hippocrates, subsequently classified madness into
five distinct groups, hysteria, epilepsy, acute mental disturbance with and without fever, and
chronic mental disturbance. He attributed all of his forms of madness to biological causes and
prescribed physical treatments. This was extended to include psychological causes by the Greek
physician and philosopher, Galen (c.200 A.D). There were various other efforts to classify
psychopathology before the modern systems that now are available to us.
Benefits of Classification
Before now professionals in the field had difficulty communicating with one another concerning
disorders. For instance, a clinician referring a client with borderline personality disorder may call it
madness without fever or such a thing. This vagueness in describing the phenomenon of abnormal
behaviour impeded research, diagnosis, and treatment. Therefore, classification became necessary
to improve inter-professional communication, diagnosis, treatment as well as research.
The Multiaxial system
Earlier attempts at classification tended to the favour the single category approach where a single
diagnosis is given. Presently each presenting case receives more than one diagnosis. Two major
systems of multiaxial classification are available today. These are the International Classification of
Diseases-10th Edition (or ICD-10) chapter 21, developed by the world health organisation and the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for the Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-V) published in
March 2013.
DSM-V AND ICD-10.
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The first DSM was published in 1952. This version included vague diagnostic terms as anxiety neurosis and
was heavily influenced by psychoanalytic concept of unconscious conflict. This led to its revision in 1968
with the publication of DSM -2. It reliability was also remarkably poor. Beck et al (1962) found only 54%
agreement between among diagnosis made by Clinicians. In 1980 DSM-3, revised in 1987 and called the
DSM 3R, another version was produced in 1994, and version 5 appeared in March 2013. Using the
DSM-5, five distinct diagnoses may be made on a particular case. Theses are coded as axes 1-5:
Behavioural or clinical disorders, Personality disorders and Mental retardation, Physical Condition,
Psychosocial Stressors, and Global Assessment of function (GAF). The GAF is a numeric scale
1-100 used to subjectively assess psychological, occupational, and social functioning of an
individual. The GAF rating scale is as presented below;
91- 100 Superior Functioning
81 - 90 Absent or Minimal Symptoms
71 - 80 Transient Symptoms
61 - 70 Some Mild Symptoms
51 - 60 Moderate Symptoms (flat affect...panic attacks...few friends, conflicts with
peers )
41 - 50 Serious Symptoms (suicidal ideation...no friends, unable to keep a job)
31 - 40 Some Impairment in Reality Testing (speech is illogical...major
impairments in several areas... depressed man avoids friends...unable to work)
21 - 30 Behaviour is Influenced by Delusions or Hallucinations
OR Inability to Function in Most Areas
11 - 20 Some Danger of Hurting Self or Others
OR Occasionally Fails to Maintain Minimal Personal Hygiene
OR Gross Impairment in Communication
1 - 10 Persistent Danger of Hurting Self or Others
OR Persistent Inability to Maintain Minimal Personal Hygiene
OR Serious Suicidal Act with Expectation of Death
There are over 900 distinct diagnoses that could be made using the DSM-V. The ICD-10 has similar
disorders but grouped under relatively fewer headings. Most clinicians in the UK use the ICD-10,
while those in the U.S. prefer the DSM.
All of these are compressed into broad categories like
anxiety disorders, Mood and affective disorders, schizophrenia spectrum disorders, cognitive
disorders, stress-related disorders, childhood disorders, personality disorders, substance use
disorders, sex disorders and paraphilia.
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The anxiety disorders have fear, worry, and apprehension is their core feature. For example
a
person suffering from agoraphobia may entertain irrational fear of open places like banks, markets,
large religious or political gatherings etc. Examples range from simple phobias like stage fright to
more complex ones like complex social phobia, and post traumatic stress disorder.
Mood
disorders are characterised by abnormal or subnormal variations in feeling states. Typical disorders
in this nosoology include depression, bipolar affective disorder (BAD), pre-menstrual dysphoric
syndrome. Stress-related disorders manifest as consequence of inappropriate response to chronic
stress. They could be psychological or physical in nature, or may aggravate underlying disease
conditions. Substance use disorders are due to abuse of psychoactive substances. Substance abuse is
use of psychoactive substance in a manner not consistent with medical prescription or one’s culture
and religion. This could lead to intoxication, dependence, withdrawal states, or induce underlying
psychosis.
All of these disorders my be generally referred to as adulthood psychopathology in contrast to
childhood disorders like autism spectrum disorder, separation anxiety, conduct disorder,
hyperactivity disorder etc which are peculiar to children. Personality disorders are not considered as
clinical disorders like the ones we have discussed previously.
Personality Disorders are characterized by an enduring pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving
which deviates markedly from a person's culture, and results in negative consequences. they are
rigidly pervasive, have an onset in adolescence or early adulthood, are stable through time, and lead
to unhappiness and impairment. There are ten types of personality disorders, all of which result in
significant distress and/or negative consequences within the individual, and these have been
grouped in three clusters.
Cluster A: characterized by odd and/or eccentric behaviour include Paranoid personality disorder ( a
pattern of distrust and suspiciousness), Schizoid (pattern of detachment from social norms and a
restriction of emotions: inability to desire or form social relationships), and Schizotypal personality
disorder (pattern of discomfort in close relationships and eccentric thoughts and behaviours).
Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, and Unstable
Antisocial: rule-violation with little remorse or desire to change (pattern of disregard for the rights
of others, including violation of these rights and the failure to feel empathy).Antisocial personality
runs an unremitting course, with the height of antisocial behavior usually occurring in late
adolescence.
Borderline personality disorder
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The term ‘borderline’ was first used by Stern (1938) to describe his Patients with ‘borderline group
of neuroses’ (Pollack, Otto, & Rosenbaum, 1996). The current use of the term has been streamlined
to include people with unstable affect, sense of self and interpersonal relationships; chronic
loneliness and emptiness (pattern of instability in personal relationships, including frequent bouts of
clinginess and affection, anger and resentment, often cycling between these two extremes rapidly.
These Patients may be thought to stand in the border between neurosis and psychosis.
Narcissistic personality disorder: grandiose sense of self importance (pattern of grandiosity,
exaggerated self-worth, and need for admiration),
Histrionic: excessive emotionality and attention seeking (pattern of excessive emotional behaviour
and attention
Cluster C: Anxious or Fearful
Obsessive-Compulsive personality disorder: persistent organization, order, and rule (pattern of
obsessive cleanliness, and perfection). This is different from obsessive-compulsive disorder which
is a mental disorder.
Avoidant personality disorder: persistent fear and avoidance of others (pattern of feelings of social
inadequacies, low self-esteem, and hypersensitivity to criticism).
Dependent personality disorder: over-reliance and dependence on others for making decisions.
Limitations of Classification
The classification system has been criticized for various reasons. The most important of these relate
to issues of validity of the nosologies. Whereas people tend to see the categories as disease entities,
they do not necessarily represent an biological/or neuropsychological abnormalities, so it is difficult
to say actually what
they stand for. Another problem is that of overlap between categories.
Symptoms are not restricted to specific categories; for example, anxiety and depression may be
found in most clinical conditions as is hallucinations. This overlap makes it difficult to understand
what the symptoms actually stand represent. Fourthly, the difference between normal and abnormal
is only a question of degree and frequency.
Most symptoms experienced in psychopathology also are part of everyday normal life. For
instance, most normal people hallucinate at one time or another in their life. We are all aware of
hypnagogic hallucinations, or have experienced hearing our name called when actually there is no
one present. Thus, it becomes difficult to draw a line between normal and abnormal since behaviour
is a continuum. There have been professionals who believe that this classification system should be
discarded,
Treating psychopathology
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There various approaches to treatment of psychopathology. The treatment technique adopted by a
particular clinician depends on the model s/he has adopted. People trained in the medical model
employ physical techniques such as electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), pharmacology, and surgery to
treat psychopathology. Generally, psychologists make use of one form of psychotherapy or the
other such as behavoiur therapy, cognitive-behaviour therapy, family therapy, psychoanalytic
procedures etc. to treat abnormal behaviour. Let me also mention that some clinical psychologists
around the world are pushing for limited prescription right that would allow them prescribe
psychotropic medicines in addition to psychotherapy.
Future directions in research and practice
In his introduction of his book psychotherapy (Munsterberg, 1909) Hugo Munsterberg implied that
the development of scientific psychology was dependent on that of the physical sciences, especially
biology;
‘...it can indeed be said that practical psychotherapy on a scientific basis can be considered almost as the
ultimate point of a realistic movement; it cannot set in until psychology has reached high development, and
psychology cannot set in unless biology has preceded it. There is no doubt that we are still far from this last
phase of the realistic period. The practical application of scientific psychology is still a new problem.’ (P.4).
He reasoned that psychology should be comparable to physics, chemistry, and biology;
‘The day of applied psychology is only dawning. The situation is indeed surprising. The last three or four
decades have given to the world at last a really scientific study of psychology, a study not unworthy of being
compared with that of physics or chemistry or biology.’ (p.60)
True to his assertion, psychology has continued to develop alongside these disciplines. Advances in
the natural sciences are indeed improving our understanding of psychopathology and
psychotherapy, as well as throwing up new questions to be answered. Two examples of these relate
to epigenetics and quantum physics.
Epigenetics
This is the term used to refer to heritable variations
in cellular and physiological traits that are not due to
changes
in
DNA sequence. Epigenetics
was
foreshadowed by the transformation theory of
evolution enunciated by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
(1744-1829). Lamarck reasoned that traits were
enhanced by frequency of use, and also reduced by
disuse, and that traits modified or acquired over an
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individual's lifetime were inheritable by the offspring.
Research work like those of German Friar, Gregor Johann Mendel (20 July 1822 – 6 January 1884)
on the genetics of inheritance soon discredited Lamarck. Current research is indicating that the
experience of an individual may alter gene function in ways that may impair physical or mental
health. For instance, fetal-infant exposure to famine in 1968-1970 Biafra has been shown to
predispose to hypertension, impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes in later adult life and
overweight (Hult et al., 2010). These vulnerabilities are explained by epigenetics (Ueda, 2013).
Epigenetic changes have also been linked to behaviour and psychopathology (Agoha, Oguizu, and
Urieto, 2010., Weaver, Cervoni, & Champgne, 2004).
Research in this area is still in its infancy. With time it may become possible to diagnose abnormal
behaviour from an epigenetic perspective. It might also be possible then to treat disorders with
phamacological approaches that target epigenetic modifications. This is bound to redefine the field
and alter the role of professions that presently deal with psychopathology.
Beyond the physical:Quantum physics
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was the first person to conceive of a mind that was entirely separate
from the body. introduced the concept of a separate mind and body (e.g., are separate but interact).
He taught that purposeful behaviour were a product of the mind acting through the pineal gland.
The principle of conservation of matter i.e. Matter can neither be created or destroyed was thought
to contradict this hypothesis since creation of energy will be required for a non-material mind to
influence a material mind. Thus, most neuroscientists accord to Darwin’s materialism that all
phenomena, including mental phenomena and consciousness, may be explained solely in terms of
the material brain activities i.e. The mind is synonymous with the brain.
However, mental activities like intentionality and
directedness are difficult to explain in neurobiological
terms. A person may intend to alter certain aspects of
physiological activity; this may be achieved by directing
attention and effort through training to activity, and soon
it is altered. Brain activity does not seem to be what
explains intention, rather the reverse seems to be the case.
It is clear today that principle of locality, that an object is
only directly influenced by its immediate surroundings,
has proven to be false by the study if subatomic particles.
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Two principles of quantum physics, nonlocality and entanglement (Bell, 1964, Clauser &
Freedman, 1972,
Aspect, 1999) are important in this respect; entaglement is the loss of
individuality by particles after interacting with each other. They begin to function like a unit and
become permanently correlated with each other (Mastin, 2006). So even though they become
separated by light years are still able to sense each other and respond to changes in each other’s
state in instantaneous fashion in violation to the speed of light. The importance of all of this to our
discuss is that man is part of the universe and connect subatomically to the rest of the universe such
that we can influence one another and our surrounding by the energy we send out, and be
influenced by them. This connectedness is reminiscent of Fred Adler’s community that he identified
as the hallmark of mental health. Quantum physics therefore helps us understand psychopathology
in very unique ways, as well as highlight the inexhaustible capability of one mind to heal itself,
another mind, or the body. This is the basis of the new subfield of energy psychology. Much
research is also needed in this area which like epigenomics promises to change the face of not only
psychopathology but of medicine and other allied professions in the near future.
Conclusion
Psychopathology is the attempt to understand the origin and dynamics of such personal distress
that are related to psychological dysfunction which in turn lead to impairment in the person’s
observable behaviour. Psychopathological conditions are diverse, and may be experienced by all
humans of all age and culture. Various approaches to treatment which derive from different notions
about the cause of abnormal behaviour abound today, and advances in the natural sciences are
opening
up
new
vista
of
opportunity
for
understanding
and
effectively
managing
psychopathological conditions.
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