“Cultural Variations of Discipline & Parental Expectations”
Dr. Recco Santee Richardson, Ph.D., MA, LPC
Recco S. Richardson Consulting, Inc., Flint, MI
Giovanna A. Adams, BA, Graduate Student Intern
Spring Arbor University, Flint, MI
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Abstract
This study reports on effective parenting styles. There is also a report on cultural
differences regarding child discipline techniques. In addition, this study discusses expectations
and experiences of parents and offers parenting tips.
The Study’s Participants
There were 10 parents interviewed for this study. They reside in the greater Flint, MI
area. They are currently parenting school age children. The ethnic makeup of the parents was
African American (4), Caucasian (4) and Hispanic (2). Six of the parents were single and four
were married.
Definitions/Terms
Acculturation- The exchange of cultural features that result when groups of individuals from
differing cultures come into continuous first hand contact. In essence, the original cultural
patterns of the groups may be altered but the groups remain distinct (Santrock, 2007).
Assimilation- A complex process by which a group can spontaneously adopt a different culture
due to its political relevance or to its perceived superiority. It is when a group integrates itself
into the dominant culture (Santrock, 2007).
Authoritarian- Parenting style which attempts to shape, control and evaluate the behavior and
attitudes of the child in accordance with a set standard of conduct and an absolute standard
(Baumrind, 1966). This style of parenting discourages the child’s autonomy. Rather, it promotes
and values obedience, order, and a traditional structure where the child does not argue but takes
what the parent says and does as right (Baumrind).
Culture & Parenting
Recco Santee Richardson, Ph.D., & Giovanna Adams, BA
Permissive- Parenting style which is non-punitive, acceptant and affirmative (Baumrind, 1966).
This style allows children to regulate themselves as much as possible and encourages the child’s
input in making decisions about rules.
Authoritative- Parenting style that attempts to direct the child’s activities in a rational manner
(Baumrind, 1966). This style tends to encourage bi-directional discussions regarding conflict and
reasoning behind making decisions. The parent is open to hearing the concerns of the child when
conformity is not achieved, values autonomy, self-will and disciplined conformity. This style of
parenting typically does not build resilience in children.
Introduction
Parenting style can be defined as the manner in which a parent interacts with their child
that sets a psychological and emotional foundation (Cheung & McBride-Chang, 2008). The
construct of parenting in the United States describes raising children. It implies that children
should grow up to be well-adjusted, self-sufficient and socially competent adults (Friman, 2009).
Parenting is not an easy or well-scripted endeavor; in fact many individuals are fearful when
faced with parenthood.
Research on parenting has been conducted for over fifty years (Baumrind, 1966). The
majority of the research has investigated effective discipline practices and the impact of parents
on present and future child behavior. The differing views and practices of parenting have been
studied repeatedly so as to understand which approaches best meet the goal of raising welladjusted and self-sufficient children (Friman, 2009).
African Americans have a unique heritage that separates them from other ethnic groups.
As a result, they tend to parent from a stricter, more authoritarian style in order to prepare
children for living in an environment filled with racial bias and discrimination. This point was
made by interviewee Robert. He stated, “I must be firm and somewhat intimidating. This mean
world would eat my black child up if I changed my approach to parenting. If I do not prepare my
children in the manner chosen, I would be setting them up for failure and a rude awakening once
they hit adulthood.”
Hispanic Americans are a group comprised primarily of individuals from Mexico, Puerto
Rico, Cuba and Central and South America. Hispanic culture is patriarchal and characterized by
strong belief in family. There is no clear consensus on the parenting styles of Hispanic families.
Parenting studies have been extensive so as to provide investigators, clinicians and others
with beneficial information. Specifically, most investigators are interested in the aspects of
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parenting that may increase children’s problem behavior, as well as those practices that are likely
to reduce problem behaviors (Santrock, 2007).
Methodology
A qualitative methods study was utilized to examine culture and parenting. With the help
of face-to-face interviews, this study reported on parenting styles. We utilized face-to-face
interviews to explore and report on parent’s expectations, discipline techniques and the
associated mental health issues.
Participants were asked the typical intake and pre-screening questions such as age and
socioeconomic status. During the interview, the participants were asked the same open-ended
questions regarding child discipline and their expectations.
They were asked approximately 20 open-ended questions that ranged from “What
behaviors do they expect from children?” and “What constitutes good behaviors?” to “What is
the most rewarding aspect of parenting?” and “Which child discipline techniques are effective?”
The participants’ responses generated qualitative data.
Data Collection
The data collection process utilized standard qualitative tools. The participants’ verbal
responses to the interview questions became the raw data, with each response given equal weight
and transcribed verbatim. In addition, the researchers’ reflections were collected in an attempt to
identify the essence of experiences, themes and clusters.
Theoretical Framework
There are several frameworks that under-pin parenting efforts. Parenting children can be
complex due to lack of clarity, the needs of families, lack of proper support, responsibility and
burdens (Small & Eastman, 1997).
In general, it is believed that parenting youth ages 14-18 is the most difficult age to
parent due to the need to realign the family and various inadequacies presented by family
members (Kohler, Grotevant & McRoy, 2002). As well, parenting can be challenging as a result
of the ever-changing development of a child’s identity, cognition and morals (Springs, Rosen &
Matheson, 2002).
The majority of parents do not realize the benefit and fruit of their labor. For example,
parents can promote protective factors that effect a child’s decisions regarding drug usage, sexual
activity and risk-taking behaviors (MaCaulay et. al, 2003). Additionally, parents who create an
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environment of trust and open communication help children to adjust to being part of a blended
family, accept their adoption and manage their special needs (Mendenhal, et. al, 2004).
Literature Review
Parenting Styles and Discipline Practices
When children exhibit behavior problems, parents are expected to take on the
responsibility of remedying the situation. When the remedy is ineffective, the parent-child
relationship is often strained. The stated is the foundation of several studies. For example, Roche
et al. (2007) asserted that certain aspects of parenting may act to increase the probability of
children’s behavior problems occurring, whereas other aspects are likely to reduce it.
Roche et al. (2007) reported that children generally do better when they are exposed to
warm supportive parenting. They also found that children experience more problem behaviors
when their parents are permissive or disengaged. Across racial and ethnic groups, children
reported greater substance use, delinquency, poorer school performance and worse psychological
adjustment when parents are not involved or when discipline is lax or inconsistent.
Lubell, Lofton and Singer (2008) argued that parenting strategies consistent with
authoritative parenting (e.g. parental warmth, inductive discipline, non-punitive punishment
practices and consistency) are related to positive child outcomes.
Socioeconomic Status and Discipline Practices
Parental stress level can be influenced by the socioeconomic status of the parent. For
example, additional stressors arise if a parent’s income is not enough to support the family
(Roche et al., 2007). While it has been suggested that lower income parents tend to endorse more
authoritarian parenting practices (Santrock, 2007), other research has found different patterns of
parenting among lower income parents (Lubell, 2008). Parents of lower socioeconomic status
may have some combination of vulnerabilities that include low income and lack of the skills.
Socioeconomic status is more than income level. It includes educational level, IQ score
and learning problems. Conversely, parents with low income may be poor, but have strengths in
other areas such as problem solving, social support and positive role models (see table 1). It is
possible that the additional factors are responsible, in part, for the mixed results for the link
between socioeconomic status and parenting (Lubell, 2008).
Discipline Practices and Children’s Behavior
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Several studies have investigated the impact that particular discipline practices have on
children’s behavior. Inconsistency has been linked with oppositional and aggressive behavior in
children (Friman, 2009). In addition, Richardson (2007) found evidence to support warmth and
involvement as an inverse predictor of oppositional behavior.
Research into child behavior outcomes associated with each style of parenting has
traditionally shown strong benefit to authoritative parenting. However, recent research has noted
that authoritarian parenting may be more effective in certain contexts as it relates to culture,
socio-economic status and social groups other than those studied in early research (Melendez,
2005; Singh & Clarke, 2006; Kim & Hong, 2007).
Table 1 Low Income Parent’s Strengths
Problem Solving
Strong Child Bonding
Physical Support
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Availability
Social Support
Positive Role Model
____________________________________________________________________________________
Solid Network
Resourceful
Common Sense
Culture and Discipline
There are cultural universals such as, academic achievement, work ethic and overall
healthy living. Cultural norms about parenting practices play an important role in how children
are raised. Culture influences what values are taught to children and what behaviors are
considered appropriate (Melendez, 2005; Singh & Clarke, 2006; Kim & Hong, 2007).
Cultural norms can influence the acceptance, delivery, and effectiveness of parenting
techniques. Bi-racial interviewee Wanda made reference to the role cultural norms played in her
parenting. She stated, “I expect my son to grow up to be the respectable productive African
American man that I raised him to be. That is what my family did for me and it is who we are.
My job is to share with him my expectations regarding how he is to behave when he is away from
my sight and to make good choices.
I’m not sure that he can do it right now, but we are working on it. It disappointments me when
he fails to put forth acceptable behaviors. It is one thing to tell him how to address an issue, but
it is priceless to me to see that he actually cares or values honesty and self respect.”
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Maria, a Latin American parent shared similar thoughts. When asked about cultural
expectations she stated, “I just expect her not to embarrass me or the family. In my culture,
disobedient and untrained children are considered to be a direct reflection of the family’s morals
and values. When she acts out, it makes me feel like I’m not doing something right. When she is
doing well and things are going good, I take pride in my daughter and her accomplishments.”
Overall, parents from all cultural backgrounds hold similar views about which child
behaviors are good or bad (see table 2). For example, there was consensus that children should
be obedient and not talk back. As well, children should show respect to adults, parents and
elders. There was also consensus regarding children being polite, having good manners, sharing,
being honest and doing well in school (Melendez, 2005). This point was made by Caucasian
interviewee Sherman. He offered the following, “My wife and I expect our children to be
successful, well mannered, admit when they are wrong and to be kind to others. Above all else,
honesty is important because it builds character and integrity. As devote Catholics, character
and integrity are important to us and we want it to be important to our children.
For us, what parenting comes down to a lot of the times is pretty simple. We are battling
peer pressure. It is challenging for us to know that our children are apt to place the views of
their peers above the views (values) we instilled in them. We have learned to trust that we have
provided them with the information needed to think critically and be responsible for their
actions. We have to let our children make mistakes. It will help them grow.”
Table 2 Goal Of Culture, Values and Discipline
Respect Social Expectations
Explain/Understand
Social Conformity
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Obedience/Acceptance
Family Pride
Character Development
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Responsibility
Moral Stamina
Social Class
The Center for Disease Control (2008) documented that parent’s need to explain and
understand is often motivated by perspectives and experiences. It is also motivated by the
established communication style with their child. This type of parenting often is embraced by
Caucasians. Caucasian parents tend to focus on teaching moments, probing for motives and
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causes of misbehavior and negotiating consequences. The mentioned type of parenting differs
from African-Americans and Latino parents. The stated parents believe in strong disciplinary
messages, communicate deep affection, have clear rules and establish agreements with their
children. For example, Latin American Ariela stated, “For sure my children know what the rules
are. They know to do as they are told. They know I do not like getting phone calls from the
school. We have discussions about what constitutes a good day for them and what constitutes a
good day for me. If we make it through a family outing with no temper tantrums or shouting
matches, then everything is good.
They know that their behaviors tire me out. I’m learning that my feelings of frustration and
anger can get in the way if I do not calm down before addressing a situation. For me, the key to
getting them to behave is being consistent with age appropriate consequences, keeping a level
head and not getting in to a power struggle.”
General Parenting Tips
There are basic parenting strategies that are effective across the board. The Center for
Disease Control (2008) reports that when conversations with children do not work a series of
alternative discipline and strategies should be implemented.
1. The Take Away Game: Removing privileges and eliminating rewards are the most common
(and favored) punishment for inappropriate behavior used by members of all cultural groups. Biracial parent Jonisha reported, “Depending on the rule that has been broken, I will take things
away from him. I try to discuss the matter and give him consequences for his actions. I typically
take away his phone, outings with friends, television and computer time and possibly sports.”
2. Signaling: The giving of the look or using a certain tone can help children make better
choices. Parents from all cultural groups report that signaling is effective (Center for Disease
Control, 2008).
3. To Respond Or Not: The successful parent knows when to respond to their child’s attention
seeking behaviors and when to ignore. African American interviewee Benjamin offered the
following, “Over the years I have learned to screen out my children’s plots for negative
attention. I give them plenty of positive attention and strokes. When they demand more attention
by acting out, I simply ignore them or act like I’m too pre-occupied to respond.”
4. You Heard Me: Most children need verbal cues regarding their inappropriate behaviors. It is
held that warnings, threats and yelling are common. However, in a recent study parents admitted
that yelling and making empty threats is not effective (Center for Disease Control, 2008).
5. Emotional Control: A growing number of parents utilize guilt, shame, embarrassment and
rejection as forms of discipline. For example White, African-American and Latino parents
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believe that inducing guilt was a good response. As one White father said, “We’ve never hit our
daughter or spanked her. We found that “guilt” works so well (Center for Disease Control,
2008).
Parenting Tips
In our years of work experience and parenting, we have developed the following
parenting coping skills:
1. We now realize that parenting is a process of teaching and guidance. It is not the policing of
possible problems. Once we realized the stated, undo pressure was taken away.
2. We have learned to laugh. We now laugh at life and our daily experiences. Painful situations
that are a part of our life now are quenched by making our soul merry and happy.
3. We have learned to remember that adolescence is a difficult stage of life. We now relax and
accept the fact that youth make mistakes and stumble from time to time.
4. We have set out to feel good about ourselves regardless of our child’s behaviors or progress. If
we do not feel good about ourselves, no one else will.
5. We find value in parenting in the present, with mercy for the past and an eye towards the
future. These wise words have rescued us on several occasions. The words are a lifeline and our
best friend.
6. We are now quick to ask for help. By regularly seeking and asking for help, the element of
surprise and crisis is subdued.
7. Before anything else, we now take care of ourselves first. If we are not happy, no one in the
house will be happy.
8. We have come to realize that our household rules are a guidepost, not the law of the land. As a
result, our goal now is not 100 percent compliance on every hand. Rather, the goal is the
maintaining of structure, clarity of roles and the pursuit of happiness for each household
member.
9. We finally accept the fact that our child’s behaviors are not always a reflection of us. Their
behaviors are sometimes a reflection of their pains. Yesterday’s child engineered troubles and
turmoil no longer get the best of us. We have learned to draw the line and to avoid unnecessarily
taking on the pains of our children.
10. We embrace the fact that everyone can change, even our child. A daily quick look in the
mirror confirms within us that every one can change for the better.
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Closing Views
Parents from five cultural groups participated in this study. In addition to differences
between cultural groups, there were variations within each group, including levels of acculturation, socioeconomic status, and education. Although the parent groups were diverse, the
results of this study show that parents from different cultural backgrounds share many similar
values and norms about how children should behave and what parents should do to address
misbehavior.
Our research indicates that parents desire their children to be respectful, obedient, polite,
etc. Also, there was the shared belief that children who do not perform well in school, who are
disrespectful and who have temper tantrums are an embarrassment.
The parents in this study agreed that when children misbehave, disciplinary tactics such
as expressing disapproval, explaining and setting limits should be attempted before resorting to
more punitive practices such as isolation or taking away privileges.
Parents’ thoughts about child rearing and the ways in which they interact with children
are culturally determined. Particular parenting or developmental goals need to be explored to
advance our understanding of parenting style variations among African American and Latino
families, who often share the common experience of living in poor, inner-city neighborhoods and
low-income economic status.
Copyright (January 2010) Recco S. Richardson Consulting, Inc. This publication is protected. Individuals
may print or download the content of this publication only for their personal use. Content may not be
reproduced on websites without expressed permission. Please link instead.
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References
Baumrind, D. (1966). Effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child
Development, 37, 887-907.
Cheung, C., & McBride-Chang, C. (2008). Relations of perceived maternal parenting
style, practices, and learning motivation to academic competence in Chinese children. MerrillPalmer Quarterly, 54, 1-22.
Discipline Guidelines for Parents. (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2009 from Wikipedia
Website: http://www.en.wikipedia.org
Friman, P. C. Parenting Techniques and Guidelines for Discipline. Retrieved November
28, 2009 from Boys Town Saving Children & Healing Families Website:
http://www.parenting.org
Kohler, J., Grotevant, H, & McRoy, R. (2002). Adopted adolescent’s pre-occupation
with adoption: The impact on adoptive family relationships. Journal of Marriage & Family, 64,
75-86.
Lubell KM, Lofton T, Singer HH. Promoting Healthy Parenting Practices Across
Cultural Groups: A CDC Research Brief. Atlanta (GA): Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; 2008.
MaCaulay, A., Griffin, K., Gronewold, E., & Botvin, G. (2002) Parenting practices and
adolescent drug-related knowledge, attitudes, norms and behaviors.” Journal of Alcohol & Drug
Education, 22, 67-83.
Melendez L. (2005) Parental beliefs and practices around early self-regulation: The
impact of culture and immigration. Infants Young Child, 18, 136-46.
Mendenhall, T., Berge, J., Wrobel, G., Grovevant, H., & McRoy, R. (2004). Adolescent’s
satisfaction with contact in adoption. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21, 175-190.
Richardson, R.S. (2007). Parenting the defiant child. Unpublished manuscript.
Roche, K. M., Ensminger, M. E., & Cherlin, A. J. (2007). Variations in Parenting and
Adolescent Outcomes Among African American and Latino Families Living in Low-Income,
Urban Areas. Journal of Family Issue, 28, 882-909.
Santrock, J. W. (2007). A topical approach to life-span development, Ed. Third New
York: McGraw-Hill.
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Recco Santee Richardson, Ph.D., & Giovanna Adams, BA
Small, S., & Eastman, G. (1997). Rearing adolescents in contemporary society: A
conceptual framework for understanding the responsibilities and needs of parents. ARC
Professional Service Group, 87-103
Springs, B., Rosen, K., & Matheson, J. (2002). How parents experience a transition to
adolescent: A qualitative study. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 11, 411-425.
Other Scholarly Articles By Recco S. Richardson
Richardson, Recco S., & Thompson, Tracey. (2010). Aging out issues for youth and case
mangers. Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S., & McGowan, Sabrina. (2010). Adult survivors of childhood
abuse/neglect: Keys to breaking the generational cycle. Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. & Adams, Giovanna. (2010). Cultural variations of discipline and
parental expectations. Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. (2009). Youth who present with internal and behavioral issues.
Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. (2009). Parenting the sexually abused child. Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S., Peraino, Robin & Garza, Cristina. (2009). Their children, my
responsibility: A clinical look at grandparent caregiving solutions & strategies. Unpublished
manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. (2009). Domestic violence and children: How parents and mental health
providers can address the fall out. Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. (2009). Psychological and educational insight: A closer look at fetal
alcohol spectrum disorders and executive functioning. Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. (2008). Bias in the counseling session: Are religious individuals
pathologized? Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. & Garza, Cristina. (2008). Restoring the joy of parenting by
overcoming shame and guilt. Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. & Williams, Tywanda. (2008). Strategies for helping children,
adolescents & adults overcome the stigma associated with receiving mental health treatment.
Unpublished manuscript.
Richardson, Recco S. (2007). Parenting the defiant child. Unpublished manuscript.
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Culture & Parenting
Recco Santee Richardson, Ph.D., & Giovanna Adams, BA
Available Resources From Recco S. Richardson
Compact Disc
CD # 12006: Single Parents Raising Boys to Be Men
CD # 12017: Raising Girls to Be Women
CD # 12028: Working Professionals Guide to Servicing At-Risk Youth
CD # 12039: Indicators of Child Sexual Abuse & Recovery Strategies
CD # 12040: Young Adults Who Excel
CD # 12051: Unraveling the Defiant Child
CD # 12062: Straight Talk to Special Education Students
CD # 12073: Parenting the Angry Child Part #1
CD # 12084: Parenting the Angry Child Part #2
CD # 12095 Where Do We Go From Here
CD # 12101: Helping Blended Families Bend Without Breaking
CD # 13011: Overcoming Family Conflict
CD # 13126: No Child Will Disrespect Me
Books
Richardson, Recco. (2009). Parenting the angry child. Santee Publication,
Flint, MI 2009
Richardson, Recco & Young Authors. (2009). Listen to me: A journey into the expressions of
our youth. Santee Publication, Flint, MI 2009
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