The Last Great Islamic Empires: Between 1450 and 1650, three mighty Islamic empires (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal) reached the height of their power, bringing Islam to the peak of its global influence and cultural power. They built great cities and the arts flourished. But at heart, they were deeply conservative, the fruit of hundreds of years of
Islamic growth and cultural development, rather than innovators (outside military affairs).
Powerful, wealthy, and successful, they changed little and thus missed out on the developments which would enable Europeans to eventually bring them down.
The Ottoman Empire (1299–1922 AD): The Ottomans were originally Turks from central Asia, one of many groups brought into the old Caliphate as mercenaries and slaves. In 1299, they founded one of many small states along the Byzantine and
Caliphate's borders. In the fourteenth and fifteenth century, they pushed west, eventually encircling Constantinople and taking it in 1453 AD. It would become their capital under the name Istanbul. The empire's growth really took off under Selim I (1512-20) and
Suleyman the Lawgiver (1520-66). By 1566, the Ottomans controlled southeastern
Europe, modern Turkey and Iraq, western Arabia, Egypt and the Northern African coast, and the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. They held the title padishah (Emperor) and the title 'Protector of the Sacred Places'. (Namely, Medina and Mecca.)
The Classical Ottoman Order: Mehmed II (1451-81) replaced the tribal chieftans with appointees loyal to himself, set up his own law code and organized the ulama (teachers of Islamic Law) into a hierarchy. Suleyman the Lawgiver regulated every aspect of life, reconcilled customary and Shari'a law, and regularized the bureaucracy. (Heritage, p. 614)
Military State: The entire state was organized as a military with a nation attached to it. All members of the government held military style ranks.
The ruling class were Moslems, but there were many Jewish or Christian subjects as well. Government had three branches: ruling, military, and religious.
The Ruling Family: Young princes were sent to govern provinces to learn to rule. They tended to kill each other off at succession time. The succession was thus 'left to God' in theory, and left to the Strongest to take over and kill the others in practice.
The Grand Mufti: The religious teachers of the law were co-opted by placing them in a hierarchy under the Grand Mufti . This included the court system as well. The Ottomans successfully tamed the ulama through this institution. The supreme law was the secular adminstrative law, the Qanon , supplemented by Shar'ia (sacred law).
The Military: The key to their power was the strong military. The early use of noble cavalry was replaced with time by slave soldiers, levied from the peasantry. The most famous slave corps were the Jannisaries , taken from Christian families as young boys and raised Moslem.
After Suleyman: Challenges and Change: The seventeenth and eighteenth century were a mixture of cultural accomplishment, economic weakness, and declining military strength.

Political and Military Developments: After 1600, the Jannisary corps became increasingly corrupt and troublesome. They began meddling in politics as well. Leaders did their best to reform the military but without much long term success, especially not the problem of unemployed mercenaries in peace time.
Economic Developments: The growing military drained the state revenues and the coinage was debased to pay for it, leading to inflation.
Worse, the Ottomans discouraged exports and encouraged imports, leading the country into heavy debt. As central authority decayed, local notables embezzled tax revenues.
The Arts: The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries saw a boom in the arts. The ulema, however, increasingly became a hereditary caste.
Ottoman art developed its own style under men such as imperial master architect Mimar Koca Sinan ibn Abd al-Mannan aka Sinan, or Mimar
Sinan (1489-1588). Sinan served as the chief architect for four Sultans
(Selim I, Suleiman I, Selim II and Murad III). Over three hundred structures, all the major ones of the last fifty years of his life, were constructed with his guidance. His disciples went on to dominate Ottoman architecture. He was born a Christian and swept into imperial service by the slave draft system and was a Jannisary. Originally trained as a military engineer, his approach to architecture was empirical instead of theoretical.
His work featured domed areas as centerpieces with a variety of kinds of elements surrounding them. He felt his masterpiece was the Selimiye
Mosque in Edirne, which was intended to outdo the Hagia Sophia in
Istanbul in terms of size and glory. Ottoman writing became much more wide spread thanks to the printing press, and the early 18 th
century is considered the golden age of Ottoman poetry.
Society: The Ottoman Empire was a multi-ethnic, multi-religious state ruled by Moslem Turks, but inhabited by many religions and more ethnicities. Every group was organized into local communities ( millets ).
Non-Moslems had freedom of religion at home but couldn't prosleytize and paid special taxes. Millets were largely self-governing and led by religious leaders. Increasing taxes eventually led Christians to hope for outside liberation, looking to Russia and Austria for help. State policy was remarkably just to all nationalities, though, in most areas. The coffeehouse became a major source of social interaction for Ottoman subjects and the Turks alike. (In theory, no moslem could drink alcohol, so the coffeehouse took the place of bars/taverns/pubs/etc.) Many coffeehouses also featured some kind of entertainment or activity.
The Decline of Ottoman Military and Political Power: Defeated at Vienna in their last great offensive in 1683 due to Polish intervention, the Ottomans were now driven out of Hungary and then lost the Crimea in 1774. The end of conquest wrecked an economy based on conquest. They could not afford constant war with Russia, Austria, and the Safavid Iranians to the east. In more distant areas, local officials gained a lot of independence. They became known as 'The

Sick Man of Europe', propped up and exploited by Europeans, who did not trust each other enough to simply chop the country into pieces and each take one.
The Safavid Shi'ite Empire (1501-1722 AD)
Origins: The Safavids began as a Sufi (Moslem mystics) order in Azerbaijan in modern Iran. In the fifteenth century, they allied with Shi'ites and their leaders claimed descent from the twelfth Imam (the original hereditary leaders of Shi'ism were the Imams, descended from Ali, nephew of Mohammed). Groups of
Turkish horse warriors gave their allegiance to the Safavids. A leader named
Isma'il I (1501-24 AD) led these warriors to victory in 1501, founding the
Safavid empire. By 1506, he controlled modern Iraq and the westernmost regions of modern Iran. By 1512, he had allied with the leader of the Mughal state and controlled all of modern Iran as well. Isma'il took the title of Shah and set up a state based upon existing Persian bureaucracy, itself based on the system developed centuries earlier by the Seljuk Turks in the 11 th
century AD. The
Ottomans took Iraq from him, forcing him to move his capital east.
Shah Abbas I (1588-1629): He rebuilt the strength of the state after a time of turmoil and invasion, defeating the Ottomans in the west and the Uzbeks in the east. He set up the capital at the very Persian city of Isfahan, beautifying and modernizing it. He also allied with Europeans against the Ottomans, opening trade with the English and the Dutch and throwing out the Portuguese. Shi'ite
Islam now became the official religion of the state. However, he fell out with the ulama.
Safavid Decline: A combination of weak leadership, Uzbek and Ottoman attacks, economic decline, and the growing power and bigotry of the Shi'ite ulama brought down the Safavids. Sunni Afghans revolted against Shi'ite persecution.
The Afghans brought down the Safavids in 1722 and took over.
Culture and Learning: In the sixteenth and seventeenth century, the arts flourished. Painting showed scenes from everyday life and portraits. Ceramic tiles, porcelain, and carpets of high quality were produced. Isfahan became one of the most ornate and beautiful cities in the world. The Ishraqi or "Illumintionist" school of theology combined philosophy and Shi'ite mysticism. The biggest legacy was a revival and transmission of older Persian culture to the future.
The Mughals (1526-1827)
Origins: The Mughals were central Asian Turks, whose leadership was descended from Tamerlane. In 1525-7, the founder of the dynasty, Babur , swept into Northern Indian and conquered the remains of the Dehli Sultanate. The empire reached its peak under the mighty Akbar the Great.
Akbar the Great (1556-1605): He conquered Northern India and central India.
He reorganized the government system and lowered tensions with the Hindus. He was tolerant of and interested in all religions.
The Last Great Mughals: Akbar was followed by Jahangir (1605-27), Shah
Jahan (1628-58) and Aurangzeb (1658-1707). Their age was the peak of Mughal culture, but in time, the cost of war and growing religious intolerance sapped the strength of the state. The arrival of English traders who set up a "factory" (trading

post, actually) under Jahangir was a sign of the troubles to come when Mughal unity declined and the British East India Company began slowly gobbling up the empire in the 18 th century. Between 1631 and 1653, Shah Jahan built the Taj
Mahal, one of the world's greatest pieces of architecture, as a memorial for his beloved wife. Continued efforts to take over Southern India drained the state's resources. Aurangzeb abandoned religious toleration, leading to internal disorder.
Sikhs: During this time, the Sikh movement took shape from the teachings of
Guru Nanak (1469-1538). The Sikhs were monotheists, but not Moslem or
Hindu, led by a series of Gurus who eventually had to turn them into a military movement in the face of Mughal persecuriton under Aurangzeb. Sikh teachings emphasized meditation, diligent and honest work, and sharing with other believers. The Sikh holy scriptures are treated as a Guru in their own right, containing the teachings of the first nine Gurus. Sikhs are noted for not cutting their hair and wearing turbans. They aspire to sainthood, but also ready themselves for war when necessary.
Marathas: The Hindu Marathas rose up against persecution to found their own regional state in the mid-17 th
century, though Aurangzeb conquered them. They still resisted after that and rose again after his death to control the Deccan.
Political Decline: After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal state began to disintegrate, losing ground to rebels but also to regional governors usurping power. The later Mughals were weaklings, who lost control of their own government. The British East India company began gobbling up India piece by piece, finally taking over totally in the early 19 th century.
Religious Developments: Mughal eclectism and tolerance was matched at first in the Hindu community, where a variety of syncretic mystical traditions developed. Bakhti (devotional) worship also flourished. After Akbar's death, however, increasing conservative backlash shut down religious dialogue.
Islamic Asia:
Central Asia—Islamization and Isolation: As Central Asia became more settled and urbanized after Tamerlane, Islam spread in the cities and from the cities to the countryside. The Uzbeks and Chagatay Turks founded major moslem states. In 1428, Turks and Mongols came together under Uzbek rule. Khan
Muhammad Shaybani (1451-1510) conquered the Timurid Empire, creating the
Uzbek Khanate. The Chagatay Turks founded a major state further east, close to
China, which eventually conquered them.
Consequences of the Shi'ite Rift: Central Asian Moslems were cut off from western Moslems by the rift between Iranian Shi'ites and western Sunnis. Iranian and Sunni culture went their own ways.
Power Shifts in the Southern Seas: Islam had spread after 1000 AD across Southeast Asia, carried by traders, and adapting to local conditions. They replaced old Hindu and Buddhist dominated trade networks. In 1498, the Portuguese reached Eastern Africa and challenged
Moslem trade networks. Superior warships and strong national backing enabled the Portuguese to triumph and take over. Islam lost power but continued to spread in many areas. European culture failed to spread, except in the Phillipines of Spain. Eventually, the Dutch moved in and took over, but their culture didn't spread either.