The Height of European Imperialism 1800-1920 A.D.
I. “New” Imperialism in Asia, Africa, India, Middle East
A. Imperialism: extension of a nation’s power over other people, lands, resources, and
commercial activities in order to maintain an empire
1. Causes/Motives
a. Economics- resources, labor, markets, routes
b. Rivalry- European competition for national wealth
c. Social Darwinism- perceptions of racial and cultural superiority justifying
dominance of “lesser” peoples of the world in order to advance civilization
****** “White Man’s Burden”
d. Missionary efforts by Protestants and Catholics
2. Leading Nations Participating in the “Scramble”
a. Great Britain- India, China, Egypt, Sudan, Kenya
b. France- Vietnam, Algeria, Lebanon, Cambodia
c. Belgium- Congo, Rwanda
d. Spain- Morocco, Philippines, Cuba
e. Germany- Cameroon, Namibia, Tanzania
f. Portugal- Angola, Mozambique
g. Italy- Libya, Somalia
h. Netherlands (Dutch)- South Africa, Indonesia
B. Types of Imperial Control
1. Direct rule- introduction of foreign government implanted in the colonial
structure
2. Indirect rule- use of native rulers and institutions
B. Economics of “New” Imperialism
1. Complete dominance of supply, demand, prices, wages, and taxation led to
accumulation of wealth for parent countries and improved standards of living
2. Civilizing the world outside of Europe involved construction of infrastructure
and education led by European administrators
a. Railroads, electricity, schools, hospitals, mail services, export-import
direction, plantation agriculture, mining of precious metals/diamonds
b. Mother countries emphasized exports of raw material to be processed in
Europe and sold back to colonies and worldwide
C. Resistance to Colonial Rule- Early Nationalist Movements
1. Ruling classes, educated elites, and peasants had different means of forming
armed and peaceful resistance to Western imperialism
2. Western schooling in some regions had a dual effect on the potential for
resistance
a. Some natives appreciated and welcomed Western cultural changes and
benefitted economically
b. Some natives benefitted educationally and became more articulate in
their ability to lead their people in their struggles for independence
II. European Empires in Africa
A. Early Colonialism pre-1800
1. Indirect control over small areas was common and European populations in
African territory slowly increased
2. 1870-1900 direct rule through annexation of larger portions of African
territory increased
(partially due to a weakened Ottoman Empire)
3. Britain, France, Belgium, and German rivalry provoked European nations into
holding the Berlin Conference 1885 to divide the rest of the continent
B. Nationalism Against Imperialism
1. Egypt broke away from the Ottomans in 1805 and began to modernize and
make efforts to resist foreign domination
2. Competition between Britain and France over the Suez Canal led to war and
indirect control of Egypt by Britain in 1875
3. Britain expanded south into Sudan which promptly led to aggressive resistance
by the Mahdi Islamic Army which declared JIHAD and fought until 1898
C. Central African Imperialism
1. Control of uncharted territories followed the explorations and records of David
Livingstone and Henry Stanley
D. South Africa and the Boer War 1899
1. Dutch Afrikaners had populated colonies throughout the early 1800s but lacked
the strength and cooperation with native African tribes to resist the British taking
over
a. The Zulu Tribe, Dutch colonists, and British imperialists remained locked
in conflict throughout the late 1800s
2. British imperialist Cecil Rhodes headed the British expansion over South Africa
and saw to the securing of British interests at all costs
E. Major Effects of Imperialism in Africa, SE Asia, India
1. Economic and political decisions made by foreigners
2. Pre-existing tribal/religious tensions often were made more severe by
European presence
3. Cultural diffusion of Europeans to subject peoples with mixed results
4. Nationalism and resistance movements developed to oppose foreign control
5. Modernization of transportation, education, infrastructure, further globalization
of economics
III. The British Raj in India
A. Colonial Rule of British East India Company 1757-1857
1. Merchant-Military operations had led to major territorial expansion over the
weakened Mughal Dynasty
2. EIC employed thousands of Indian subjects on payroll as soldiers but British
policies eventually brought about conflict
a. Sepoy Mutiny 1857
1. Causes: Muslims and Hindus were angered
by British use of
animal fats to grease rifle cartridges (lack of respect for native
customs)
2. Effects: Punishment of Indian soldiers turned into a wider rebellion
that lasted nearly a year with atrocities committed by both sides
a. Indian Nationalism/Organization for Independence further
developed
b. British Parliament took direct control of all Indian affairs
under Queen Victoria and through viceroys
B. Benefits and Costs of Colonial Rule
1. Hindu-Muslim tensions minimized by British
2. British establish efficient and impartial government
3. Railroads, telegraph services, educational system
4. Tax/rent collection hurt rural farm families
5. Shift from food production to cotton affected Indian nutrition in rural areas
6. Cultural diffusion with mixed results
IV. Nation Building in Latin America
A. Nationalist Revolts Against Spanish Empire
1. Enlightenment Philosophy and American and French Revolutions would
influence anti-imperial groups across the world in the 1800s
2. Colonial Latin America had ideal circumstances that bred revolution against
Spanish authority
a. Rigid social stratification and elite political power of Spanish born leaders
(peninsulares)
b. Massive underclasses of Amer-indians and people of mixed race
(mestizo and mulatto)
c. Educated middle class (creole) with minimal political power often
marginalized due to their Latin American birthplace
d. Inspirational rebellion of Haiti’s slaves under Francois-Dominique
Toussaint L’Ouverture in 1804
B. Spain’s Empire Begins To Break Apart
1. 1st Mexican Revolution 1810-1823
a. Fr. Miguel Hidalgo and Augustin de Iturbide
2. South American Revolts 1810-1838
a. Jose de San Martin and Simon Bolivar led multiple movements for
independence and worked for constitutional governments
C. Incomplete Revolutions- threats of foreign intervention (Concert of Europe) and rise
of Caudillos (dictators) interfered with nation building after succeeding in gaining
national independence
1. New nations often turned to dictatorship to prevent instability and further
revolution/force unity
Ex. Mexican leader Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna 1833-1855 (11 year term
for presidency?)
D. New Imperialism in Latin America
1. Loans and foreign investments by British and American gov’t and private
businesses were regarded as foreign controls on aspects of Latin American
society
(ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM)
2. Latin American economies remained heavily agricultural and export-based
giving the industrialized Britain and United States an economic edge
3. Some Latin American citizens saw the U.S. and Britain as role models for their
nations while others viewed them as violators of their national independence by
the 1900s
Ex.
Mexican-American War 1840s
Spanish-American War 1890s
Mexican Revolution 1917
Cuban Revolution 1959
4. Early 20th Century political and often military “interventionism” left many Latin
American countries and their citizens disgruntled with the United States
(THROUGH COLD WAR ERA 1945-1990s!!!)
V. Decline of China
A. Euro-Imperialism During the Qing Dynasty
1. External Pressures- Western trade imbalance, currency exchange, and unfair
treaties helped Chinese decline
a. Opium War and Treaty of Nanjing 1842 enabled Britain to gain a
significant edge in Chinese commerce
b. 1850-1900 Chinese ports, provinces, and businesses had been divided
up into economic spheres of influence by Britain, France, Germany,
Russia, Austria, U.S., Japan
c. Open Door Policy proposed by U.S. in 1899 furthered elements of
Western competition and economic control in China
d. Sino-Japanese War 1894 resulted in losing territory to Japan
2. Internal Pressures- government corruption and incompetence, peasant unrest,
and culture divided over tradition and modernization
a. Tai Ping Rebellion 1850-1864 was a movement that favored swift
reforms in land policy, removal of Qing government, and ended up
massacring over 25,000 people
b. Qing reformers vs. Qing traditionalists
ex. Emperor Guangxu vs. Empress CiXi
1. “self-strengthening” reforms and promotion of modernization and
elements of democratization were struck down by Chinese
conservatives
c. Boxer Rebellion 1900 was a movement that was anti-Qing and AntiWestern that was eventually put down by a European coalition
3. Growing anarchy in China led Europeans to increase their role in maintaining
order over their respective spheres of influence and further weakened Qing
authority
VI. Revolution in China
A. Reform and Fall of the Qing Dynasty
1. Empress Cixi allowed for formation of provincial assemblies, but without any
real legitimate authority
2. Educated elites in China began calling for more serious reforms
a. Sun Yat-Sen and the Guomindang pushed for three-step revolution to
rid China of poor government and foreign imperialism
1. Military coup d’état
2. Transitional government (dictatorship???)
3. Constitutional Republic under principles of nationalism, democracy,
and pursuit of livelihood
3. Revolution of 1911 began as “leaderless revolt” and succeeded in bringing the
collapse of the Qing government
a. Revolutionary alliance turned to General Yuan Shigai to serve as
dictator due to experience and loyalty of the military
b. Yuan Shigai’s dictatorship proved to be disastrous as his government fell
apart after 1916 and China descended into long civil war and regional
governments under “warlords”
B. Cultural Changes in China
1. Imperialism, Government neglect, and Civil War all contributed to poverty and
underdevelopment throughout urban and rural China
2. Modernization of transportation, communications, exportation, and joining
global economy were all aspects of foreign control
3. In addition to political divisions, China faced cultural turmoil over modernism
vs. traditionalism which would continue to plague the process of reform or
revolution
a. Growing urban middle class was drastically different from rural peasant
classes
VII. Japan’s Meiji Restoration
A. Decline of Tokugawa Shogunate 1850-1870
1. Japanese isolationism and ethnocentrism had serious consequences as
Japan was industrially and militarily behind Western nations
2. United States and Treaty of Kanagawa 1853-54
a. Commodore Matthew Perry’s Naval Fleet opened up trade negotiations
through both intimidation, diplomacy, and Japanese realization of Western
superiority
3. Resistance to Western influence grew strong and resulted in SatsumaChoshu Rebellion of 1863-1868 led by samurai clans looking to protect
Japanese traditions and dignity
4. Rebellion succeeded in coup d’état against the Tokugawa government and
began to implement Western reforms anyway
a. Emperor Mutsuhito- MEIJI= “enlightened”=seeking proactive changes
b. Meiji Policies stripped traditional daimyo and samurai of their land and
titles in order to modernize the political system
(Negative Reaction??? Saigo Takamori rebelled again against the new
Westernization policy)
c. German Imperial-style constitution was drafted by 1889 which led to
extremely authoritarian Executive authority
d. American style mandatory education system 1871
e. Mandatory military service in Imperial Army 1871
f. Meiji government gave tax subsidies to rising industries such as
armaments, naval supply, and railways
g. Western style of dress, hair, entertainment began to be encouraged as
well while retaining respect for Japan’s culture at the same time
B. Imperialist Japan
1. Japan wished to expand, colonize, and gain wealth as Britain had throughout
the world
2. Being a small island nation required conquests to gain natural resources to
feed Japan’s growing industries
3. Japanese militarism led to expansion in East Asia
a. Sino-Japanese War 1874
b. Sino-Japanese War 1894
c. Russo-Japanese War 1904
4. Western foreign policy began to collide with Japanese nationalism and
resistance to falling to Western Powers
(Path to WWII??)