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NOTES REGARDING HISTORICAL AND REFORMATION SITES ITALY © 2010 H.G. Harker February 2010 Overseas Travel ITALY Page 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS ..............................................................................................................................2 ITALY ............................................................................................................................................................9 S.D.A. CHURCH DETAILS ...........................................................................................................................9 Italian Union of Churches ...............................................................................................................................9 Some Churches in Italy ....................................................................................................................................9 ROME (ROMA) ............................................................................................................................................9 Accommodation in Rome ...............................................................................................................................10 A. THE COLOSSEUM AREA TO VICTOR EMMANUEL’S MONUMENT ....................................10 THE COLOSSEUM (AMPHITHEATRUM FLAVIUM) ..............................................................................10 ARCH OF CONSTANTINE .........................................................................................................................11 PALATINE MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITIES..................................................................................................12 ARCH OF TITUS (ARCO DI TITO).............................................................................................................12 FORUM (FORO ROMANO) ........................................................................................................................12 MAMERTINE PRISON (CARCERE MAMERTINO – OR S. PIETRO IN CARCERE) .............................13 TRAJAN’S FORUM AND COLUMN ..........................................................................................................14 VICTOR EMMANUEL’S MONUMENT (VITTORIANO) .........................................................................14 VENETIAN PALACE & MUSEUM (PALAZZO VENEZIA & MUSEUM) ...............................................14 IMPERIAL PALACE RUINS AND STADIUM OF DOMITIAN ................................................................15 FORO DI AUGUSTO....................................................................................................................................15 DOMUS AREA .............................................................................................................................................15 B. EAST OF THE COLOSSEUM .............................................................................................................15 BASILICA OF ST. CLEMENS (SAN CLEMENTE) ....................................................................................15 VICUS PAPISSA ..........................................................................................................................................15 ST JOHN LATERAN SQUARE (PIAZZA DI S. GIOVANNI IN LATERANO) .........................................16 The Egyptian Obelisk ....................................................................................................................................16 ST. JOHN’S BAPTISTERY ..........................................................................................................................16 BASILICA OF ST. JOHN LATERAN (S. GIOVANNI IN LATERNO) ......................................................16 TRICLINIUM OF POPE LEO III (TRICLINIO LEONIANO) .....................................................................17 PORTA ASINARIA (GATE OF DONKEYS) ..............................................................................................18 SCALA SANTA ............................................................................................................................................18 CHURCH OF SANTA CROCE IN GERUSALEMME ................................................................................19 MUSEUM OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ................................................................................................19 BASILICA DI PORTA MAGGIORE ............................................................................................................19 TEMPLO DI MINERVA ...............................................................................................................................19 C. BETWEEN THE COLOSSEUM AND THE TIBER .........................................................................20 THE CHURCH AND STEPS OF ST. MARIA IN ARACOELI ....................................................................20 CAPITAL SQUARE (PIAZZA DEL CAMPIDOGLIO) ..............................................................................20 CAPITOLENE MUSEUM (MUSEO CAPITOLINA) OR NEW PALACE (PALAZZO NUOVO) .............21 CONSERVATORY PALACE (PALAZZO CONSERVATORI) .................................................................21 PALACE OF THE SENATE (PALAZZO SENATORIO) ............................................................................21 CAPITOLINE HILL ......................................................................................................................................22 TEMPLE OF JUPITER .................................................................................................................................22 TARPEIAN ROCK .......................................................................................................................................22 THEATRE OF MARCELLUS (TEATRO DI MARCELLO) .......................................................................22 JEWISH SYNAGOGUE AND GHETTO .....................................................................................................22 Overseas Travel ITALY Page 3 TIBER ISLAND (ISOLA TIBERINA) ..........................................................................................................22 PONS AEMILIUS .........................................................................................................................................23 THE MOUTH OF TRUTH (BOCCA DELLA VERITA) ..............................................................................23 THE FORTUNA VIRILIS AND THE TEMPLE OF VESTA .......................................................................23 D. SOUTH OF THE COLOSSEUM .........................................................................................................23 THE PALATINE ...........................................................................................................................................23 CIRCUS MAXIMUS (CIRCO MASSIMO) ..................................................................................................24 CHURCH OF SANTA PRISCA ....................................................................................................................24 BATHS OF CARACALLA ...........................................................................................................................24 E. THE CATACOMBS AND SOUTH OUTSIDE THE WALLS ...........................................................25 WALLS OF ROME (MURA AURELIA)......................................................................................................25 ST SEBASTIAN’S GATE (PORTA SAN SEBASTIANO) ..........................................................................25 APPIAN WAY (VIA APPIA ANTICA) ........................................................................................................25 DOMINE QUO VADIS .................................................................................................................................26 CATACOMBS ..............................................................................................................................................26 CATACOMB OF ST CALLISTUS (SAN CALLISTO)................................................................................26 CATACOMB OF ST. SEBASTIAN (S. SEBASTIANO) .............................................................................27 CATACOMB OF DOMITILLA ....................................................................................................................27 CATACOMB OF PRISCILLA ......................................................................................................................27 GATE OF ST PAUL (PORTA S. PAOLO) ...................................................................................................27 PYRAMID OF CAIO CESTIO......................................................................................................................28 CATHEDRAL OF ST PAULS BEYOND THE WALLS ..............................................................................28 THREE FOUNTAINS ABBEY (TRE FONTAINE) .....................................................................................28 F. BETWEEN THE COLOSSEUM AND THE TERMINI ....................................................................28 CHURCH OF ST. PETER IN CHAINS (ST PIETRO IN VINCOLI) ............................................................28 CATHEDRAL OF SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE .......................................................................................29 G. WEST FROM THE COLOSSEUM ....................................................................................................30 PIAZZA DI CAMPO DEI FIORI ..................................................................................................................30 CHURCH OF JESUS ....................................................................................................................................30 H. THE COLOSSEUM NORTH TO MILVIAN BRIDGE ....................................................................30 CHURCH OF S. MARIA SOPRA MINERVA..............................................................................................30 PANTHEON .................................................................................................................................................31 CHURCH OF ST IGNATIUS LOYOLA (SANT’IGNAZIO DI LOYOLA) .................................................32 PALACE OF THE ROMAN COLLEGE (PALAZZO DEL COLLEGIO ROMANO)..................................32 Caricature of Alexamenos .............................................................................................................................32 OBELISK OF MONTECITORIO .................................................................................................................33 COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS (COLUMN DI MARCO AURELIO) ...............................................33 CHURCH OF SAN SILVESTRO IN CAPITE ..............................................................................................34 TREVI FOUNTAIN ......................................................................................................................................34 COLLEGE FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE FAITH ............................................................................34 COLONNA DELL’IMMACOLATA ............................................................................................................34 SPANISH STEPS (SCALINATTA DELLA TRINITA DEL MONTI) ........................................................34 MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS .................................................................................................................35 ALTAR OF PEACE (ARA PACIS)...............................................................................................................35 PIETRO MASCAGNI ...................................................................................................................................35 QUIRINALE PALACE .................................................................................................................................35 PEOPLES SQUARE (PIAZZA DEL POPOLO) ...........................................................................................36 SANTA MARIA DEL POPOLO ...................................................................................................................36 THE PINCIO .................................................................................................................................................36 VILLA BORGHESE .....................................................................................................................................36 BORGHESE GALLERY AND MUSEUM ...................................................................................................37 Overseas Travel ITALY Page 4 VILLA MEDICI ............................................................................................................................................37 MILVIAN BRIDGE ( PONTE MILVIO) ......................................................................................................37 I. AROUND THE PIAZZA NAVONA .....................................................................................................38 Piazza Navona ...............................................................................................................................................38 Fountains .......................................................................................................................................................38 Church of Sant Agnese in Agone ...................................................................................................................38 Napoleon Museum (Museo Napoleonico)......................................................................................................38 J. THE WEST BANK OF THE TIBER ...................................................................................................39 Ponte St Angelo .............................................................................................................................................39 Castle of St Angelo (Castel S. Angelo) ..........................................................................................................39 Site of Louis Pascale’s Martyrdom ...............................................................................................................39 K. ST PETERS CATHEDRAL & VATICAN MUSEUM AREA ..........................................................40 Vatican Corridor ...........................................................................................................................................40 Via Della Conciliaizone ................................................................................................................................40 Church of Santa Maria in Tranpontina .........................................................................................................40 St Peter’s Square (Piazza S. Pietro) ..............................................................................................................40 The Egyptian Obelisk ....................................................................................................................................41 Fountain of the Four Tiaras ..........................................................................................................................41 St Peter’s Cathedral ......................................................................................................................................41 The Façade ....................................................................................................................................................42 The Portico of Atrium ....................................................................................................................................42 St. Peter’s Basilica ........................................................................................................................................43 The Papal Altar .............................................................................................................................................44 The High Altar and St. Peter’s Chair ............................................................................................................45 The Crypt or Grottoes ...................................................................................................................................46 Vatican Treasures ..........................................................................................................................................46 The Dome or Cupola .....................................................................................................................................46 The Vatican Museum Overview .....................................................................................................................46 Egyptian Museum ..........................................................................................................................................47 Pio-Clementius Museum ................................................................................................................................47 The Raphael Rooms .......................................................................................................................................47 The Room of Constantine ..............................................................................................................................47 The Signature Room ......................................................................................................................................47 Raphael’s Loggia...........................................................................................................................................48 Borgia Apartments.........................................................................................................................................48 Sistine Chapel ................................................................................................................................................48 The Vatican Library ......................................................................................................................................48 L. OTHER AREAS OF THE WEST BANK ............................................................................................49 Museum of Purgatory (Museo del Purgatorio) .............................................................................................49 Corsini Palace ...............................................................................................................................................49 The Janiculum ...............................................................................................................................................49 Garibaldi Monument .....................................................................................................................................50 San Pietro in Montorio ..................................................................................................................................50 The Tempietta ................................................................................................................................................50 Sublicio Bridge (Ponte Sublicius) ..................................................................................................................50 M. OTHER PLACES IN ROME ..............................................................................................................50 The Four Fountains (Le Quattro Fontane)\ ..................................................................................................50 Santa Maria debli Angeli Church ..................................................................................................................51 Porta Pia .......................................................................................................................................................51 Overseas Travel ITALY Page 5 NOTE THE MARBLE PLAQUE AT PORTA PIA TO COMMEMORATE THIS LIBERATION. THERE IS A COLUMN SURROUNDED BY A REPRESENTATION OF VICTORY OUTSIDE THE WALLS – ACROSS THE ROAD FROM PORTA PIA. ................................................................................................................................................................51 Museum of Criminology ................................................................................................................................51 N. AREAS OUTSIDE AND NEARBY ROME ........................................................................................51 HADRIAN’S VILLA - TIVOLI ....................................................................................................................52 OSTIA ...........................................................................................................................................................52 The Isola Sacra Cemetery..............................................................................................................................52 THE NAPLES AREA – AND SOUTH OF ROME ..................................................................................52 CASSINO ......................................................................................................................................................52 Abbey of Montecassino ..................................................................................................................................52 NORTH AND WEST OF NAPLES ...........................................................................................................53 BAIA .............................................................................................................................................................53 CUMA ...........................................................................................................................................................53 SOLFATARA OF THE CAMPI FLEGREI ...................................................................................................54 POZZUOLI ...................................................................................................................................................54 NAPLES .......................................................................................................................................................54 NATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM ...........................................................................................55 SOME ITEMS OF INTEREST .......................................................................................................................55 SOUTH FROM NAPLES ...........................................................................................................................55 HERCULANEUM ........................................................................................................................................55 VESUVIUS ...................................................................................................................................................56 POMPEII .......................................................................................................................................................56 History of the Eruption and Destruction of Pompeii .....................................................................................57 Excavation .....................................................................................................................................................57 Note the Following Places of interest in Pompeii .........................................................................................57 SORRENTO ..................................................................................................................................................58 ISLE OF CAPRI ............................................................................................................................................58 Villa Jovis ......................................................................................................................................................59 The Blue Grotto (Grotta Azzurra) .................................................................................................................59 Anacapri ........................................................................................................................................................60 AMALFI DRIVE ...........................................................................................................................................60 Amalfi ............................................................................................................................................................60 SALERNO.....................................................................................................................................................60 The Cathedral of San Matthew (San Matteo) ................................................................................................60 MATERA ......................................................................................................................................................61 NORTH FROM ROME ..............................................................................................................................61 SPOLETO .....................................................................................................................................................61 NORCIA ........................................................................................................................................................61 ASSISI ...........................................................................................................................................................61 The Basilica di San Francesco ......................................................................................................................61 The Tempio di Minerva .................................................................................................................................62 The Basilica di Santa Chiara.........................................................................................................................62 FLORENCE (FIRENZE)............................................................................................................................62 THE CITY CENTRE AROUND THE DUOMO ...........................................................................................63 Il Duomo ........................................................................................................................................................63 The Baptistery of St. John ..............................................................................................................................63 Piazza Di San Giovanni.................................................................................................................................64 Archbishop’s Palace (Arcivescovile) .............................................................................................................64 Overseas Travel ITALY Page 6 Giotto’s Tower or Campanile ........................................................................................................................64 Museo dell’Opera del Duomo .......................................................................................................................64 TO THE SOUTH & EAST FROM THE DUOMO .......................................................................................65 Piazza Della Signoria ....................................................................................................................................65 Martyrdom Site of Girolamo Savonarola ......................................................................................................65 Neptune Fountain ..........................................................................................................................................65 The Loggia Dei Lanza ...................................................................................................................................65 The Vecchio Palace (Palazzo Vecchio) .........................................................................................................65 The Uffizi Gallery ..........................................................................................................................................66 The Bargello Palace (Palazzo Bargello) .......................................................................................................66 Story of Science Museum (Museo Di Storia Della Scienza) ..........................................................................66 Church of the Holy Cross (Santa Croce) .......................................................................................................66 Dante’s House (Casa di Dante) .....................................................................................................................67 Ponte Vecchio (Vecchio Bridge) ....................................................................................................................67 Pitti Palace (Palazzo Pitti) ............................................................................................................................67 TO THE NORTH OF THE DUOMO ............................................................................................................67 St Mark’s Church ..........................................................................................................................................67 St. Mark’s Convent ........................................................................................................................................67 Galleria Della Academia ...............................................................................................................................68 The Archaeological Museum .........................................................................................................................68 WEST FROM THE DUOMO ........................................................................................................................68 Tourist Stalls (Market) ..................................................................................................................................68 Church of San Lorenzo ..................................................................................................................................68 The Medici Chapels .......................................................................................................................................69 Loggia Del Mercato ......................................................................................................................................69 OUTSIDE THE CITY AREA ........................................................................................................................69 Piazzale Michelangelo...................................................................................................................................69 La Certosa Monastery ...................................................................................................................................69 Italian Adventist College ...............................................................................................................................70 PISA ..............................................................................................................................................................70 The Leaning Tower ........................................................................................................................................70 The Duomo (Cathedral) ................................................................................................................................70 The Baptistery................................................................................................................................................71 The Cemetery and Small Museum .................................................................................................................71 NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN ITALY ..............................................................................................72 BOLOGNA ...................................................................................................................................................72 The Church of San Petronia ..........................................................................................................................72 The Kissing Towers .......................................................................................................................................72 CANOSSA ....................................................................................................................................................72 PARMA .........................................................................................................................................................73 The Baptistery................................................................................................................................................73 BOBBIO ........................................................................................................................................................73 MILAN ..........................................................................................................................................................73 The Duomo - Cathedral .................................................................................................................................73 Church - San Lorenzo Maggiore ...................................................................................................................74 Church - Santa Maria delle Grazie ...............................................................................................................74 Other places of interest: ................................................................................................................................74 AZZANO.......................................................................................................................................................74 TURIN (TORINO) ........................................................................................................................................74 PINEROLO ...................................................................................................................................................75 THE WALDENSIAN VALLEYS .................................................................................................................75 TORRE PELLICE .........................................................................................................................................75 Casa Valdese (Waldensian Headquarters) ....................................................................................................76 Tempio Valdese (Waldensian Church) ..........................................................................................................76 The Waldensian Museum ...............................................................................................................................76 Overseas Travel ITALY Page 7 BOBBIO PELLICE .......................................................................................................................................77 The Sibaud Monument ...................................................................................................................................77 SUBIASC VALLEY .....................................................................................................................................77 Comba dei Carbonieri ...................................................................................................................................77 ANGROGNA VALLEY ...............................................................................................................................77 The College of the Barba ...............................................................................................................................77 The Chanforan Monument .............................................................................................................................78 School Museum (Scuolo Museo) ....................................................................................................................78 Church of the Cave (Gheisa d’ la Tana) .......................................................................................................78 Cliff of Rocciamenent ....................................................................................................................................78 Grisly Reminder of Persecution ....................................................................................................................79 Rocciaglia ......................................................................................................................................................79 Rora Village ..................................................................................................................................................79 CHISONE VALLEY .....................................................................................................................................79 Balziglia.........................................................................................................................................................80 POMEANO ...................................................................................................................................................80 NORTHEASTERN ITALY ........................................................................................................................80 RAVENNA ...................................................................................................................................................80 The Baptistery of Ravenna .............................................................................................................................80 THE RUBICON ............................................................................................................................................81 FERRARA.....................................................................................................................................................81 VERONA ......................................................................................................................................................82 The Arena ......................................................................................................................................................82 The Castelvecchio ..........................................................................................................................................82 Casa di Giulieta .............................................................................................................................................82 PADUA .........................................................................................................................................................82 VENICE ........................................................................................................................................................82 St. Mark’s Belltower ......................................................................................................................................82 Venice Cathedral ...........................................................................................................................................83 TRENT (TRENTO) .......................................................................................................................................83 The Cathedral ................................................................................................................................................83 The Piazza del Duomo ...................................................................................................................................83 The Palazzo Pretorio .....................................................................................................................................83 Santa Maria Maggiore Church .....................................................................................................................84 Piazza Dante..................................................................................................................................................84 The Castello del Buonconsiglio .....................................................................................................................84 THE ITALIAN TYROL AND THE DOLOMITES.......................................................................................84 CHIUSA ........................................................................................................................................................84 PUSTER VALLEY .......................................................................................................................................85 APPENDIX 1 CONSTANTINE ...................................................................................................................85 APPENDIX 2 MITHRAISM ........................................................................................................................86 APPENDIX 3 POPE JOAN ..........................................................................................................................87 APPENDIX 4 THE EVENTS OF CANOSSA ..............................................................................................88 APPENDIX 5 POPE GREGORY VII ...........................................................................................................89 APPENDIX 6 GIORDANO BRUNO ...........................................................................................................91 APPENDIX 7 JOHN MILICZ ......................................................................................................................94 APPENDIX 8 BIOGRAPHY OF LOUIS ALEXANDRE BERTHIER .........................................................95 APPENDIX 9 POPE PIUS VI AND 1798 .....................................................................................................96 APPENDIX 10 THE TREATY OF TOLENTINO........................................................................................97 APPENDIX 11 GIROLAMA SAVANAROLA ...........................................................................................99 APPENDIX 12 BIOGRAPHY OF GALILEO GALILEI ...........................................................................100 APPENDIX 13 BIOGRAPHY OF COLUMBANUS .................................................................................101 APPENDIX 14 THE WALDENSIANS ......................................................................................................102 APPENDIX 15 POEM “THE VAUDOIS TEACHER” .............................................................................104 APPENDIX 16 BIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM FAREL ..............................................................................105 Overseas Travel ITALY Page 8 APPENDIX 17 SUMMARY OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT ...................................................................106 Overseas Travel ITALY Page 9 ITALY S.D.A. CHURCH DETAILS Italian Union of Churches Address: Lungotevere Michelangelo 7, 00192 Rome. Phone: +39 (06) 3609-591 Fax: +39 (06) 3609-5952 Email: uicca@avventisti.it or info@avventisti.it The Union Conference Headquarters and church are on the bank of the Tiber River. Take the Underground (Metro) on Linear A – direction Ottaviano to Lepanto Station. Then walk back two blocks to the street along the river (it changes its name constantly). The headquarters are beside the rail bridge. Staff here are busy and thousands of visitors come to Rome annually. Don’t expect a guided tour of Rome. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 54.726’ E 12 28.249’. Some Churches in Italy Firenze, Via S. Gallo 2 Firenze, Via del Pergolino 12 Napoli, Via T. Campanella 10 Roma, Lungtovere Michelangelo 6/A (part of the Union headquarters) Roma, Via dei Fiorrancini 41 Roma Ostia, Via Delle Gondole 35 Rome Appia, Via Marion Laziale 13 – 19 Torino, Via Rosta 3 Torre Pellice, Via G. Giolitti 6 ROME (ROMA) Rome has so many attractions and places of significant historical importance. To facilitate visits to the many places in the city, it has been divided into sections as follows: - A. The Colosseum Area to Victor Emmanuel’s Monument B. East of the Colosseum C. Between the Colosseum and the Tiber D. South of the Colosseum E. The Catacombs and south to outside the walls F. Between the Colosseum and the Termini G. West from the Colosseum H. From the Colosseum North to Milvian Bridge I. Around the Piazza Navonna J. The West Bank of the Tiber K. Other Places in Rome L. Areas Outside and Nearby Rome Overseas Travel ITALY Page 10 The eternal city has much to offer. Several days will be necessary to see even the major sites related to great historical events. Be ever alert for pickpockets and rascals with newspapers over an arm (even girls). Young Gypsy girls in groups are also a danger. Take special precautions when travelling on buses and trains which are usually very crowded and provide good ‘pickings’ for pick pockets. Just as in any city, obtain a map of the city before venturing anywhere. Guide Books are almost essential. Dorling Kindersley’s “Eyewitness Guide for Rome” is excellently recommended. Others which are good are Baedeker’s, Michelin and Blue Guides. A special ticket for the bus, tram and underground named “BIG” gives the possibility of travel for ONE day. The price is about four times a single trip ticket. A special weekly tourist ticket is also available. Bus tickets are sold pre-boarding from newsagents and tobacconists. The ticket must be validated by a machine on the bus (if you can reach it). Rome is built on seven hills – the Palatine, Quirinal, Coelian, Aventine, Viminal, Esquiline and Capitolene. Accommodation in Rome Generally accommodation in Rome as is other large cities of the world is expensive. Rooms are extremely small. “Lonely Planet” and “Let’s Go” travel guides give lists of cheap accommodation. One budget place is Forti’s Guest House not far from the SDA headquarters and provides bed and breakfast. The address is: Forti’s Guest House Via Fornovo 7, Rome. Phone: +39 06 32 12 256 and Fax: +39 06 32 12 222. Another in a good position and a little more expensive is the Waldensian Guesthouse Casa Valdese also on the West bank of the Tiber. Address: Via Alessandro Farnese 18, Rome. Phone: +39 6 32 15 362. Fax: +39 6 32 11 843. A. THE COLOSSEUM AREA TO VICTOR EMMANUEL’S MONUMENT THE COLOSSEUM (AMPHITHEATRUM FLAVIUM) It is the greatest monument of Ancient Rome. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.417’ E 12 29.467’. On this site Nero had built his palace. It was demolished by Vespasian, his successor, to make way for the Colosseum. It was completed after the destruction of Pompeii (79AD) and well after the fire in Rome (64AD). Emperor Vespasian commenced building the Colosseum in 72AD. Titus completed it 8 years later in 80AD. When Nero built his palace here it was mainly a marshy lake area. It lies between three hills – Esquilino, Celio, and the Palantino. It is elliptical in shape – 188m by 156m and 57m high. It was named after the Colossus statue. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 11 It could seat 50,000 or more with 5000 standing. The opening program of games and shows lasted 100 days. On the opening day alone, 5000 wild beasts perished in the arena. Hundreds of gladiators died during the opening games. Emperor Titus used 12,000 Jewish slaves to complete it. It was used for sport – chariot races, men pitted against wild beasts, and at times for naval battles with the arena flooded. The underground barracks beneath the Colosseum – Ludus Magnus – has now been made available for tourists. This is the area where gladiators prepared for their clashes. A number of Christians perished here – though most were martyred in the Circus Maximus. It was damaged by earthquake in 442AD. Then it was used as a quarry for its travertine blocks in the Middle Ages. It was abandoned in the 6th century but restored a little in the 19th century. Charles Swindoll in his book “Living on the Ragged Edge”, tells of a monk Telemachus, who came to Rome and went to the Colosseum to see a gladiator contest. Prior to fighting, the contestants bowed to the emperor and said, “We who are about to die salute thee”. During the contests, Telemachus couldn’t bear to see the senseless carnage and stood on the top wall and cried “In the name of Christ, forbear!” When nothing happened he dropped into the arena and again cried out the same message to the contestants. Finally the crowd impatiently roared “Run him through. Kill him!” Someone struck him with the sword, and as Telemachus slumped to the ground dying, he again made his final plea. “In the name of Christ, forbear!” The crowd was silent, and one by one began to leave until the arena was empty. Thus ended gladiatorial contests in the Colosseum. Annual fights were forbidden from 523AD Was declared by Benedict XIV as site to remember martyrs. ARCH OF CONSTANTINE Is located near the south-western part of the Colosseum. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.391’ E 12 29.454’. It was built in 315AD to honour Constantine after his momentous victory at Milvian Bridge over Maxentius his co-emperor in the autumn of 312AD. It was built using fragments from other monuments by Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, etc even using other medallions glorifying other Romans. Its eight support columns are from the time of Domitian. It has three support arches. On the walls of the central arch are two bas-reliefs of Constantine’s victory. It depicts the drowning of Maxentius. The inscription proclaims Constantine’s victory came “by the promoting of the deity” – (instinctr divinitatis). The inscription does not specify that the deity is Christ – or the sun god he had worshipped. One facet shows the moon sinking in its chariot while the sun rises. Constantine’s understanding of Christianity may have been vague – especially in the areas of the deity of Christ and that of the sun god. Constantine retained the pagan high priest’s title “Pontifex Maximus”. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 12 SEE APPENDIX 1 FOR BIOGRAPHY OF CONSTANTINE PALATINE MUSEUM OF ANTIQUITIES In 1857 a caricature of the Christian’s God Jesus was found in the Domus Gelotiana on the Palatine Hill towards the Circus Maxima. A representation of the caricature is also in the Palatine Antiquarium – reached by going up the stairs from the Forum and Constantine’s Arch (paying the fee) and going to the Museum. It is reported to date to around 200 AD. Beside the scratching of Christ on a cross with a donkey’s head were the words in Latin, “Alexamenos worships (his) God”. References to this, place the discovery in (a) the school for servants of the Imperial Palace, (b) on the walls of the guard room on Palatine Hill near the Circus Maximus, and (c) in the servants quarters of the Imperial Palace. All reports however pin point the location on the Palatine Hill in what was part of the Imperial Palace towards the Circus Maximus. It was taken to the Kircherian Museum of the Collegio Romana. Another report has the additional inscription scratched nearby, “Alexamenos is faithful”. ARCH OF TITUS (ARCO DI TITO) It is situated in the Forum at the end of the Via Sacra (sacred Way) on the Colosseum end and at the top of the hill. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.443’ E 12 29.320’. It was built in 81AD by Emperor Domitian in honour of the victories of his brother Titus over Jerusalem 70AD. It consists of a single arch. Reliefs on the arch show and tell a) The story of the Jewish defeat, and b) inside the arch are reliefs depicting the procession of Roman soldiers carrying off the Temple spoils including the altar, trumpets and seven-branched candlestick. Later, on the installation of Popes as the Bishop of Rome, a stop would occur here in the procession and a Jew presented a copy of the Pentateuch with an oath of obedience. This practice ceased over a century ago. FORUM (FORO ROMANO) Is located between the Colosseum and the Capitoline Hill (near Victor Emmanuel’s Monument). It was here that Romulus is said to have founded Rome. The main entrance is from the Via Dei Fori Imperiali. Originally it consisted of sacred buildings and public places – a square involving many historical events. It is said to date to the time of Romulus and was enlarged under Augustus and restored under Diocletian. Augustus is quoted as saying, “I have found Rome made of brick and I will leave it of marble”. It was in ruins by the end of the Roman Empire. It was then used as a quarry for stone, marble etc during the Middle Ages. On the right hand side at the end of the entrance ramp is a dedicatory inscription of the Forum dated at 2BC to Lucius Caesar, the grandson of Augustus. The Overseas Travel ITALY Page 13 inscription had been placed on the Parthian Arch of Augustus somewhere in this vicinity. Directly opposite from the inscription are the ruins of the Temple of Divius Julius. This is probably the place where Julius Caesar was cremated. Note the arch of Septimus Severus, the Temple of the Vestal Virgins and the Virgin’s House. The region situated in front of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, was the office of the chief priest and the Pontifex Maximus of Rome. Note the usage of this term from the ancient religion, later to the Caesars and thence to the Pope of St. Peters. The Vestal Virgins (six) were the only women priests in Rome. Their duty was to keep alight the sacred flame of Vesta and to guard the sacred statue of the goddess Pallas Athenae. If they let the fire go out they were whipped by the Pontifex Maximus. Some of the statues of the vestal virgins have lost their heads. The name on one statue has been removed. It is thought to be that of Claudia who became a Christian around 364AD. The Church of San Lorenzo in Miranda took over the pagan building of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. Just south and east of the three pillars still standing of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, was the Oratory for the Forty Martyrs. This building housed a painting of the story of the 40 soldiers who Diocletian sentenced to die by freezing unless they renounced their faith in Jesus. The Via Sacra (sacred Way) with the pagan building consecrated Christian Church – Santa Maria Antiqua. Julius Caesar was assassinated here 15 March 44BC in the Curia or Senate House. The Curia was a church until 1927 – located in the western end of the Forum. Here he was assassinated by Cassius Longinus and Brutus – both former enemies, forgiven and given responsible positions. There were 60 conspirators in the plot. Caesar had done many tackless acts, and Cleopatra’s visit to Rome in 46BC was just one of them. MAMERTINE PRISON (CARCERE MAMERTINO – OR S. PIETRO IN CARCERE) Is situated just west of the Forum (but not accessible from there because of a high wall on the Capitoline Hill. Entrance is best from the Via del Fori Imperiali and up the small from beside Victor Emmanuel’s monument. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.582’ E 12 29.134’. Entrance is by way of a donation. It is underneath the Church of St Joseph of the Carpenters (San Giuseppe dei Falegnami) with “Mamertinum” as signage. It is Rome’s oldest prison. Originally the prison extended along the slpes of the Campidoglio hill where tufa had been quarried leaving underground tunnels and galleries. Prisoners being paraded in a victor’s triumphal procession would have been separated from the procession here while the victors went up the Capitolina hill. The current travertine façade dates from the Imperial era with the names of two consuls Caius Vibius Rufinus and Marcus Cocceius Nerva above the entrance door. This is the traditional site of Paul’s second imprisonment. Legend has it that the jailers were converted and baptised. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 14 The Church of St. Joseph of the Carpenters was built over the Mammertine Prison in 1540. The lower cell or Tullianum was used for executions and bodies were dumped in the city sewer (with access to the cell). The name “Tullianum” for this lowest cell comes from “Tullus” a spring of water – which is here. The leader of the Gauls – Vercingetorix was executed here in 52BC after being defeated by Julius Caesar. On the right of the entrance is a list of names of the enemies of the Roman State while on the left of the entrance are the names of Christian martyrs who died here. During the Middle Ages it was called S. Pietro in Carcere as the legend grew that Peter had been imprisoned here and performed a miracle of making the water gush from the rock. The legend says that Peter needed the water to baptise two jailers Processus and Martinianus. (This is not substantiated as other records mentioned the water pre-existed the time of Peter). TRAJAN’S FORUM AND COLUMN Is located opposite the Victor Emmanuel Monument on the northern side of the Via del Foro Imperiali. It was built by Apollodorus of Damascus in 111 – 114AD on Trajan’s orders to commemorate his victory over the Dacians in 106AD. It is the largest and most recent of the Imperial Forums. Trajan’s Column is 42m high. In its base was a place for the Emperor’s ashes. The frieze on the column is 200m long, winding around the column. It has 2500 figures. Since the 16th century a statue of Peter has replaced that of Trajan on the top. VICTOR EMMANUEL’S MONUMENT (VITTORIANO) Is situated north of the Capitoline Hill facing Piazza Venezia at the western end of the Via dei Foro Imperiali. It is the most imposing building in Rome (front view) with its huge white structure. It was commenced in 1885 and completed in 1911 by Giuseppi Sacconi to commemorate the unity of Italy. The grave of the Unknown Soldier is in the centre. Victor Emmanuel is shown on horseback. It houses an archives museum. VENETIAN PALACE & MUSEUM (PALAZZO VENEZIA & MUSEUM) It is situated on the Piazza Venetia (in front of Victor Emmanuel’s Monument) and on the southern side (left – when standing on the steps and looking away from the monument). It was built in 1455 for Pietro Barbo – the cardinal from Venice who became Pope Paul II. It has been a papal residence, and also the Venetian Embassy to Rome. Mussolini used it as his headquarters and the balcony in the centre is where he would make his appearance and speak to the people. It is a museum today with early Renaissance painting, sculptures, tapestries, bronzes ceramic figurines etc. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 15 IMPERIAL PALACE RUINS AND STADIUM OF DOMITIAN Is situated on the Palantine Hill just north of the Circus Maximus – about 500 metres from the Colosseum. It was built by the Emperors particularly Domitian late in the 1st century AD. FORO DI AUGUSTO Is situated just over the road – Via dei Fori Imperiali – northwards from the Roman Forum. It was built to commemorate the victory of Phillipi – this forum was dedicated to Mars the Avenger. DOMUS AREA Is situated just northeast of the Colosseum between the Via Nicola Salvi and Viale dei Monte Oppio. It is the remains of Nero’s Imperial Villa. B. EAST OF THE COLOSSEUM BASILICA OF ST. CLEMENS (SAN CLEMENTE) Is just two or three blocks from the Colosseum on the Via di S. Giovanni in Laterano (the street from the Colosseum to St. John Lateran Cathedral. It is found between that street and Via Labicana. Here are three levels – or layers of history. First there is a 12th century church at street level. Underneath is a 4th century church and below that Ancient Roman buildings including a Mithraic temple. There is also a small Catacomb discovered in 1938 down from the lowest level. The church is a Dominican Church – see the Apse Mosaic. Down in the lowest level see the picture of Mithras the Persian god killing the bull as a sacrifice on the altar. This is in the Triclinium – a room used for ritual banquets. Also found at this level is a stone on display on a spindle so that it may be turned over. On one side are Christian symbols and pagan symbols of the other. A significant symbol of initiation was a god sprinkling seeds from a pinecone representing new life – a pagan symbol similar to baptism for Christians. This is just one of over 45 shrines in Rome dedicated to the worship of Mithras. Others include the Pantheon, St. Minerva and Santa Prisca. Zodiac symbols were also used in Mithraic worship. SEE APPENDIX 2 FOR A SUMMARY OF MITHRAISM VICUS PAPISSA Situated one block south from S. Clemente at the corner of Via del Quattro and Via del Querceti. Here is a small shrine – no more than a doorway with gate jutting out from the wall at the corner. A shrine used to stand here for Pope Joan but was removed by the orders of the Papacy. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 16 The street was called the Vicus Papissa – or the street of the woman pope after the legend that has Pope Joan giving birth at this place during a papal procession. SEE APPENDIX 3 FOR STORY OF POPE JOAN ST JOHN LATERAN SQUARE (PIAZZA DI S. GIOVANNI IN LATERANO) This large square is near the old Roman walls and where six streets meet. It has the hospital of S. Giovanni on the west, the Scala Santa in the east and St. John Lateran Cathedral and associated buildings and the Baptistery on the south. The Egyptian Obelisk The Egyptian Obelisk in the centre of the square is the tallest and oldest Egyptian obelisk in Rome. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.199’ E 12 30.293’. It comes from Thebes and dates to the 15th century BC. It was so long that 4 m of it was cut off for transportation from Egypt and is still the tallest obelisk from Egypt. ST. JOHN’S BAPTISTERY To the rear of the church on the south-western part of the Square is the baptistery. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.177’ E 12 30.246’. It dates from Constantine’s time in the 4th century. In the 4th century every Christian in Rome was baptised here. The font is made of basalt and is octagonal. The original baptistery designed for total immersion was circular. Around the font there are chapels remarkable for their mosaics of the 4th and 5th centuries. This domed baptistery has served as a model for other octagonal baptisteries throughout the Christian world. The location was the site of the home of Constantine’s wife Fausta – whom he smothered to death in a bath for murdering his son by a previous marriage. BASILICA OF ST. JOHN LATERAN (S. GIOVANNI IN LATERNO) Is situated on the Piazza di S. Giovanni in Laterno. It is the cathedral of Rome. It was the gift of Constantine to the church. GPS Coordinates are: N41 53.161’ E 12 30.397’. Built between 311 and 314AD by Pope Melchiades it has a 17th century façade and a 13th century mosaic in the Apse. It was destroyed by the Vandals in 455AD and again later by earthquake and by fire. The remains of the original chapel are now at the top of the Scala Santa. The church is oriented directly opposite to the normal custom – the high altar is in the west. The church was the headquarters of the church until St. Peters was rebuilt in the 16th century – and is the church Luther would have seen as the mother church. It was the residence of Popes from Constantine to the Great Schism and Avignon – until Pope Gregory XI took it back to Vatican palaces. This was the “Holy See” until the “Chair of St. Peter” went to St. Peters in the Vatican. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 17 From here the church directed the persecution of the Albigenses (Cathars) and the Waldenses. It is notable for the statues of Christ and all the Saints on its skyline. The inscription of the façade declares this is the “Head and Mother of All Churches of the City and the Earth” - “Omnium urbis et orbis ecclesiarum mater et caput”. The door on the right is only used every 25 years for a Jubilee. Behind the first pier of the twin aisle to the right is a painting (fresco) of Boniface VIII proclaiming the first ever papal jubilee year of 1300 AD. This was the place where in 1929 the Lateran Treaty was signed between Mussolini (the State) and the Church – and is called the Concordat. Five Church Councils were convened here between 1123 and 1517AD. The Pope only officiates at the papal altar under the crossing in his role as Bishop of Rome. This he does each Thursday. The present altar protects a wooden one on which both St. Peter and St. Sylvester are said to have celebrated mass. Beneath the altar, steps lead down to a wooden statue of John the Baptist. Here also is the tomb of Pope Martin V. He was the pope appointed to heal the Great Schism at the Council of Constance in 1415. Note the silver reliquaries with the heads of St. Peter and St. Paul. Statues of both are under the canopy of the Baldacchino. The skulls are regarded as very powerful relics. In 1241, when Emperor Frederick II was threatening Rome, Pope Gregory IX brought out the relics to rally the people. Behind the papal altar against the arch on the right hand side is the tomb of Pope Innocent III. He ruled the Papacy at the height of its power and popularised the title “Vicar of Christ”. Behind the Basilica is the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament. It has what is claimed to be half of the table used by Jesus to institute the Last Supper (or first Holy Communion). The other half of the table is in the Church Santa Pudenziana. Here Pope Stephen VI in 897 tried the corpse of his predecessor Pope Formosus – nine months after he died. The corpse was exhumed, dressed in papal vestments and arraigned for trial for perjury, covetousness and disloyalty to the church. A deacon was assigned the task of defending Formosus – but failed to gain acquittal for the mute corpse. He was found guilty and three fingers cut off his right hand (his blessing fingers). Buried in a common grave, the corpse was later exhumed and thrown into the Tiber River. No later pope has taken the name Formosus. Until 1870 all popes were crowned in this church. TRICLINIUM OF POPE LEO III (TRICLINIO LEONIANO) Is located on the Piazza di Porta San Giovanni – the busy road between the Scala Santa and St. John Lateran Cathedral – just around the corner from the Scala Santa and east of it. GPS Coordinates are: N41 53.190’ E 12 30.436’. It is a piece of wall and a mosaic from the dining wall (Triclinium) of Pope Leo III from the 8th century. It is a part of the old Lateran Palace. It was restored in 1743 – as was the mosaic. The mosaic shows: In the centre – Christ sending out the apostles to the world. On the left – Christ giving the keys to St. Sylvester and the standard of the cross to Constantine. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 18 On the right – St. Peter giving Emperor Charlemagne the banner of Christianity and to Pope Leo the papal stole. Pope Sylvester I (d. 335) is claimed to have cured Constantine of leprosy on his baptism. Constantine gave Sylvester the spurious Donation of Constantine, with primacy over Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and Alexandria, and dominion over all Italy. This shows the alliance of the church and the state. PORTA ASINARIA (GATE OF DONKEYS) Is situated in the Roman wall across the grass and empty space from the St. John Lateran Basilica. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.167’ E 12 30.499’. It is a minor gateway in the Aurelian Walls. Here in 546 AD Barbarian soldiers of Rome opened the gate to the Goths who looted the city. Also in 1084, Henry IV entered Rome by this gate which led to Pope Gregory VII fleeing for his life southwards to Salerno. SEE APPENDIX 4 FOR THE STORY OF HENRY IV AND CANOSSA SEE APPENDIX 5 FOR BIOGRAPHY OF POPE GREGORY VII SCALA SANTA Located on the Piazza di S. Giovanni in Laterno – just opposite St. John Lateran Basilica. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.227’ E 12 30.387’. Open Apr – Sep 0600 – 1200 hrs and 1530 – 1845 hrs. From Oct – Mar the afternoon times are 1500 – 1900 hrs. The building dates to the 16th century and incorporates parts of the Old Lateran Palace. The 28 marble stairs (holy – so are covered in wood) have the blood spots on them said by tradition to be the very stairs in Pilate’s Judgment Hall up which Christ ascended for His trial. Helena the mother of Emperor Constantine brought the stairs from Jerusalem, though no earlier record is available than the 7th century. Others claim that angels transported them. The steps were moved to this position by Pope Sixtus V (1585 – 1590), when the Old Lateran Basilica was destroyed. The central stairway of the three is for pilgrims to ascend on their knees. Tourists may walk up and down on the outside stairways. Climbing the stairs on one’s knees, and praying each step, kissing the glass covering the drops of Christ’s blood, will release a loved one from purgatory. When Martin Luther visited Rome about 1511, the stairs would have been in the Lateran Palace. He realised the import of the Scripture, “The just shall life by faith” – thus began the Reformation. St. Lorenzo’s Chapel (St. Lawrence – or Sancta Sanctorum – Holy of Holies) is at the top of the stairs. It is claimed this place is the holiest in the world. It was built in 1278 by Pope Nicholas III. It is the Pope’s private chapel, and only he says mass here. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 19 Note the picture of Christ – the Acheiropoeton – a picture painted without hands – said to be the work of St. Luke assisted by an angel. It was used in processions in medieval times to ward off plagues. A sign in Latin “Indulgentia Plenaria Quotidiana Perpetua Pro Vivis et Defunctis” is above the door. (For visiting this place one could receive a perpetual daily plenary indulgence for the living and the dead). Similar signs are over the doors of the Pantheon, the Mammertine Prison as well as the church beside the Catacomb of St. Sebastian. In the foyer of the Scala Santa are statues of Pilate etc. CHURCH OF SANTA CROCE IN GERUSALEMME Travel southeast from the Santa Scala to Piazza Giovanni XXIII (approx 300 m), then east along Viale Carlo Felice to Piazza S. Croce in Gerusalemme (500 m). It is one of the Seven Churches of Rome. It was founded by St. Helena – the mother of Constantine. It was originally built within part of the Imperial Palace of Helena after 326 AD. A stairway at the end of the right aisle leads to the chapel of St. Helena. It has a statue of Helena – originally a figure of Jano from Ostia. The head and arms were replaced and a cross added. At the end of the left aisle is the Chapel of Relics – with pieces of the True Cross – a nail, some wood and the nameplate. There is also St. Thomas’ finger The 15th century apse fresco shows Helena holding the cross over a dead youth and bringing him back to life. An 18th century painting of St. Helena is on the façade of the church. Next to and part of the church complex is the Domus Sessoriana, a Benedictine monastery which takes in visitors and tourists – as it has done from the 11th century. MUSEUM OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS It is known as the Museo degli Stramenti Musicali. It is located on the Piazza di Santa Croce in Gerusalemme. It was opened in 1974 and has over 3000 different musical instruments from all over the world and from all ages including Egyptian, Greek and Roman. Sections of the museum are dedicated to church music and military music. One of the earliest pianos from 1722 is here. Note the Barberini harp – first floor room 13. BASILICA DI PORTA MAGGIORE Is located at Via Prenestina 17 – near S. Croce in Gerusalemme. It has an underground sanctuary of the 1st century AD 13 m below ground level. The Basilica measures 19 m x 12 m with porch and semi-circular apse with a mosaic pavement. It seems to have been a shrine of a mystical cult (probably Mithraism) which became a type of Christian basilica. See the mythological scenes on the roof stucco. TEMPLO DI MINERVA Is located on Via Giovanni Giolitti on the side of the railway just before Porta Maggiore coming from the Termini. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 20 C. BETWEEN THE COLOSSEUM AND THE TIBER THE CHURCH AND STEPS OF ST. MARIA IN ARACOELI Is located nearby and just south and right behind Victor Emmanuel’s Monument on the Capitoline Hill. It is between the Via D. Teatro di Marcello and the Via dei Fori Imperiali. The name of the church is derived from a legend of Augustus. In 14AD, knowing he had not long to live inquired of a Sibyl who his successor would be. She replied, a Jewish child, born of a virgin, who would destroy the altars of false gods and bring the whole world under his sway. Augustus built an altar – “This is the Altar of God’s first-born”. So the church was dedicated to the ‘Ara Ceoli’ – The Altar of Heaven. The long steep marble staircase of 124 steps, built in 1348, leads from the Via del Teatro di Marcello to the church. Cola di Rienzo used to harangue the masses from here in the 14th century. It is said that if you climb the steps on your knees, you will win the National Lottery! The Church was built in the 6th century and almost completely rebuilt in 1250 by the Benedictines. Now it is a church of the Franciscan order. It is on the site where Juno’s altar was located (Jupiter’s Temple). For medieval times it was the centre of religious and social life in Rome. The Roman Senate paid for a sumptuously gilded ceiling to commemorate the victory of the Christians over the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto. It is said St. Luke was the artist of the painting over the High Altar. In the third chapel on the right beneath the aedicula, is an urn supposedly with the ashes of St. Helena – Constantine’s mother who searched for relics of the cross etc in the Holy Land and brought them to Rome. It is especially noted for the Bambino d’Aracoeli – a wooden statue of the child Jesus, carved in the 15th century from olivewood from the Garden of Gethsemane. Thousands of Christmas letters are written each year to the Bambino that is in the Sacristy. Children are also brought here each year to “preach”. In the north transept is a miniature temple (aedicula) marking the place where the Sibyl prophesied to Augustus that a virgin would bear a divine child who would overthrow the altars of the gods. CAPITAL SQUARE (PIAZZA DEL CAMPIDOGLIO) It is located in the slight depression between the two summits of the Capitoline Hill, immediately behind Victor Emmanuel’s Monument and the Church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli (southwest from the Forum). This was the Capitol of Ancient Rome. Building of the Capitol commenced in 1546 and took almost a century. The easiest entry is from around the front of Victor Emmanuel’s Monument and by way of the Via del Teatro di Marcello. The staircase (Cordonata) was designed by Michelangelo – as were the geometric paving and the façades of the buildings. He also constructed the square to face west to St. Peters. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 21 At the foot of the Cordonata are two granite Egyptian lions, also a monument to Cola di Rienzo, commemorating his execution here in the 14th century. Statues of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollox) are at the top of the staircase. The bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius on his horse was once located outside St. John Lateran. It was thought to represent Constantine. It was moved here by Pope Paul III in 1538 just prior to the reconstruction of the square by Michelangelo. It is now in the Palazzo Nuovo that flanks the square. The Campidoglio is bounded by the New Palace (Palazzo Nuovo) on the north and the Palace of the Senate on the east and the Conservatory Palace (Palazzo Conservatori) on the south. CAPITOLENE MUSEUM (MUSEO CAPITOLINA) OR NEW PALACE (PALAZZO NUOVO) Is located on the northwestern side of the Piazza del Campidoglio on the Capitoline Hill Entry price also entitles you to entry to the Palace dei Conservatori opposite It was designed by Michelangelo and became the world’s first public museum in 1734 (by orders of Pope Clement XII). It is a museum with a collection of classical sculptures. The bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius from the 2nd century is here. CONSERVATORY PALACE (PALAZZO CONSERVATORI) It flanks the Piazza on the south. It was used by magistrates during the Middle Ages. Is a museum (but the municipal registry office is on the ground floor). The bronze sculpture of the she-wolf with Romulus and Remus is here. Also featured is the head of a colossal statue of Constantine II from the 4th century and a statue of Venus from the 1st century BC. PALACE OF THE SENATE (PALAZZO SENATORIO) It is situated on the northeastern side of the Piazza del Campidoglio. In 1143 under Arnold of Brescia, the Roman people deprived the Pope of his temporal power and set up the Roman Commune. Originally built like a castle, it was for the use of the city’s magistrates. It was used by the Roman Senate from the 12th century. Michelangelo designed a new façade – but saw only the stairs built in his lifetime. The statue of the goddess of Rome – Minerva – made of porphry and marble, is in a recess in the centre of the stairs. The statues on the sides come from the Baths of Constantine and represent the Nile (a sphinx) and the Tiber. The latter statue originally represented the Tigris, but the Tiger’s head was removed and a wolf’s head added. From the balcony in 1849, a free and united Roman republic was proclaimed by Mazzini. He said, “From Rome will one day spring the religious transformation which is destined to bestow a moral unity on Europe”. Now it is used by the Mayor of Rome Overseas Travel ITALY Page 22 CAPITOLINE HILL Three of the oldest Roman deities – Jupiter, Juno and Minerva – were worshipped here in a very impressive long temple. These three are known as the Capitoline Triad. The temple was dedicated to Jupiter the best and greatest (the sun). The gods were attended in their temples by their own priests. Ordinary people had little to do with the priests except at religious festivals when animals were brought as sacrifices. TEMPLE OF JUPITER Situated behind the Palazzo die Conservatori are the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter. TARPEIAN ROCK Situated a little below the Temple of Jupiter – follow down the Via del Tempio di Giove. In Ancient Roman times traitors were thrown to their deaths from this cliff. THEATRE OF MARCELLUS (TEATRO DI MARCELLO) It is located on the bank of the Tiber near the Isola Tiberina (Tiberina Island) and Ponte Fabricio. It is a classic example of the architecture of the Republic. It was built by Julius Caesar and completed by Augustus in 13AD. It was dedicated to Augustus’s son-in-law Cladius Marcellus. Up to 10000 spectators could gather here. JEWISH SYNAGOGUE AND GHETTO Jews were first brought to Rome as slaves by Pompey. During the Middle Ages they were known for their financial and medical skills. On 25 July 1556 all Jews were forced to live inside a high-walled enclosure on the orders of Pope Paul IV. The gates were locked each night. On Sundays they were driven to the Church Sant’Angelo in Pescheria to listen to Christian sermons – right up until 1848. It is still a Jewish community. The Synagogue stands opposite the Teatro di Marcello and facing the Tiber River. TIBER ISLAND (ISOLA TIBERINA) Is situated in the Tiber River near the Teatro di Marcello. In Ancient times there were white travertine blocks at either end resembling the prow and stern of a ship (It was opposite the city’s port). A Temple to Aesculapius (the god of healing) was built here in 293 BC. The Church built on the island’s central piazza is built on the site of the Temple to Aesculapius. Rome’s oldest original bridge is a footbridge – Ponte Fabricio – dating from 62BC and linking the island to the ghetto area. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 23 PONS AEMILIUS Located near Tiber Island (Isola Tiberina). Ponte Rotto is just past the southern side of the island and all that remains of the Pons Aemilius began in timber in179 BC and completed in stone 142 BC (first arched stone bridge in Rome). Augustus Caesar restored the bridge in 12 BC. In 1598 its eastern half was carried away in floods. The remaining portion – other than one arch was demolished in the 1880’s. THE MOUTH OF TRUTH (BOCCA DELLA VERITA) Is located in the left hand end of the portico of the Santa Maria in Cosmedin Church near the Tiber River and on the Piazza Bocca d. Verità (just one block west of the Circus Maximus). The Church dates from the 6th century. The legend about this Disc of uncertain divinity (probably from the 4th century BC) is that it is supposed to bite the fingers of liars placed in it. It is now a tourist attraction to test the integrity of people and the fidelity of spouses! It was probably a drain hole cover. THE FORTUNA VIRILIS AND THE TEMPLE OF VESTA These two are also known as the Temples of the Forum Boarium. Located over the road from the Bocca Della Verità are two Ancient Roman temples. The Fortuna Virilis is rectangular in shape and was known also as the Temple of Portunus – the god of the rivers and ports. Nearby is the circular Temple of Hercules – formerly known as the Temple of Vesta. These date to the 2nd century BC and have survived only because they were consecrated as Christian temples in the Middle Ages. Giano’s Arch is visible from here. It is from the time of Constantine with pictures of Minerva, Rome etc. D. SOUTH OF THE COLOSSEUM THE PALATINE Situated south of the Forum and extending to the Circus Maximus. Entry is from the Forum – or by Via di San Gregorio. The ticket to the Forum enables entry to the Palatine. Legend says it was here in a cave that Romulus and Remus were brought up by a she-wolf. It was where the emperor and the famous of Imperial Rome built their homes, or palaces. Today it is an area of ruins. The House of Augustus and the House of Livia (wife of Augustus) are here. The Domus Flavia in the centre of the area had an oval fountain – seen from the palace. The Domus Augustana is beside the Stadium of Domitian. The Stadium of Domitian was used for sports – also the places where Christians were martyred. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 24 The Palace of Septimius Severus and the Baths of Septimius Severus are in the southern part of the Palatine nearest the Circus Maximus. Recent excavations here have discovered a circular building believed to be a banqueting hall used by Nero – said to have been a ‘revolving restaurant’. CIRCUS MAXIMUS (CIRCO MASSIMO) Not far from the Colosseum (over the Palatine Hill) is Nero’s Circus – or the Circus Maximus. It was once the largest stadium of Ancient Rome – now just a grassy area. It is located between the Palatine and Aventine hills bounded by Via del Circo Massimo and Via del Cerchi. It was enlarged from the 4th century BC to 549AD – when the last races were held. It could seat up to 250,000 spectators. Picture Ben Hur here – for 1, 2, and 4-horse chariot races were conducted here. Obelisks that were erected in the Circus Maximus by Augustus 10BC and by Constantius II now stand in the Piazza del Popolo and Piazza San Giovanni in Laterno. Here rather than the Colosseum is where most Christians were martyred. The Roman Emperors most directly involved in persecution were Nero (64AD), Domitian, Trajan, Septimius Severus, Decius, Valerian, and the great persecutor Diocletian. The Circus Maximus was built by Tarquinius Priscus and later reconstructed and enlarged by Julius Caesar. A large Mithraic temple site has been discovered at the western end of the Circus Maximus (now underneath the costume store of the Teatro dell’Opera – it used to be the Panatella pasta factory). CHURCH OF SANTA PRISCA Is situated on the Aventine Hill, on the Piazza S. Prisca just south of the Circus Maximus. Via Terme Deciane and Via di S. Prisca lead off from the square. It is built on one of the finest Mithraic temples in Rome. A small doorway leads to the foundations built over a 3rd century villa used by Mithraists. A bas-relief of Mithras killing a bull is there. The site – by tradition – is the home of Aquila and Priscilla of Acts 18 and Romans 16. BATHS OF CARACALLA Are situated just a few hundred metres from the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus on the hill on the southern side of the Viale Delle Terme di Caracalla. They were also called the Baths of Antoninus. The baths were commissioned by Septimius Severus and inaugurated in 216AD during the reign of his son Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus (also known as Caracalla). 9000 workers would have been used daily for the five years in construction. The baths were completed around 235AD. A number of Emperors had work done on the baths including Diocletian, and Constantine. The baths functioned for around three centuries. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 25 About 1600 bathers could be accommodated at one time and between 6000 and 8000 would use the baths in one day. The immense size and scope of the ruins today is most impressive – 337m by 328m. Several million bricks were used in its construction along with 252 columns, some up to 12m in length. The aqueducts, the plumbing with the lead piping, the drainage and the heating ovens which used 10 tons of wood per day were all engineering marvels. About 2000 tons of wood could be stored under the baths – sufficient for seven months use. Underground passages 6m high and 6m wide were built underneath the whole structure. Underneath the baths the Mythraeum with a statue of Aphrodite has been discovered – the largest Mithraic temple site in Rome. Two libraries situated in the wall have been discovered – one 38m by 22m with niches for scrolls etc. As early as the 12th century the ruins were used as a source of marble etc for churches and palaces. Some materials were used in the Cathedral of Pisa and the Church of St. Maria in Trastevere. Pope Paul III Farnese made the ruins a quarry for the construction of the Palazzo Farnese. Operas are still performed here each August. E. THE CATACOMBS AND SOUTH OUTSIDE THE WALLS Buses leave St John Lateran for the Catacombs and the Appian Way. Take Bus 218 or 660. WALLS OF ROME (MURA AURELIA) The famous walls of Rome were built late in the 3rd century 271 AD) by Emperor Aurelian to protect Rome from the Barbarians – hence the name Aurelian Walls, The walls were about 20 km in length with 18 towered gateways – strengthened with 300 square towers. They stretch from the Tiber near Piazza del Popolo around the Stazione Termini behind S. Croce in Gerusalemme and S. Giovanni in Laterno to St. Paul’s Gate and over the Tiber enclosing Trastevere and the Vatican to Castel S. Angelo. Maxentius doubled the height of the wall in 306 – 312 AD. ST SEBASTIAN’S GATE (PORTA SAN SEBASTIANO) Is located approx 2 km SSE of the Colosseum along the Via di Porta Sebastiano. It is the largest and best preserved gate in the Aurelian Wall, built 270 – 280 AD. This gate leads to the Appian Way (Via Appia Antica). The last triumphal procession here was to welcome Colonna after his defeat of the Turkish navy in 1571 at Lepanto. APPIAN WAY (VIA APPIA ANTICA) It was first constructed in 312 BC and extended to Brindisi in 190 BC. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 26 It was the road upon which the apostle Paul travelled coming to Rome in 56AD. Travelling from Rome take the Via delle Terme from the Circus Maximus which becomes the Via de Porta S. Sebastiano then as you travel in a southeasterly direction through the Sebastiano Gate in the old city wall, it becomes the Via Appia Antica. This road then continues down the length of Italy. In the first part of the road is the small church of Domine Quo Vadis. Along the way there are some of the Catacombs and also tombs of early Christians and others such as that of Cecilia Metella which is 20 m in diameter. DOMINE QUO VADIS It is situated near the beginning of the Appian Way on the LH side as you travel from Rome. (Parking is almost non-existent). It has been built on the supposed place where Peter escaping from Rome to flee martyrdom, was met by Christ who was asked by Peter where he was going (Domine Quo Vadis?). “To get crucified the second time” was Christ’s reply. Peter then recognised that he had to return to Rome and be crucified. The legend says further that the footprints inside the church are the reproduction of Jesus’ feet. CATACOMBS There are numerous catacombs in Rome. The network of galleries extends for many kilometres. The most visited catacombs are along or near the Appian Way – Via Appia Antica eg. St. Callistus, St. Sebastian and Domitilla. If travelling by bus take the 218 bus from St John Lateran terminal. Catacomb of St. Sebastian – on the Appian Way – Via Appia Antica 132. Open 0800 – 1200, 1430 – 1700 hrs. Catacomb of Callistus – Via Appia Antica 102. Open 0800 – 1200, 1430 – 1700 hrs. Closed Wednesdays. Catacomb of Domitilla – Via delle Sette Chiese. Open 0800 – 1200, 1430 – 1700 hrs. Closed Tuesdays. Catacomb of Priscilla – Via Salaria 430. Open 0800 – 1200, 1430 – 1730 hrs. Catacomb of St. Agnesse – Via Nomentana 349. Open 0900 – 1200, 1530 – 1830 hrs. Closed Sunday morning. There are about 900 km of tunnels under Rome. The Catacombs were the burial places of the poor and the Christians. They became ideal hiding places in times of persecution. Particularly after the July 64AD fire of Rome, Christians fled to the Catacombs. Secret chapels were dug and Christian symbols are in abundance. Altars, crucifixes and relics were added later. Photography and in particular flash photography is forbidden. CATACOMB OF ST CALLISTUS (SAN CALLISTO) Open 0830 – 1200 hrs and 1430 – 1700 hrs. Closed Wednesdays. GPS Co-ordinates are: N 41 51.538’ E 12 30.640’. One of the best preserved of the underground cemeteries – on four levels. Callistus is reported to have been placed in charge of the Christian burial sites by Pope Zephyrinus and was made Pope himself in 217 AD. Note the burial places of the popes of the 3rd century. Many of them are claimed to have been martyrs. The Crypt of St. Cecilia was a place of pilgrimage as early as the 7th century. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 27 The Sacraments Crypt contains an extraordinary collection of paintings from the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Some very faded – almost undistinguishable frescoes are here – “The Adoration of the Magi Kings”; “Moses-Peter striking the Rock”; “The Good Shepherd” ceiling in the Crypt of Lucina; and “The Baptism of Christ” in the Crypt of Lucina which shows John helping Christ out of the water. Note the early Christian signs or symbols near the entrance staircase eg The Fish, Ichthus, dove, anchor etc. The book “The Catacombs of St. Callistus” by Antonia Baruffa has an interesting note on Baptism: - “Several inscriptions tell us that the deceased was a neophyte’, ie. A recently baptised Christian. Perhaps we do not understand the importance of this, because nowadays Baptism is generally administered to babies, and as the saying is, “One is born a Christian’…. For the early Christians the prospect was different. Those who were to receive Baptism (Catechumens) were for the most part grown-ups. Baptism was the completion of a long journey which began with listening to sermons, undergoing a period of years of instruction before conversion, and moving towards a deeper understanding of one’s Christian life…. With Baptism came the great day of one’s encounter with God, the day of fulfilment of grace and of perfect communion with the brethren in the faith”. CATACOMB OF ST. SEBASTIAN (S. SEBASTIANO) It has three levels and 12 km of galleries. Note the signs of Christianity: a) The Fish – IKTHS, b) The Monogram of Christ, c) The Anchor with the Cross, d) The Dove with olive branches, and e) Praying with outstretched arms. The Mausoleum of Hermes has the face of Medusa to cast away evil spirits, the swastika to signify life and death, Jesus pastoring the mythical flock, and the swine of Gergesa drowned in the lake. The Mausoleum of Ikthys has graffiti for the name of Jesus Christ under the staircase; and a peacock representing eternal life. Ask the guide if you can see the bones. Above the door of the church at the entrance to the catacomb is a sign that offers indulgences in perpetuity for worshippers. CATACOMB OF DOMITILLA Is located at 282 Via Delle Sette Chiese – about 1 km west of Catacomb di S. Callisto. It has the largest network of catacombs in Rome. Some tombs have no Christian connection. Frescoes of classical and Christian scenes are here. CATACOMB OF PRISCILLA A fresco in this catacomb shows the breaking of brad from the 2nd century. GATE OF ST PAUL (PORTA S. PAOLO) Is located at the end of the Via d. Piramide Cestia – about 1 km from the Circus Maximus. This is one of the gates of the old Roman walls. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 28 PYRAMID OF CAIO CESTIO Is just outside the Gate of St. Paul. The Underground has a station here – Piramide C.C. Is one of the best examples of well preserved Roman monuments. It was built in 12BC and is 27 m high and the base is 22m square. It was built by C. Cestio a preator or magistrate. The Tomb cellar may be reached – built by Alexander VII in 1663. CATHEDRAL OF ST PAULS BEYOND THE WALLS About 1.5 km south along Via Ostinse from the Gate of St. Paul is this Basilica. GPS Cordinates are: N41 51.529’ E 12 28.483’. It was built over a small temple dedicated to Paul. It was the main Basilica of Christendom until St. John Lateran and later St. Peters. It was ordered and built by Constantine. Then it was enlarged by Valentiniano II and completed by Emperor Onorio. Damaged by fire in 1823, it was rebuilt by Pope Leo XII. The bronze door dates to 1931 by A. Mariani. This is the traditional site of the tomb of Paul – beneath the altar – though that tomb may date to the 6th century. Bone fragments from the sarcophagus underneath the altar have been confirmed by carbon dating to be from the 1st to the 2nd century. Pope Benedict made the announcement declaring that the remains are those of the Apostle Paul. Portraits of all the Popes line the large interior. Note the Baptistery with Scripture texts on the walls. The Reliquary may be worth a visit. Nearby is the Temple of the Virgins. The traditional site of Paul’s martyrdom is outside the walls in the monastic enclosure of Three Fountains Abbey (Tre Fontaine). THREE FOUNTAINS ABBEY (TRE FONTAINE) It is situated on Via Laurentina – about 500 m south of Via Christoforo Colombo, and about 5 km from the centre of Rome. Paul is said to have been beheaded here and the legend says that Paul’s head bounced three times and three fountains spouted – hence the name. In the church Santa Maria ‘Scala Coeli’ behind the altar in the crypt, is the room where Paul is said to have waited for his execution. The church St. Paul at the Three Fountains dates from the 16th century, and is supposedly built over a small building which is reported to be the actual site of the execution. In antiquity the site was known as ‘Ad Aquas Salvias’. F. BETWEEN THE COLOSSEUM AND THE TERMINI CHURCH OF ST. PETER IN CHAINS (ST PIETRO IN VINCOLI) It is located on the hill north of the Colosseum (about two blocks) on the Plaza S. Pietro in Vincoli. Its GPS co-ordinates are: N 41 53.623’ E 12 29.566’. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 29 It is open from 0800 – 1230 hrs and from 1500 – 1800 hrs. Chains of St Peter The church is the repository for the chains that bound Peter during his imprisonment in Rome in the Mammertine Prison. By the 5th century the chains had been taken to Constantinople. Empress Eudoxia placed one chain in a church in Constantinople and sent the other to her daughter in Rome. This was given to Pope Leo I who had the church built to store it. Some years later the chain from Constantinople was brought back to Rome – ‘where it mysteriously linked with the other’. On the ceiling is the painting depicting the miracle of the chains joining together. The mausoleum of Pope Julius II is here – designed by Michelangelo. It is most famous for Michelangelo’s statue “Moses”. Note the two horns on his forehead due to the Latin translation of the Hebrew “aeren” which can mean a “beam of light” or a “horn”. Exodus 34:29. To the side of the church is the font where Constantine was baptised by immersion. Here he leaders of the defence of Jerusalem against Titus were executed. CATHEDRAL OF SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE Is situated just four short blocks southwest of the Termini Railway Station on Via Cavour. This Cathedral is one of only four in Rome that carries the title “Major” or “Maggiore”. The others are St. Peters in the Vatican, St. John Lateran and St. Pauls Without the Walls. It enjoys the privilege of extra-territoriality conferred by the Lateran Treaty of 1929. The Virgin Mary (Madonna) is supposed to have appeared to Pope Liberius in 352AD and told him to build a church where he found snow. It snowed in the middle of summer on 5th August and he ordered the construction of the cathedral in honour of the Madonna. The event is celebrated each year on that date with white dahlia petals falling from the roof. It is one of the largest basilicas in the Christian world. The bell tower is the highest in Rome (nearly 74m or 246 feet). It has been restored many times throughout the centuries (the Apse by Pope Nicholas IV in 1288AD). The time of its construction coincides with the Council of Ephesus (431AD) which adopted the title – “Mother of God” for the Madonna. Here is the tomb of Pope Sixtus V. The Egyptian obelisk was erected by Pope Sixtus V in 1587 so that pilgrims might identify the Cathedral site easily. The bronze statue of the virgin and child was added in 1615. Outside the main entrance and on the right-hand side behind iron gates and fencing is a cross. Christ is on one side of the cross and Mary is on the other. (Coredemptrix). Overseas Travel ITALY Page 30 G. WEST FROM THE COLOSSEUM PIAZZA DI CAMPO DEI FIORI Is located one block south of the Corse Vittorio Emanuele. It is a flower and fruit market each morning. It was a place for papal executions and the burning of heretics. In the 16th century it was the geographic and cultural centre of secular Rome with its inns etc. Here on 7 December 1600, Giordano Bruno – philosopher, Dominican monk and astronomer, found guilty of heresy and refused to recant – was burnt at the stake. He believed the earth revolved around the sun. Underneath the bronze statue are bronze medallions of Erasmus, Wycliffe & Hus. SEE APPENDIX 6 FOR BIOGRAPHY OF GIORDANO BRUNO CHURCH OF JESUS Is situated in the Piazza Di Gesu where the Corso Vittorio Emanuele changes its name to Via Delo Plebiscito, and on the corner of Via D. Aracoeli. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.746’ E 12 28.745’. It was built between 1568 and 1584 and is a typical example of Baroque architecture. It is the Mother church of the Jesuits – and was the first Jesuit church built in Rome. Outside on the façade note the illustration of the church treading down heresy. It is sumptuously decorated. On the left hand side of the church midway along its length is the illustration of “Faith Over Heresy”. The Church – shown as a woman with a golden cup in her hand, treading down Luther and Calvin. This sculpture has been called “The Triumph of the Name of Jesus”. While the names of Luther and Calvin have been erased today, some pictures sold still had the names listed. In the north transept just beside and past “The Triumph of Faith Over Heresy” – is the altar and tomb of St. Ignatius (1491 – 1556)– the founder of the Jesuit Order. The present statue is a copy of the original silver one that was melted down by Pope Pius VI to meet the reparations to Napoleon by the Treaty of Tolentino. The 15th century Madonna della Strada (Madonna of the Road) is in the rear left hand corner. On the left hand side of the rear semi-circular end is Bernini’s work of Bellamine the anti-Protestant theologian who died 1621. On the right hand side – opposite the “Triumph of Faith Over Heresy” is the Chapel of St. Francis Xavier – the Catholic missionary to China. H. THE COLOSSEUM NORTH TO MILVIAN BRIDGE CHURCH OF S. MARIA SOPRA MINERVA Located within sight of the Pantheon on the Piazza Della Minerva. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 53.871’ E 12 28.652’. It is Rome’s only Gothic Church Overseas Travel ITALY Page 31 This church was a stronghold of the Dominicans whose anti-heretical zeal earned then the punning nickname, “Domini Cannes” – “The Hounds of the Lord”. The leading Dominican Father was given the title “Inquisitor of Christianity”. This order led out in the persecution of the Albigensians and others. Thomas Aquinas was a member of the order and gave it its basic philosophy – called Tomist Thought. The Court of the Inquisition was held here inside the Minerva complex. In what is called the Galileo Room adjacent to the church, Galileo Galilei the mathematician and astronomer recanted (under pressure) his famous discovery that the world was round. His trial was in 1632. He recanted the next year 1633. In the library next to the church and convent are many books detailing how the repression of heresy is to be carried out, and how to conduct torture to eliminate heresy. The Dominicans after the Council of Trent were given the task of compiling the list of Prohibited Books (which included the Bible). This church was the site of a pagan temple to Mithras and Minerva and was taken over as a Christian church. An example of compromise! Minerva was a Roman Goddess of wisdom and warfare – favourite child of Jupiter – was like Athena the Greek virgin goddess. The owl as the wise bird was Minerva’s bird. As a goddess of warfare she is usually shown with armour and helmet and a magic shield. Note the painting by Antoniazzo Romano – “The Annunciation” that features Cardinal Juan de Torquemada – the uncle of the famous Spanish Inquisitor. Here is the tomb of Pope Leo X of the 16th century. The funeral monument of Clement VII is also here. Both Clement VII and Leo X were members of the Medici family. Two papal enclaves were held here to elect Eugene IV and Nicholas V. Pope Leo X was the pope who excommunicated Martin Luther and has his funeral monument here. The sculpture of the “Risen Christ” located near the choir steps was begun by Michelangelo. The tomb of Fra Angelico – the Dominican friar and painter is here. In the Piazza, another Egyptian obelisk has been located. This time the obelisk is mounted on an elephant called “Il Pulcino della Minerva” and sculptured by Ferrata in 1667 – designed by Bernini. PANTHEON Is situated on the Piazza della Rotunda. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 54.023’ E 12 28.713’. Open 0900 to one hour before sunset. It was built by Marco Agrippa, consul and son-in-law of Emperor Augustus in 27BC. It was built on the site where Paulus Caprae the mythical founder of Rome was made into a hero and carried off into the heavens by Mars. It is the oldest standing building in Rome and one of the best preserved Roman monuments. After two fires, the temple was completely redesigned and rebuilt by Hadrian in 120AD. It was dedicated to ALL the Roman gods (hence its name) and particularly Mars and Venus. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 32 The Emperors of Rome would have held ‘court’ here, making judgments – and hearing from petitioners. It has been devastated by Barbarians and by fires. It has been restored several times. The dome and massive bronze door are from Hadrian’s time. The diameter of the dome equals its height (43.4m). The walls supporting the dome are 6m thick of travertine and concrete. The Oculus or open eye is 8.8 m across and has a bronze frieze around its edge. The dome’s thickness commences at 6.4 m at the walls to just 1.2 m around the oculus. The portico has sixteen columns in three rows. It was consecrated a Christian church in 609AD by Pope Boniface IV who dedicated it to the “Blessed Virgin and to all Martyrs”. Raphael Sanzio, the famous painter is buried below the Madonna by Lorenzetto in the third chapel. The memorial to Raphael’s fiancee, Maria Bibbiena, is on the right of his tomb. Raphael had long lived with his model, La Fornarino, but just months before his death left her hoping for absolution. The great altar is in the fourth chapel – directly opposite the entry. It has the tombs of Kings and Queens of Italy including Victor Emmanuel II in the sixth chapel. In the seventh chapel a baptismal font operated from the 10th century until 1824 when it was prohibited. A sign granting pardon in perpetuity to those who worship – was located high over the entrance. At one time 450250 lbs of gilt bronze were removed from the ceiling of the Portico to be used in St. Peter’s Cathedral and to make canons for the Castle of St. Angelo. Note the Fontana della Porta in the middle of the square with an obelisk from Egypt (time of Ramses II). CHURCH OF ST IGNATIUS LOYOLA (SANT’IGNAZIO DI LOYOLA) Is about one block along the Via del Seminario from the Pantheon. Built in 1626 this Baroque church was to honour Ignatius Loyola who most embodied the zeal of the Counter Reformation. Along with the Church of Jesus, this was the headquarters of the Jesuits in Rome. It has an illusionistic ceiling showing a dome which is not there. PALACE OF THE ROMAN COLLEGE (PALAZZO DEL COLLEGIO ROMANO) Situated on the Piazza del Collegio Romano – or in the same block as the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola. It used to be a Jesuit college. As such it trained many future bishops, cardinals and popes. It was confiscated in 1870 when the Papacy lost its temporal dominions, and Italy became unified. Caricature of Alexamenos In 1857 a caricature of the Christian’s God Jesus was found in the Domus Gelotiana on the Palatine Hill towards the Circus Maxima. It is reported to date to around 200 AD. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 33 Beside the scratching of Christ on a cross with a donkey’s head were the words in Latin, “Alexamenos worships (his) God”. References to this, place the discovery in (a) the school for servants of the Imperial Palace, (b) on the walls of the guard room on Palatine Hill near the Circus Maximus, and (c) in the servants quarters of the Imperial Palace. All reports however pin point the location on the Palatine Hill in what was part of the Imperial Palace towards the Circus Maximus. It was taken to the Kircherian Museum of the Collegio Romana. A representation of the caricature is also in the Palatine Antiquarium – reached by going up the stairs from the Forum and Constantine’s Arch (paying the fee) and going to the Museum. Another report has the additional inscription scratched nearby, “Alexamenos is faithful”. OBELISK OF MONTECITORIO One short block west from Colonna Square is the Piazza di Montecitorio. Its GPS co-ordinates are N 41 54.044’ E 12 28.713’. The Obelisk is often referred to as Emperor Augustus’ Obelisk. The obelisk was originally that of Psammetichus II of Egypt and is 21.8m high. Originally Augustus had the obelisk erected in the Campus Martius not far from the Altar of Peace. It was part of a huge sundial. But it was more than that. On September 23 the pointed shadow reached out to the centre of the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace). It was also set up so that one of its sides of pink granite faced the rising sun on April 21 – the date of the foundation of Rome. It was carefully arranged so as to emphasise the divine destiny of the birth of the man who was first to assume the title of “Augustus” a destiny decreed in the stars and sanctioned by the sun. The Romans believed that Egyptian hieroglyphics held the key to the wisdom of Adam before the fall. The obelisk was erected here in 1787 by Pope Pius VI – the pope who was taken captive in 1798. On the monument it mentions Augustus Caesar as Pontifex Maximus and this title is also claimed by all popes. This shows the link and continuation between Pagan Rome and Papal Rome. COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS (COLUMN DI MARCO AURELIO) It is situated on the Piazza Colonna on the Via del Corso – midway between Victor Emmanuel’s monument and Popolo Square. The Column is in the centre of the square and is 30m high and 3.7m in diameter. It dates to the end of the 2nd century AD and is somewhat a copy of the style of Trajan’s Column. A bronze statue of Paul now occupies the place of Marcus Aurelius on the top of the column. A staircase with 190 steps inside the column gives access to the top. The Column has scenes from wars with Germanic tribes (171 – 173AD) and the Samartic War (174- 175AD). Overseas Travel ITALY Page 34 CHURCH OF SAN SILVESTRO IN CAPITE Situated on the Piazza de San Silvestro – just off the Via Del Tritone. This church is famous for the head (the word Capite in its title) of John the Baptist. TREVI FOUNTAIN Is located in the Piazza di Trevi just west of the Quirinal Palace and east of Colonna Square with the Column of Marcus Aurelius. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 54.055’ E 12 28.993’. It was made famous by the film “Three Coins in a Fountain”. The original fountain used water brought to Rome by the viaduct built by Agrippa in 19BC. The fountain was commissioned in 1732 by Pope Clement XII. The papal tiara, the keys of St. Peter and the Arms of Clement XII are above the piazza. The next pope Benedict XIV inscribed his name in larger letters. Note the façade for the Church opposite – Sant Vincenzo E. Anastasio – paid for by the French Cardinal Mazarin. COLLEGE FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE FAITH The Italian title is Collegio di Propaganda Fide – sometimes called the Palace Palazzo della Propaganda Fide. It is situated just east of the Piazza di Spagna past the Column dell’ Immacolata. It is a triangular shaped building between the Via di Propaganda, Via di Due Macelli and the Via Capo le Case. This light yellow coloured building was built for the Jesuits in 1662 – the façade on the southern side (Via di Propaganda - was built by Francesco Borromini in 1665. This was the headquarters of the Jesuits and is a rich architectural building now covered with grime. From here the work of the dreaded Inquisition was directed. COLONNA DELL’IMMACOLATA This column is situated in the Piazza Mignanelli between the College for the Propagation of the Faith and the Spanish Steps. GPS Coordinates are: N 41 54.294’ E 12 28.987’. The column dates from ancient Rome. On 8 December 1857 the statue of the Virgin Mary was placed on the top. This commemorated Pope Pius IX’s proclamation of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception – which says that the Virgin Mary was the only human being ever to have been born without the stain of original sin. The proclamation was made 8 December 1854 – three years earlier. Around the base of the column are four Biblical prophets who prophesied regarding the birth of the Messiah – Moses, Isaiah, Ezekiel etc. SPANISH STEPS (SCALINATTA DELLA TRINITA DEL MONTI) Located on the Piazza di Spagna (formerly the site of the Spanish Embassy). GPS Coordinates are: N 41 54.349’ E 12 28.941’. The Underground station Spagna is a couple of blocks from the top of the steps. This place and the Trevi Fountain are the meeting places where most people congregate. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 35 From here three streets radiate – Via Marcelli, Via del Babuino and Via Condotti. Some other streets also join at the ends of the piazza. It is also about midway between Piazza del Popolo and BarberIni Underground Station. The Barcaccia Fountain (Fontana della Barcaccia) was designed by Bernini between 1627 and 1629 and shaped like a boat to remember a flood in the city. It is delightful at night with lights. The bees and the suns that decorate the fountain come from Pope Urban VIII’s coat of arms with the Barberini bees. He commissioned the fountain. The Scalinata – the picturesque stairs almost hand on the slopes of the Pincio and lead to the church S. Trinità dei Monti. MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS Is located on the east bank of the Tiber River about six blocks from Popolo Square. It was built in 28BC and is 87m in diameter. It is now covered with weeds and ringed with cypress trees. The first to be buried here (or have his ashes placed here) was Augustus’ nephew Marcellus, who married Julia – the daughter of Augustus. He was poisoned – probably by Livia the second wife of the Emperor. She wanted her son – Tiberius – to be Emperor. Augustus died in 14AD and his ashes were placed here. Tiberius became Emperor and dynastic poisonings continued to fill the vault with urns. The mausoleum has been used as a fortress, a vineyard and private garden, and in the 18th century as a bullring. It was reconstructed by Mussolini who hoped, in vain to be buried here. ALTAR OF PEACE (ARA PACIS) It is situated between the Mausoleum of Augustus and the Tiber River on the side of the street Lungotevere in Augusta. It was commissioned by the Senate to be built here on the Field of Mars in 13 BC and was completed by 17AD. It is one of the most significant monuments of Ancient Rome. It celebrated peace in the Mediterranean after Augustus defeated the Gauls and Spain. It is a square enclosure decorated with marble friezes and reliefs. Augustus’ family in the procession of on 4 July 13AD are shown on the north and south walls. Pieces of the panels were found in Paris and Florence. These were pieced together in 1938. The swastika symbols are symbols of life beyond. PIETRO MASCAGNI Not far from the Mausoleum of Augustus on the Via del Corse is a plaque that identifies the house of Pietro Mascagni. He is the composer of the “Intermezzo from the Cavalleria Rusticana”. QUIRINALE PALACE Is about 800 m to 1 km east of the Pantheon on the Via del Quirinale a few blocks south of Barberini Underground Station. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 36 It was built between 1574 and 1730 AD. Pope Gregory XIII commenced it. It was originally intended as the summer palace of the popes – then changed to their principal residence. Since 1870 (and the unification of Italy and the loss of the Papal States to the Vatican) it is the Royal Palace. Now it is the residence of the Italian President. In the square are two statues – one of Paul with the sword and one of Peter with the keys. PEOPLES SQUARE (PIAZZA DEL POPOLO) Is located east of the Tiber River near the Ponte Reg Margherita at the northern end of Via del Corso and is a vast oval shaped cobbled square. On the northern side of the square is the Porta del Popolo – Rome’s northern city gate. From here the Via Flaminia goes north for just over 2 km to Ponte Milvio (Milvian Bridge). The Gate was built in the 16th century by Pope Pius IV Medici. The inner face was decorated for the arrival of Queen Christina of Sweden – see her statue in St. Peters. It was a customs gate. Martin Luther also would have come through this gate. In 1510 Rome had 40,000 inhabitants. In the centre of the square is the Egyptian obelisk (Obelisk of Flaminius) of Ramses II period and brought to Rome by Augustus. It was located in the Circus Maximus until 1589 when Pope Sisto V had it moved to this site. Four stone lions guard the obelisk. The obelisk also has Augustus Caesar as Pontifex Maximus as well as the pope as Pontifex Maximus. The GPS co-ordinates of the Obelisk are: N 41 54.642’ E 12 28.588’. Public executions were carried out in the square in the 18th and 19th centuries (including death by repeated hammering of the temples). On the entrance on its southern side are the twin churches of Santa Maria in Montesano and Santa Maria dei Miracoli. SANTA MARIA DEL POPOLO Is the church located just inside from the gate on the left in Piazza del Popolo. It is the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo. It is noted for its decorated chapels and its frescoes. On his visit to Rome, Martin Luther stayed nearby in the Santa Maria convent and worshipped here, and is reported to have said mass here. THE PINCIO Is located just to the east of Popolo Square and inside the walls. This public park was created between 1809 and 1814AD. Here is the Orologio ad Acqua (Water Clock). There is talk of making the Pincio a great car park – but there is opposition to the idea. VILLA BORGHESE This huge park has a perimeter of 6 km – the largest park in Rome. It is situated east from outside the Porta d. Popolo – take the Viale del Muro outside the walls. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 37 In the Park are many temples, galleries and schools etc. The Greek style Esculapio Temple is on an island in the middle of an artificial lake. BORGHESE GALLERY AND MUSEUM Is situated at the eastern end of the Villa Borghese. It has many famous sculptures including Pluto carrying off his bride by Bernini, and the Sleeping Hermaphrodite, and Apollo and Daphne by Bernini, as well as David by the same sculptor. There is a statue of Pauline Borghese here. She was Napoleon’s sister (and engaged to Leonard Duphot – assassinated 28 Dec 1797 – then married to Camillo Borghese. Canova finished the statue then it was locked away by Camillo so that no one could see it – not even the sculptor. There are also famous paintings such as The Descent from the Cross by Raphael and Sacred and Profane Love by Titian etc. VILLA MEDICI It is situated right alongside the Borghese Gardens on the Pincio. In 1576 it was acquired by Cardinal Ferdinand de Medici. Galileo Galilei is reported to have been kept here during his trial by the Inquisition which was held in S. Maria Sopra Minerva near the Pantheon. In 1656 Queen Christina of Sweden was visiting Rome and on the top of the Castle of St Angela and fired a canon without looking where it was aimed, and it destroyed a little of the façade of the Villa. The Villa came hands of Napoleon Bonaparte and from him was transferred to the French Academy. MILVIAN BRIDGE ( PONTE MILVIO) Is situated at the end of the parallel long roads Via Flaminia or Viale Tiaiano – almost directly 2 km north of Popolo Square. The Via Flaminia has been the approach road to Rome from the north for millennia. Here on 28 October 312 AD Constantine defeated his co-emperor Maxentius and wrested control of the empire. Constantine had been in York England when his father died. He was proclaimed Emperor by his soldiers there. From the years 305 – 308AD there were five emperors – three in the east and Constantine and Maxentius in the west. In 309 Maximilian committed suicide, having been driven out of Rome by his son Maxentius. Constantine defeated Maxentius forces three times – at Turin and at Verona and the last at Milvian Bridge. Maxentius could have remained in fortified Rome and prepared for a siege – which had been successful with a previous attack on Rome by Galerius. Maxentius crossed the River Tiber to fight at Saxa Rubra. Maxentius had the stone Milvian Bridge cut to prevent Constantine having easy access to Rome. Maxentius then had a temporary wooden pontoon bridge built just downstream from Milvian Bridge. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 38 Constantine told Eusebius (the historian) that at Saxa Rubra he had had a vision of the cross over the noonday sun with the inscription “In this sign, conquer”. The sign consisted of two Greek letters – “Rho” and “Chi” which have been used as the symbol of Christ. Thereafter Constantine inscribed on his coins and the shields of his warriors the ChiRho symbol – a monogram for the name of Christ. Maxentius’ forces were routed and in the attempt to swarm back to Rome the wooden pontoon bridge collapsed and Maxentius in full armour drowned in the River Tiber with many of his men. SEE APPENDIX 1 – BIOGRAPHY OF CONSTANTINE I. AROUND THE PIAZZA NAVONA Piazza Navona It is situated on the site of Domitian’s Stadium midway between the Pantheon and the Tiber to the west. Here in ancient times ‘agones’ or athletic contests were held. The Name ‘Navona’ is thought to be a corruption of ‘agones’. This is a Baroque piazza and a favourite of Rome. Fountains Here in the Piazza Navonna are three fountains – the Fontana dei Fiumi with some works by Bernini, the Fontana di Nettuno and the Fontana del Moro. Another Egyptian obelisk is here – it once stood in the Circus of Maxentius. Church of Sant Agnese in Agone It is located on the western side of the Piazza Navonna possibly on the site of a brother of the third and fourth centuries. St. Agnes was exposed naked here to induce her to renounce her faith. St. Agnes was martyred here and in the crypt of the church is a marble statue showing her exceptionally long hair which miraculously grew to protect her modesty. Some of the original arches of Domitian’s Stadium are visible below the church. Napoleon Museum (Museo Napoleonico) Situated on Piazza di Ponte Umberto near the Tiber River and northwest of Piazza Navonna along Via Zanardelli. It contains memorabilia of Napoleon and his family. It has court dresses, uniforms, and a shawl of Napoleon’s. Also a cast of the breast of Pauline Napoleon’s sister used by the sculptor Canova to prepare for the statue made in 1805 and now in the Villa Borghese (Pauline married Prince Camillo Borghese). Overseas Travel ITALY Page 39 J. THE WEST BANK OF THE TIBER Ponte St Angelo This bridge spans the Tiber River beside the Castle of St. Angelo. Originally it was known as the Pons Aelius and was built by Emperor Hadrian, and led to his Mausoleum – the Castle of St Angelo. It was commenced in 120 AD but not completed by Hadrian’s death in 138 AD. The bridge’s three arches are original. It is a pedestrian only bridge, and has been used by countless pilgrims to St. Peters. Pope Nicholas V demolished the Roman triumphal arch at the entrance to the bridge when 200 pilgrims died in 1450 being either crushed or drowned in the Tiber. Castle of St Angelo (Castel S. Angelo) Is situated on the western bank of the Tiber River at the end of the Via della Conciliazione from St. Peters. It was formerly known as the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and ashes of Hadrian and his family are in the lower parts in the Chamber of Urns. It was built between 135 and 139AD. It has been a fortress and a citadel and the place of imprisonment. Aurelius fortified it and connected it to the Roman Walls. It houses a museum of armour and documents. On the balustrades are 12 statues – Peter and Paul with the keys to the Kingdom and a sword; and 10 angels. The first two angels carry the spear that pierced Christ and the sponge that was filled with vinegar. It is open for visitors to the prison cells or the papal apartments. A staircase takes you to Pope Clement VII’s bathroom. Frescoes from the Old Testament and from the life of Alexander the Great are in the Pauline Rooms. The Chapel of Leo X has a façade by Michaelangelo. In Puccini’s era, Tosca leaped to her death from the topmost terrace. Pope Benedict IX (1022-44) built the cylindrical interior. The mausoleum is called the “Castle of the Holy Angel” as Pope Gregory the Great in 590AD crossed he river to pray for a pestilence to end, had a vision of an angel on top of the building sheathing a sword, indicating the plague was completed. Pope Julius II added the Papal tower and the Bronze angel on the top. The cannons were fired here in August 1572 when the news of St. Bartholomew’s Massacre reached here. Over 70,000 Huguenots were slain in France with more than 10,000 in Paris alone. In 1870 the Castle was used as a barracks and as a military prison. The covered walkway – the Vatican Corridor leads here from the Vatican. Site of Louis Pascale’s Martyrdom Giovanni Luighi Paschale (John Louis Pascale) was born in Coni in Piedmont. He then studied at Lausanne and as a young minister was working in Geneva. As it was the custom to send two Waldensian ministers each two years from the north to Calabria, he was one invited to go to the Waldensian people in Calabria. However he was just engaged to be married – but left his fiance and obeyed the call of the Lord to go to Calabria. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 40 There his preaching excited the Waldensians and came to the notice of the authorities. He was imprisoned first at Foscalda then for eight months at Cosenza. On 16 May 1560 he was brought in chains to Rome and incarcerated in the Torre di Nona. His trial was conducted at the Castle of St. Angelo before the papal tribunal on 8 September 1560. He said to the packed gathering – a holiday having been proclaimed in Rome to witness the event – that he was there for confessing Jesus Christ. He turned to Pope Pius IV and arraigned him as the enemy of Christ, the persecutor of His people and the Antichrist of Scripture – and then called for the pope and the cardinals to answer for their cruelty before the throne of the Lamb. He was immediately grabbed by the inquisitors as the people were moved and the pope and cardinals gnashed their teeth. Quickly he was strangled, then burnt to ashes. His ashes were collected and thrown into the Tiber (The History of Protestantism Book 2 by J.A. Wylie) K. ST PETERS CATHEDRAL & VATICAN MUSEUM AREA Vatican Corridor It joins the Vatican to the Castle of St. Angelo. It is known as the Passeto – which means the small corridor. In 1494 Pope Alexander VI used it to flee from Charles VIII of France. In 1527 Pope Clement VII found refuge along this escape route when the troops of Constable Bourbon sacked Rome. Via Della Conciliaizone Is the street that leads from the Tiber River to St. Peter’s Square. It was named after the Concordat signed by Mussolini and the Vatican in 1929 in the S. Giovanni in Laterno Cathedral when the Vatican regained its temporal dominions. On a number of buildings in the street are plaques mentioning 1929 with a picture. Church of Santa Maria in Tranpontina Is situated at 14 Via della Conciliazione. It is where an ancient Roman pyramid was located (pictured on the bronze doors of St. Peter’s). During the Middle Ages, it was thought the pyramid was the tomb of Romulus. This church dating from 1566 replaced one demolished by cannon fire from the Castle of St. Angelo during the Sacking of Rome in 1527. It is a Carmelite Church. The chapel on the right is dedicated to Santa Barbara – the gunner’s patron saint. The third chapel on the left has two columns – reported to have been the ones to which Peter and Paul were tied before their martyrdom. St Peter’s Square (Piazza S. Pietro) Situated between the Basilica of St. Peter’s and the Via della Conciliazione. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 41 Is one of the largest squares. It is bounded by an elliptical Colonnade It was designed and constructed by Bernini with 284 columns in 4 concentric rows, and 88 pilasters which form a corridor 17 m wide and 19m high. 96 statues of saints and martyrs are arranged on the top of the Colonnade between the Basilica of St Peters and the Via della Conciliazione. Each is 3.2m in height and sculptured by Bernini’s pupils. The Square is 196m across. The Egyptian Obelisk In the centre of the Piazza is the 350 ton Egyptian Obelisk – 25.5m high. It was carved in Heliopolis in the 1st century BC an immense granite monolith. It was brought to Rome by Caligula in 37AD and erected in the Circus Maximus. In 1586, Pope Sistus V ordered it erected in St. Peter’s Square and it took 800 men and 75 horses and 47 winches to erect it. The Pope ordered it erected in absolute silence with a gallows erected for the disobedient. The granite chafed the rope and threatened to give way, when one worker cried out, ”Water for the ropes!” The Pope congratulated him for disobeying the order and saving the obelisk. Michelangelo turned down the offer to relocate the obelisk believing it would break. A man by the name of Domenico Fontana did the job with a huge scaffold, and hundreds of ropes. It is the only Egyptian obelisk with no hieroglyphics. Pope Sixtus dedicated it to the most Holy Cross and placed a relic of the True Cross at its apex. The words “Christus vincit, Christus regnat, Christus imperat” are inscribed on the obelisk. The white marble stones near the obelisk are for its use as a sundial, being set up in 1817 to mark the tip of the shadow as it moves in and out of the various signs of the zodiac. Two porphry disks – to the left and to the right of the obelisk – mark the spots from which the Colonnade appears as made up on one set of columns – not four. The long stone lines on the ground at the end of the Colonnade mark the border between the Italian and the Papal States. Fountain of the Four Tiaras Is situated just outside (behind) the Colonnade around St. Peter’s Square on the northern side. The fountain has four tiaras and was designed by Pietro Lombardi. St Peter’s Cathedral Is situated on St. Peter’s Square west of the Tiber River. GPS Co-ordinates are: N 41 54.207’ E 12 27.420’. Open Summer 0700 – 1900 hrs, Winter 0700 – 1800 hrs. The Dome 0800 – sunset. It is said that a shrine was erected here over the tomb of St. Peter in the 2nd century. The original church was built by Constantine 324 AD and consecrated 326 AD. It lasted for over 1000 years. It was here that in 1367 John Milicz a precursor of the Reformation, posted a sign on the Cathedral door, “The Antichrist has come: he has his seat in the church” Overseas Travel ITALY Page 42 St. Peter’s was rebuilt from 1505 – 1626. Further work on the Colonnade and other areas was completed later. In1507 Pope Julius II sells indulgences to fund this great cathedral. This practice was continued by his successor Pope Leo X who was pope when Luther visited Rome. Vatican II convened here 1962 – 1965. Foreign clergy can have a private audience with the Pope on Wednesdays – if arranged before they leave their country. A private audience has only a few hundred present. SEE APPENDIX 7 FOR BIOGRAPHY OF JOHN MILICZ The Façade Above the columns and their capitals is a cornice (or architrave) with the name of Pope Paul V in large letters across the centre (he commissioned the work). Between the columns is a series of windows and doors. The largest of these is in the centre called the “Loggia of the Benedictions” – here the Pope appears to bless the crowds assembled in the square. Directly under the Loggia of the Benedictions is a bas-relief “The Handing of the Keys to St. Peter by Jesus”. Above the façade are 13 colossal statues – 5.68 m high with Jesus Christ the Redeemer in the centre, John the Baptist and the Apostles. Note the two clocks with 4 m dials. The clock on the left tells the mean time and the clock on the right – actual time. The belfry is under the left-hand clock with its largest bell 7.5 m across and weighing almost 10 tons. The Portico of Atrium The Portico is huge, measuring 71m x 13.5m and 20m high. Note the coat of arms of Pope John XXIII right in front of the central door on the floor. The Statue of Peter is on the right and that of Paul in the centre on entering the portico. Over the central door in a lunette is the celebrated mosaic “Navicella” by Giotto 1300AD – the ship of Simon Peter. It is intended to show the unassailability of the church even amid the greatest dangers. Most of the original has been altered or restored. Note in the other lunettes, are statues of 38 popes who were martyred for their faith. To the end of the Atrium on the left is a statue of Charlemagne (1725). Note the mosaic background. To the far right (often hidden by the door to the Vatican Palace) is the Equestrian Statue of Constantine by Bernini (1670), depicting when the Sign of the Cross appeared to him. (The Sign of the Cross is behind a door – and not often visible). The Basilica has five doors from the Portico. To the left of the main door from the Portico to the basilica is the Bronze Door (Filarete or Porta del Filarete). It has six panels showing Jesus Christ, the Virgin Enthroned, St. Paul, and St. Peter handing the keys of the church to Pope Eugenius IV, the martyrdom of St. Paul, and the martyrdom of St. Peter. Between the panels are scenes from the Council of Florence. It was built in 1445for the original basilica. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 43 The last door on the right is known as the Holy Door (Porta Santa). It is walled up and opened every 25 years when the Holy Year (Anno Santo), or Jubilee Year is proclaimed. The faithful can pass through in expiation of their sins. High above and between the various doors are three inscriptions left to right. The gift of a grove of 56 olive trees by Gregory II to supply oil for the lamps on the tomb of the Prince of the Apostles. An elergy by Charlemagne on the death of Adrian I in 795AD. The announcements of the first Holy Year in 1300AD by Boniface VIII. The tablets seen below – in eight languages – tell of the privilege of the Indulgenza Plenaria Perpetua (Perpetual Plenary Indulgence) for the faithful who visit the basilica. St. Peter’s Basilica Is the largest church in the world. The Nave is 211.5m long (690 ft). The floor of St. Peters covers six acres. The dimensions of many of the world’s largest churches are marked on the floor to show St. Peters is larger than all of them. A few steps inside from the central door is a round red porphry disc 2 m in diameter. This was one of six such stones that were in the first basilica here ordered by Constantine. Pope Leo III had been deposed in 799 because of adultery etc and was sent to a monastery but escaped. Charlemagne brought him back to Rome. In thankfulness Leo crowned Charlemagne King of the Holy Roman Empire on this porphyry disc on 25 December 800AD. Other ancient emperors were also crowned here. Look for Public Notices signed “Dux Cleri”. The inner surface of the Holy Door (Porta Santa) is bronze with illustrations – eg – Expulsion from Eden etc and the Opening of the Holy Door by the Pope (all placed there Dec 1949. Note the mosaic of Peter above the Holy Door. Take a tour around the Basilica commencing on the right. The Chapel with “Pieta” is immediately on the right. This great work by Michelangelo is the only one with his name on it, dated 1498. This was sculptured when Michelangelo was just 25 years of age, and originally ordered by the French Cardinal Di Lagraulas for his tomb. It was damaged in 1972 by an act of vandalism by an insane Australian geologist by the name of Laszio Toth who claimed to be Jesus Christ risen from the dead. Near the Pieta is the venerated Spiral Column, supposedly from Jerusalem. The Chapel of Relics is next on the right. Next is the tomb of Leo XII. The memorial to Queen Christina of Sweden is located in the side aisle by the pillar and the Holy Water Stoup. Christina was born a Protestant but renounced Protestantism in 1656 at the Cathedral of Innsbruck in Austria. She is buried in the Crypt of St Peters. Her vast library being donated to the Vatican. By the next pillar is the Tomb of Countess Mathilda of Tuscany (at whose castle at Canossa, Henry IV of Germany waited for three days – barefoot in the snow – to see Pope Gregory VII in January 1077, to be granted absolution. The issue was the lay appointment of bishops as opposed to papal appointment. Note in the bas-relief on the urn, the depiction of Henry IV at Canossa. Countess Mathilda was the first woman to be buried in the Basilica. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 44 On the inside left corner pillar just before the Confession and Papal Altar and facing the central nave is the Altar of St. Peter. Note the Black Statue of St. Peter by Arnolfo di Cambio from the 13th century. It was thought to have connections to Jupiter and some Roman sculpture. The statue came from the fist basilica here. Note also the filigree halo and also the replaced toe and part of the foot worn away by countless kissing of the faithful. Immediately behind the Altar of St Peter on the outside aisle of the Basilica is the monument to Benedict XIV. Across the transept level with the rear of the Papal Altar on the extreme right is the Altar of St. Erasmus. This has a mosaic showing the martyrdom of St. Erasmus during the persecution of Diocletian. On the right had side of the right hand rear pillar is the Altar of the Navicella. This has the same theme as is in the atrium – the disciples in the boat after the storm while Peter walks on the water. At the rear of this pillar is the Altar of St. Peter. The mosaic shows Peter raising Tabitha (Acts 9). On the inside of this pillar facing the Papal Altar, is the statue of St. Helena – the mother of Constantine. The cross of Jesus and the nails are shown – as she is credited with discovering these relics in Jerusalem in the 4th century. The Papal Altar In the centre is the Papal Altar with its gilded bronze canopy supported by four twisted columns designed by Bernini. The brass Baroque Baldacchino or Baldaquin was commissioned by Pope Urban VIII in 1624. The brass was taken from the Pantheon to make the canopy. This golden bronze (alloy of gold and silver) was originally statues in Corinth brought to Rome possibly by Julius Caesar in 44BC, and removed from the Pantheon by Pope Alexander VII to make this Baldaquin. The columns of this massive canopy are 20 m high. Only the Pope may celebrate Mass here. The 100 lamps burning here to Peter – the Prince of the Apostles – represent the prayers of the faithful to him. He is buried directly below the Altar in the Vatican Grottoes. Note here also the statue of Mary “La Verita” or “The Truth” clutching the sun disc. At the foot of the columns of the baldacchino is seen the Barberini crest with three bees with the keys of the kingdom above it and the papal tiara in the centre. Just below the papal tiaras on each of the eight crests is the face of a woman. On seven of them are contorted faces while the eighth crest has a baby depicted. It is believed by a number of researchers that this is depicting the story of the woman pope giving birth. SEE APPENDIX 2 THE STORY OF POPE JOAN Note the statue of Pope Pius VI with a tiara. He died in Valence a prisoner on 29 August 1799. The interior of the tremendous Dome or cupola is supported by four massive pillars – is 120 m high. The lunettes on the dome are each 8 m in diameter, and show the four evangelists – Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 45 Also on the cupola note the Popes, Bishops, Saints and Angels – with God the Father. Below the lower frieze are the Latin words from Matthew 16 “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church”. The High Altar and St. Peter’s Chair This is the Throne of St. Peter and is located in the Apse – behind the Papal Altar. This was designed by Bernini and it is supported by St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, St. Athanasius, and St. John the Baptist Chrysostom. Each statue is over 5m high. The bronze throne encases the ancient wooden chair that belonged to Peter. Above this is the Papal Tiara and above that the Dove of the Holy Spirit in the centre of the symbol of the sun. In the vault of the Apse are three lunettes – Giving the keys to Peter, Peter’s crucifixion, and Paul’s beheading. There are also three porphry steps from the old Basilica. On the left hand side are the statues of Justice and Prudence. Justice has a garment of metal – added later by the order of a pope for ‘modesty’ Justice resembles Guilia Farnese, the sister of Pope Paul III. To the left of the High Altar in the corner is the Altar to Pope Leo the Great. It has a marble ceiling that shows his meeting with Attila the Hun in 452AD, and which prevented the sacking of Rome. Immediately behind the Papal Altar at the left rear of the column of the Baldacchino is another Altar to St. Peter showing him curing a paralysed man (Acts 3). On the side of the pillar by the Baldacchino and just around from the Altar to St. Peter is the Altar to the Sacred Heart. It was designated so in 1923. Over by the left hand wall is the monument to Alexander VII. Justice and Prudence are on the second level with Charity and Truth on the first level. Again these figures were sculptured as nudes and later covered with whitened metal. On the left wall of the Transept is the Altar to St. Thomas with “The Miraculous Draught of Fishes”. A mosaic “The Incredulity of St. Thomas” is above the altar. In the Transept on both sides are confessionals where most European languages are spoken. Next on the left and now coming to the front is the Altar of the Crucifixion of St. Peter. In against the pillar is the Altar of the Lie. It records the story of Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5) lying to Peter. In the side aisle by the next pillar is the Monument to Pope Leo XI who was Pope for only 27 days. Notice the bas-relief here showing Henry IV of France repudiating Protestantism. The next Chapel has the relics of St. John Chrysostom in an urn under the altar. Next are two monuments towards the centre of the side aisle. The first is the Monument to Pius X showing him entreating God not to permit the 1914-1918 war. A bas-relief has the “Condemnation of Modernism”. Next to it is the Monument to Innocent VIII showing him with a lance in his left hand – recording the gift of the lance that pierced Christ’s side – given to this Pope by the Sultan Baiazet II. Next is the exit from the lifts and stairs to the Dome. Near the front left hand side is the Chapel of the Baptismal Font. You will also see the holy Water Stoups on the left and on the right hand side as you enter the Basilica. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 46 The Crypt or Grottoes The entrance is below the right hand pillar in front of the Papal Altar. Under the Main Altar is Peter’s tomb. Here was found a 4th century AD mosaic showing Christ as the sun god. Many of the Popes are honoured here. Vatican Treasures The entrance is on the left-hand side in the basilica, just near the transept area. These treasures have been pillaged in 846 by the Saracens, 1527 during the sacking of Rome, and by Pius VI in 1797/1798 to pay Napoleon. In the second room is the Salmatica of Charlemagne with embroideries of the Transfiguration, Madonna etc. The Croce Vaticana (Vatican Cross) is in silver – with a relic of the True Cross. A number of monstrances are here as are crowns etc. In room three in the right hand corner is a torture instrument for Christians in the early years of church history. The Dome or Cupola Travel to the Dome is either by stairs or by lift (stairs are cheaper). The Dome is open from 0800 – 1645 hrs. Entrance is just past the exit from the Sistine Chapel – to the right once entering the Portico. At the Roof Terrace is a souvenir shop which sells the usual assortment of knickknacks but also sells Vatican postage stamps. Postcards may be posted from here. The Dome is 136.5 m high (448 feet). After some time at the Whispering Gallery, the only way to the top of the Dome and lantern is by steps which become narrower and tend to lean inwards as you ascend. There are still about 320 steps from the Whispering Gallery to the observation level near the top of the Dome. Here is a breathtaking view of Rome and in particular St. Peter’s Square, the Tiber etc. The Vatican Museum Overview Allow at least one or two hours or more. Some will take all day. Whatever time you take there will be visual overload in a very short time. The various museums, library and Sistine Chapel form an extensive network of interconnected rooms – a labyrinth. There were originally Papal Palaces. Entrance is from the Viale Vaticano – approx 750 m around the Vatican on the right of St. Peters. The entrance queue may extend for quite some distance around here as well. Open 0845 – 1645 hrs Mon – Sat, Saturdays and Sundays and the months Nov – Feb 0845 – 1345 hrs. Pre booked tours commence at 8.15 am. The GPS co-ordinates are: N 41 54.422’ E 12 27.187’. From the Viale Vaticano after purchasing tickets escalators take you to the entrance doors. From here it is a one-way trip. Total distance is about 7 km. There is an exit from the Sistine Chapel at the half-way mark near the entrance to St. Peters Cathedral, but if you exit here, seeing the rest of the museums will be over. Visual overload will be experienced before going too far, as paintings, statues and tapestries seem never ending. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 47 Some of the must-see highlights include:- The Constantine Hall in the Raphael Rooms with the four paintings “The Donation of Constantine”, “The Vision of the Cross”, “The Battle of Milvian Bridge” and “The Baptism of Constantine” In the courtyard in the centre of the museums is a huge bronze pine cone – the Cortile della Pigna which used to be part of an ancient Roman fountain and was in the courtyard of old St. Peters. Do not walk on the grass. Egyptian Museum Most of the items come from the Temple of Isis. Three giant granite statues of Ptolemy I’s dynasty. Pharoah’s Head – of the 11th dynasty. Rameses’ mother’s statue – Queen Tuia - is colossal. Room II has a reproduction from a tomb from the Valley of the Kings. A copy of the Rosetta Stone is in Room III. Pio-Clementius Museum In the Greek Cross Room are 2 large sarcophagi – one to St. Helena the mother of Constantine – dates to the 4th century and has sculptures of Roman cavalry and Barbarian prisoners – the other belonging to Constantine’s daughter – Constance. The Raphael Rooms Here are the masterpieces of the Renaissance. These are a MUST SEE and one of the highlights of the Museum. Raphael commenced redecorating the four rooms in 1508 for Julius II and the work took 16 years – but Raphael died before it was completed, The Room of Constantine The works in this room commenced in 1517 – 3 years before Raphael’s death. This large room houses huge paintings of Constantine and is a highlight of the museum. The theme of the four paintings is the Triumph of Christianity over Paganism. The “Donation of Constantine” shows Constantine giving to Pope Sylvester the keys of Rome. The actual Donation was proved to be a fraud but it has been used by the Catholic Church throughout the Middle Ages to legitimise its claim to rulership. “The Vision of the Cross” is a representation of the way Constantine is said to become a Christian. Constantine had this vision at Saxa Rubra near Milvian Bridge. “The Battle of Milvian Bridge” shows his defeat of Maxentius with whom he co-ruled for a time. This victory made him to be the sole ruler of Rome on 28 October 312 AD. “The Baptism of Constantine” by Pope Sylvester is the fourth. This story was also false as Constantine was baptised just before his death near Constantinople. In both the Baptism and in the Donation paintings, Pope Sylvester has been given the features of Pope Clement VII. The Signature Room This room may have been used as a library – or the place where Papal bulls were signed. Paintings such as the “Dispute over the Blessed Sacrament” and “The Cardinal Virtues” and “The School of Athens” are found here. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 48 Raphael’s Loggia There are 13 bays with works including “Moses in the Bulrushes”, “Building the Ark” and “The Creation of the Animals”. Borgia Apartments These were the rooms of Alexander VI the Borgia Pope from Spain. Note the Sybilline Room – it has the figures of Sibyls and Prophets. In Room IV – The Room of the Saints – along with saints, are the Myths of Isis and Osiris – the divinities of the Egyptian Religion. Sistine Chapel It was built from 1475 to 1481 by Sixtus IV after whom it was named. The South Wall has scenes from the life of Moses. On the North Wall are frescoes from the life of Christ. See the ‘delivery of the keys’ to Peter. The Ceiling is a masterpiece with “The Creation” and “The Last Judgment” by Michelangelo. It took Michelangelo 11 years to paint the ceiling here. Many of the figures were ‘clothed’ in the 18th century. The Master of Ceremonies – was a person who disliked Michelangelo and was then painted by him as the Master of Hell wreathed by a snake. He complained to the Pope who claimed he could only rescue someone from purgatory – not hell, and the picture stayed. Around the walls where they meet the ceilings are a succession of prophets – Daniel, Isaiah, Jeremiah etc interspersed with Sibyls – heathen priestesses from Delphi, Cuma, etc. The Sistine Chapel was built on the dimensions of Solomon’s Temple. The conclave of Bishops is held in the Sistine Chapel to elect Popes. When walking through the Sistine Chapel in the second section the exit to the right leads out of the Vatican Museums near the entrance to St. Peters. Turning left the passage leads to the rest of the Vatican Museums. The Vatican Library There are a succession of rooms and chapels. To visit the Library itself to see manuscripts requires a special permit. Pius V’s Chapel has the Treasures of the Sancta Sanctorum. Note the Christian Museum. The Sistine Rooms (Sala Sistine) has among other things, the Codex Vaticanus. The Pius VI Room – almost to the end of the tour – is part of the long corridor called the Biblioteca Apostolica divided into different galleries each showing a different pope. The Pius VI room has references to the exile of Pope Pius VI in 1798. Note the large fresco above the exit section being escorted out of Rome as a prisoner. Other paintings show the Pope dying in Valence etc. SEE APPENDIX 9 FOR THE BIOGRAPHY OF GENERAL BERTHIER Overseas Travel ITALY Page 49 L. OTHER AREAS OF THE WEST BANK Museum of Purgatory (Museo del Purgatorio) It is located in a church on the West Bank of the Tiber on Lungotevere Prati 12 (between Ponte Umberto and Ponte Cavour). It is called La Chiesa del S. Cudre del Suffragio. The Museum of Purgatory is located in a side room to the right. Various hand-shaped burn marks (c. 1873) on clothing etc are on display. A mother ‘returned’ from purgatory to visit her daughter and where she touched the daughter’s clothing the burn marks occurred. With some inquiring questions and a small donation, the priest is happy to show them – even helpful with the objects for photography. Corsini Palace Is located on the west bank of the Tiber just over 1 km south of the Castel S. Angelo on Via della Lungara – just north of Via Corsini. The GPS co-ordinates are: N 41 53.599’ E 12 28.019’. The palace was built in the late 15th century and rebuilt by Cardinal Corsini – nephew of Clement XII in 1736. Among guest to stay here were Erasmus and Michelangelo. Today it is an art museum (Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Antica) featuring the Corsini collection with over 600 paintings. The palace was the residence of Queen Christine of Sweden who died here 1689 and who is mentioned in the Basilica of St. Peters. Madame Letizia who was the mother of Napoleon came to live here in 1800. In July 1797 the French forces requisitioned the palace as their headquarters. During December 1797 a rumour spread through Rome that Napoleon had been defeated near Vienna and on 28 December a ‘riot’ broke out in front of the palace. In the scuffle the young French general Leonard Duphot was killed. This took place in the street outside the palace and between it and the Porta Settimiana – a gate built in 1498 by Pope Alexander VI Borgia. GPS co-ordinates for Porta Settimiana are: N 41 53.537 E 12 28.051’. His fiancé was the sister of Napoleon – Pauline. Pauline subsequently married Camillo Borghese and a sculpture of her as Venus is in the Museo Borghese. The death of Leonard Duphot triggered Napoleon to send his chief-of-staff General Berthier who was a Huguenot to capture Rome and take Pope Pius VI a prisoner. Berthier entered Rome on 10 February 1798 taking the Pope a prisoner. Thus ended the 1260-year prophecy of Scripture. Rome remained a Republic from 10 February 1798 until 29 September 1799 and took orders from the French Republic. SEE APPENDIX 9 STORY POPE PIUS VI AND 1798 SEE APPENDIX 10 FOR TREATY OF TOLENTINO The Janiculum Is the hill on the west bank of the Tiber some 2 km south of the Vatican Overseas Travel ITALY Page 50 It was the scene of the defence of Rome by Garibaldi against the French in 1849. The large park is often used by families as outdoor areas. In medieval times there were many monasteries and convents here. Garibaldi Monument Is situated in the Janiculum the park above the Palace Corsini on the Piazzale Giuseppe Garabaldi. Garabaldi is remembered as the leader who united the Italian states in the 19th century. This huge equestrian statue recalls the efforts of Garabaldi and his soldiers in keeping the French at bay for some weeks in 1849 here on the Janiculum. The monument to Anita Garabaldi - his Brazilian wife is a short distance south and she is buried beneath the monument. San Pietro in Montorio Is situated on Via G. Garibaldi 33 in Trastevere – about 2 km south of the Vatican on the west bank of the Tiber. (Coming from the Vatican take the Via della Lungara then Via Garibaldi). Here on the Piazza San Pietro in Montorio is the Church of San Pietro in Montorio. It means the Church of St. Peter on the Golden Hill. The Tempietta This site is said to be the crucifixion site of the apostle Peter – yet other claims are made that he was crucified on the site of St Peters Basilica. Is in the courtyard of the Church of San Pietro in Montorio. It is a small round chapel with 16 Doric columns. It was modelled on the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. It was built by Bramante in 1502 to commemorate the place where Peter was crucified upside down. Sublicio Bridge (Ponte Sublicius) It spans the Tiber some 2.5 km south of St. Peters. It was originally build of wood and was the first bridge over the Tiber. In the 6th century BC the Etruscan king Tarquin was driven out of Rome. Lars Porsena led an Etruscan army to evict Tarquin. Horatius Cocles singly defended the bridge while it was being dismantled. Finally he jumped into the Tiber and rejoined his fellows. The feat of bravery is remembered by Lord Macaulay’s ballad ‘Horatius’ from “Days of Ancient Rome”. M. OTHER PLACES IN ROME The Four Fountains (Le Quattro Fontane)\ Situated at the intersection of Vis del Quirinale and Via Della Quattro Fontane about 1.5 km west of the Termini Station The four fountains are attached to the corners of the buldings at this intersection. Reclining deities are represented at each fountain. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 51 The river god with a she-wolf represent the Tiber. Female goddesses represent Fidelity and Strength – seen as Diana and Juno. Being at the highest point of the Quiniral hill – look down the streets to the obelisks at Santa Maria Maggiore, Tninita dei Monte, and the Piazza del Quirinale. Santa Maria debli Angeli Church This church is west of and within 500 m of the Termini Station at the Piazza della Republica It was the site of Diocletian’s Baths – far more grandiose than the Baths of Caracalla. Michelangelo designed the spaciousness of the ruins of the old baths to become parts of this new church in 1563. In 1749 the church was altered a little by Luigi Vanvitelli – and an exhibition in the sacristy shows Michelangelo’s original design. The church is dedicated to Christian martyrs – whether they are known or unknown. The tomb of Pope Pius IV is here. It was the official state church during the Kingdom of Italy (1870 – 1946). In 1702 the astronomer, mathematician and philosopher Francesco Bianchini built a kind of sundial – a meridian line here to check the accuracy of the Gregorian calendar. The sun shines through a hole in the wall to send a spot of light on the line. The line is made of bronze set in yellow- white marble. Additional holes in the ceiling allow the passage of stars to be noted. This meridian line was restored in 2002. Porta Pia Located in the city’s walls, this gate is about 1 km north of the Termini – the main railway station. It is at the junction of the Via XX Septembre and the Corso D’Italia and Viale del Policlinico. Here on 20 September 1870, Royalist troops stormed the Porta Pia. The Pope retreated and Rome became the capital of Italy and the Papacy lost control of its dominion of Rome. NOTE THE MARBLE PLAQUE AT PORTA PIA TO COMMEMORATE THIS LIBERATION. THERE IS A COLUMN SURROUNDED BY A REPRESENTATION OF VICTORY OUTSIDE THE WALLS – ACROSS THE ROAD FROM PORTA PIA. Museum of Criminology A State run museum only opened to the public in February 1994. It is located in central Rome. It is open Tuesday to Saturday. It includes the world’s most impressive collection of torture implements. There is a 2nd century AD Roman bronze bull in which the victim was cooked alive. See the Catholic derived “Virgin of Nuremburg” from the Inquisition. N. AREAS OUTSIDE AND NEARBY ROME Overseas Travel ITALY Page 52 HADRIAN’S VILLA - TIVOLI The ruins of this great complex are some 28 km east of Rome. Here the Emperor constructed a huge complex with colonnades and moats etc. See the Temple of Venus – a copy of the Temple of Aphrodite at Cridos in Asia Minor. At the edge of the Canopus (named after the canal between Canopus and Alexandria, Egypt) are replicas of the Porch of the Maidens or the Erechtherum in Athens. The colonnaded walk ‘Stoa Poikile’ was copied from the Stoa Poikile in Athens. OSTIA The harbour town of Rome used concrete construction for houses, faced with brickwork. See the frescoes in a tomb near Ostia showing Hercules and a worshipper. The Isola Sacra Cemetery Here are those buried from the harbour named Portus. There is a mosaic floor of ships and a lighthouse. Also there are many rectangular shaped, barrel vaulted tombs – and often inscriptions and decorations are found here. Slaves were buried outside the tombs under the neck of a broken jar – into which libations were poured. A monument as a small pyramid is found here. Also a relief depicting a child and a goat and has an inscription including a dedication to the spirits of the dead. Note the high steps of the Temple of Jupiter at the northerly end of the Forum at Ostia. A reconstructed theatre is here. THE NAPLES AREA – AND SOUTH OF ROME CASSINO Is situated some 120 km south of Rome towards Naples. It is on the LH side (eastern) of the autostrada on the top of the mountain. Situated high on the mountain, it had tremendous strategic importance as the Germans endeavoured to halt the allied advance in 1944. Finally the Allied forces bombed the monastery. It finally fell to their onslaught after three months of intense fighting. Nearby are war cemeteries to mark the resting-places of the 30,000 who were killed. Abbey of Montecassino Here the Abbey of Montecassino, the mother church of the Benedictine order, founded by St. Benedict in 529 AD stands. It had become one of the richest monasteries in Europe by the Middle Ages. In 1059 Dauferius became the Abbot. In 1071 The Abbey at Montecassino was consecrated by the Benedictine order. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 53 In 1078 Dauferius arranged an alliance with Gregory VII and a Guiscard – a Norman adventurer, in control of Salerno. Dauferius was elected Pope Victor III in 1086 but had to reside at Montecassino. The monks from here established a medical school at Salerno in 1100 AD. In 1321 the Montecassino Abbey was named a Cathedral. The monastery here was the repository of ancient history by Tacitus “Annales” 11 16 until the 14th century. NORTH AND WEST OF NAPLES BAIA It is the small bay on the southwest of the Gulf of Pozzuoli. The hills around it are an ancient crater. Records show its thermal springs were used at least from 178 BC. Many Emperors – Augustus and Nero as well as Cicero and others had their villas here. The ruins of four Thermae to – Diana, Mercury, Venus and Sosandra – catered for visitors. Temples these deities were circular buildings with domed roofs. The Temple of Mercury is the oldest and best preserved – sometimes called the Temple of the Echo – because of its acoustics. The Dome has a diameter of 21.5 m. Nero had a residence extending from the top of the hill to the sea. No trace remains today. The castle of Don Pedro di Toledo is built on the site of Nero’s villa. CUMA Is located on the coast west of Naples and west of Pozzuoli. Cuma can be difficult to find. Coming from the direction of Naples, once past Lake Averno, turn left. The sign says Baia – plus about 20 other places. Then the turn off to Cuma. It was a Greek colony founded by Greeks from Euboea around 730 BC. The Samnites conquered it in the 5th century BC. It became a Roman Province 334 BC. The Saracens defeated it 915 AD. It was excavated 1903 – 1912 AD. It is most famous for the “Dromos” or the Cave of the Sibyl, sometimes called ‘Antro della Sibilla’. Virgil wrote that Aeneas landed here and visited the Sibilla oracle. Virgil described this cave (Aeneid VI 43AD) as having a hundred entrances and a hundred issues “from which resound as many voices, the oracles of the prophetess”. Signs mention how Virgil wrote of the Senators of Rome coming to consult the oracle here. Today it is a cave 131 m long and 5 m high – trapezoidal in shape (5 sides) leading to the Grotto of the Sibilla – the mythical oracle of Apollo. Side tunnels were constructed from the main cave. Another cave (now closed) leads from the right hand side of the main entrance and opens towards the top of the hill. The ruins of a temple to Apollos (mainly the base of the pillars) are on the hill above the Dromos. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 54 Further up on the summit was a Temple of Jupiter from the 5th century BC. It became a Christian church in the 5th century AD – some of the brick arches are visible. The large circular font of the Baptistery is fairly intact. SOLFATARA OF THE CAMPI FLEGREI The Campi Flegrei is a volcanic/thermal area. The word ‘Flegrei means “burning” or “fiery”. It comes from the Greek word “phlegrâios” = ‘burning’. The Solfatara at Pozzuoli is the best known example of this. The area has had around 40 volcanic craters. The latest formed is the Monte Nuovo – 29 Nov 1538. It is 140 m high. A stone thrown up – on contact with the ground – gives an echoing sound. The boiling mud pools were called the Portals of Hell. The Solfatara crater is oval shaped – about 770 m by 580 m. Its perimeter is about 2 km. The largest smoke hole is called “Bocca Grange” or “Big Mouth”. Steam in side caves is reputed to have therapeutic value. The Thermae Nerone in Pozzuoli is well known. POZZUOLI Pozzuoli is situated on the Gulf of Pozzuoli (Golfo di Pozzuoli) just west of Naples. It dates to the 6th century BC, founded by a colony of Greek exiles from Samo. For 200 years it was under the influence of the Greek colony of Cuma. Under the Romans Pozzuoli reached its zenith as the most important port in Italy, being called Puteoli – the port for Rome. This name Puteoli was in Scripture. The Road – Via Domitana – connected Pozzuoli with Rome. Paul landed here and began his walk to Rome – a little over 200 km. The Flavian Amphitheatre of Pozzuoli is the most famous of two. It was commenced by Nero and completed by Vespasian. It was restored between 1839 and 1950 AD. The underground passages are the most complex found in any ancient amphitheatre. Subterranean passages and tunnels intersect the area with galleries and cages. It is the third largest amphitheatre in Italy seating up to 20,000. The Serapide Temple is the site of the Marcellum or market near the port. A sinking coastline shows its evidence here. The fist baptism of SDA’s in Italy took place here at Pozzuoli. Note the church behind the wharf with reference to Paul of Tarsus. NAPLES Situated on the Bay of Naples just over 200 km south of Rome by autostrada – or train. It has been ruled by the Greeks, Romans, Goths, Byzantines, Spanish and others during its history. Naples is a crime-ridden city. It is safer and cheaper to stay outside the city. Articles left in a vehicle may be stolen. The National Archaeological Museum (Museo Nazionale) is a must. The Catacomb of Januaries is worthwhile. The Catacomb of San Gennaro is situated on the Tondo di Capodimonte from the Corso Amedeo di Savoia and has better paintings that the catacombs of Rome. Naples was the birthplace of the world famous tenor – Caruso. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 55 The Church of St. Francis and Paulo is modelled after the Pantheon. NATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM Open daily Wednesday to Monday 0900 – 1400 hrs. Sunday 0900 – 1300 hrs. Closed Tuesdays. SOME ITEMS OF INTEREST The Mosaic of Alexander the Great defeating the Persians 333BC at Issus – from the House of the Faun, Pompeii. The Mosaic of Dioskurides. The Mosaic – Portrait of a Woman – from the floor of Villa Pompeii. The Mosaic – Theatre of Actors from Herculaneum Apollo – The Zither Player - from the Villa of Zither Player in Pompeii. Ephebe - from Pompeii – House on Via Dell’ Abbondanza. Eumachia the priestess. Sarcophagus of Pozzuoli. Artemis (Diana) of Ephesus. The Farnese Hercules. Hermes at Rest. The Wrestler. The Dancers of the Villa of Papyrus in Herculaneum. Various musical instruments from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Surgical instruments from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Gladiator Helmets and armour from Pompeii. Jewellery from the House of Medandro of Pompeii. A Bucket from Herculaneum showing Aphrodite bathing with her maids. Ancient Hellenic geometrical vases from Cuma. SOUTH FROM NAPLES HERCULANEUM Is much closer to Naples than is Pompeii. Its GPS co-ordinates are: N 40 48.288’ E 14 20.844’. It was buried by molten rock, mud and earth whereas Pompeii was buried by hot ash and lava. It is much smaller in size than Pompeii but was buried deeper than Pompeii – up to 7 metres. An Austrian general from Naples Prince Emmanuel Maurice heard of a farmer while digging a well found some marble pieces. He bought the field and began explorations between 1709 and 1716 finding many statues etc. Regular excavations commenced in 1738 and continued until 1766 under Charles III of Bourboun In the 19th century archaeology was a diversion for royalty with objects found being reburied for the ‘discovery’ by visiting princes and dignitaries. Systematic explorations began in 1927 and are still going on. 300 m from the entrance to Herculaneum is a new Virtual Reality Museum. It recreates exactly what Herculaneum was like and is well worth the visit. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 56 The Virtual Reality Museum cost over 10 million euros and is open each day 9.00 am to 5.00 pm except Mondays. See:- MAV: Virtual Archaeological Museum of Herculaneum. Unlike Pompeii which was a commercial and industrial city, Herculaneum was mainly an agricultural and fishing town. There are many examples here of carbonised wood and also lead pipes for plumbing. Note the good examples of the baths with their change areas, hot and cold rooms etc. Frescoes and paintings are much better seen here than in Pompeii. Note the Bicentenary House with its Cross on the wall. The House of Neptune and Amphritite (Sea god and wife). The Baths of the Forum. The Villa of the Papyri. The House of Carbonised Furniture (+ food containers etc). The Great Gymnasium etc. VESUVIUS From Ercolano (Herculaneum) the road leads upward to Mt Vesuvius. It is considered safe to visit with no eruption since 1944. The last kilometre or two is a climb walking up the scree and ash. From as far as visitors are permitted to go (an entry booth just before it) the crater may be viewed. It is best to walk up the mountain in the morning before the haze blocks the view of Naples and Pompeii and the Gulf of Naples. POMPEII For a great website on Pompeii visit:- www.thecolefamily.com/italy/pompeii Pompeii had a Greek influence from the settlement of Cuma. After the earliest inhabitants, the Greeks invaded around the 7th century BC. From the end of the 4th century BC it was a Roman town. The city grew to enclose about 160 acres with walls about 3 km long. Its population was between 10,000 and 20,000 according to different authorities. The buried city reveals the Roman way of life from 2000 years ago. In 91BC, Pompeii joined Herculaneum in a rebellion against Rome – but was defeated by the general Lucius Cornelius Sulla. During a fourth rebellion, Spartacus – an escaped gladiator – defied the Romans for over two years. Cicero, a son-in-law of Augustus and possibly Tiberias, owned villas in Pompeii. Pompeii was a centre of trade, manufacturing (cloth making and dyeing), besides metalworking, pottery and glass-blowing etc. The prosperity of the city and area is noted by the name of the street from the Forum – Via dell’Abbondanza – “Street of Abundance”. There were over 100 bars and taverns in Pompeii. Two theatres, three public baths and a fourth under construction and at least seven brothels (often associated with a bar or tavern) reveal the life of pleasure. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 57 History of the Eruption and Destruction of Pompeii In 79 AD Mt Vesuvius was covered with vegetation and had not erupted for over 1000 years. In 62AD, a huge earthquake broke the water pipes of the city, swallowed up 600 sheep as the earth opened and buried some people in the ruins. In August 79 AD more earth tremors were felt and some wells dried up and some streams ceased to flow. On 20 August, a large tremor caused the animals to be disturbed. Some people left. During the night of 23 August, the volcano emitted some ash, lightly dusting the area. At 1 pm on 24 August, the mountain blew lava and rock at least 20 km into the stratosphere at twice the speed of sound. Shredded into smaller particles the stone and ash covered the area to the southeast including Pompeii and Stabiae. The eruption was watched by Pliny the Younger from 27 km across the bay at the naval base of Misenum. Pliny the Elder led a rescue attempt to Stabiae, but cinders, pumice and stone rained down on them as the sea ebbed from under them. He died from the fumes and gas. Many fled Pompeii but 2000 elected to remain and the city was covered at a rate of 15 cm (6 inches) per hour. At 1 am 25 August, the mountainside collapsed and roared downwards at 150 km per hour with rocks and pumice as hot as 400˚ C (750˚ F). Herculaneum was reached by the river of rocks and lava in 4 minutes. At 7.30 am a huge surge of ash and gas raced down and asphyxiated every person still in Pompeii. At 8 am the greatest rock avalanche of all covered Pompeii and Stabiae. Vesuvius was broken open with flames resembling lightning. The shape of the mountain today still shows the evidence of this huge explosion. Probably 17,000 of a probably 20,000 inhabitants of Pompeii had heeded the warnings of the earthquakes and tremors and had already fled the city. Excavation The city has been excavated at various times since 1748. City life frozen in time has been found – graffiti on walls, buildings complete with paintings and sculpture – giving a detailed account on Roman life – the only place where you can see how first-century AD Romans lived – from brothels and lavatories to posh dining rooms and lavish bathing establishments. Chariot wheel ruts are clearly seen in the city streets along with stones usually set at intersections to allow travellers to alight without walking in the filth and mud of the street. Experts today say that there was a one-way system of streets – explains the cart and chariot wheel ruts in the middle of streets. Note the Following Places of interest in Pompeii The Antiquarium. Here are mouldings of human beings and animals in attitudes in which they died, as well as historical records and objects of daily use. The Temple of Venus. The Forum (Il Foro). The Temple of Apollo (Tempio di Apollo). Copies of statues of Apollo and Diana face each other as found. The originals are in the Naples Museum. The Altar was in front of the steps leading to the shrine (cella). Overseas Travel ITALY Page 58 The Basilica. In the Forum, this was the largest building in Pompeii (67m x 25m). Business and judicial affairs were carried on here. The House of the Tragic Poet (a mosaic with a fierce chained dog at the entrance with a warning). Edward Bulwer-Lytton chose this as the home of his hero Glaucus in this “The Last Days of Pompeii”. The Temple of Isis. Bulwer-Lytton’s villain of “The Last Days of Pompeii” was a priest of the Egyptian goddess Isis and her temple is one of the best preserved in Pompeii. Mozart visited here in 1769 and found some ideas for “The Magic Flute”. The brothel is the most visited site in Pompeii – has about five small cubicles with some faded explicit erotic paintings and some graffiti from satisfied customers. The Villa of Mysteries – note the fresco with Horus an Egyptian deity. This is outside the city walls of Pompeii quite a distance – but well worth the effort. Perhaps the most famous wall painting of Pompeii is here The amphitheatre is at the extreme opposite end to the Villa of Mysteries. It is about 150 years older than the Colosseum and the earliest amphitheatre anywhere in the world to survive. The Great Palestra (Gymnasium) – right near the amphitheatre. The Arch north of the Forum – and through which a good picture of Vesuvius is seen. The Central Baths. Other places in Pompeii The Comitium (Comizio). The Edifice of Eumachia. The Temple of Vespasian – note the altar. The Mallat (Macellum). It was a large covered market lined by shops. The Temple of Jupiter. The Arch of Caligula. The House of the Surgeon. The House of the Veti (note the shrine outside with a snake). The House of Orpheus (a gambling place). The Stabian Baths. The Large Theatre. The Gladiators barracks. The Little Theatre House of Tribius Valens (with election slogans displayed). The Road of Sepulchres. SORRENTO Is situated on the southern side of the Gulf of Naples on the Sorrento peninsula. Is a well-known tourist town with amazing sunsets as the sun dips into the sea across the water. Palm trees add to the atmosphere. Ferries leave from here for the Isle of Capri, Naples and other places. ISLE OF CAPRI Is situated about 5 km off the western end of the Sorrento Peninsula. It is about 6 km long and between 1 and 2.5 km wide – an area of about 11 sq. km. Access is by boat or hovercraft from Sorrento, Naples, Positano or Amalfi. Capri was bought by Augustus Caesar around 4 BC (exchanging it for Ischia). Overseas Travel ITALY Page 59 Tiberius, successor to Augustus, made Capri his home 17 – 27 AD, and built twelve villas on the northeastern end of the island. Boats and ferries berth at the Marina Grande. From here a funicular takes you up to the main town (alternately you can try a 3 km or 30 minute walk). The Via Krupp - built by the famous German industrialist – is a walking road leading from the Gardens of Augustus (due south of the town down the rocky cliffs. A walk for 15 minutes southeast from the town along the Via Tragara to Punta di Tragara (the southeasterly cape) brings great coastal panoramas and in particular the famous islands of the Faraglioni. Take a boat trip to the Faraglioni and sail through the arch on one of them. To the northeast from the town (Via Sopramonte then Via Tiberio and Via Moneta) a 45 minute walk leads to the northeast tip – Punta del Capo. Villa Jovis On the northeast tip of Capri are the ruins of the Villa de Tiberio or Villa Jovis where Tiberius lived for ten years. It is to the northeast of the main town of Capri and on the eastern side of the cape Salto di Tiberio. It is about 300 m above the sea. Legend says that Tiberius had his enemies (and victims) thrown from here into the sea. The villa was the imperial residence until the 2nd century AD. It was from here that Tiberius Caesar ruled the world in the time of Jesus. The buildings occupy a site about 7000 square metres in size. During the Middle Ages it was the shelter of a hermit, then a chapel was built in honour of the Saints Christopher and Leonard. Today the chapel has been enlarged and is dedicated to Madonna del Soccorso. The Arco Naturale (Natural Arch) is just 20 minutes from the Villa de Tiberio and is almost due east of the town. A short distance to the coast from the Natural Arch is the Cave or Grotto of Matermania. Here the orgiastic worship of the Great Mother (Mater Magna) and nymphs was practiced – similar to the worship of Cybele. Dozens of caves are found along the rocky coastline. The Blue Grotto (Grotta Azzurra) The world famous cave is the Blue Grotto (Grotta Azzurra) situated at the western end of the northern coast Access is by boat from Marina Grande Alternatively a visit can be made by road from Anacapri a distance of around 3 km. The entrance to the Blue Grotto is only 1 m high This makes it accessible by boat only in calm weather, and is also dependent on the tides. The cave is 54m by 30m and about 15m high giving a blue hazy atmosphere filled with blue light on sunny days. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 60 Anacapri Anacapri is the second largest town to the west of the island. It has the Villa St. Michael – the house of Alex Munthe the Swedish author of “The Tales of San Michele”. This is situated at the eastern end of Anacapri. A chair life from the eastern end of Anacapri will take you to the top of Monte Solaro (589m). Far below the Villa St Michael on the coast are the remains of the Baths of Tiberius. Other places of interest are the Barbarossa Castle (Castello Barbarossa) with Byzantine origins and Corsair pirate associations. The Watchtower (southwest corner) and the Villa di Damecuta (above the Grotta Azzurra and dating from Imperial Roman times). AMALFI DRIVE Coming from Sorrento, the road climbs the backbone mountains of the Sorrento peninsula and then winds along the southern edge of the peninsula with its breathtaking scenery to Salerno. The town of Positano is first to be seen with its white houses seemingly glued to the steep hillside right to the sea. Praiano and Amalfi are other towns on the Costiera Amalfitana. Large coaches are not permitted on the Amalfi Drive. Amalfi It is the largest of the towns on the Amalfi Drive. The cathedral dates to the 10th century Between Positano and Amalfi is the famous Emerald Cave (Grotta dello Smeraldo). Above Amalfi the small town of Ravello somehow clings to the steep slopes of Dragon Hill. It was home to several popes and of more recent times the German composer Wagner. Here he composed “Parsifal” in 1882. There are fantastic views of the coast below. In Ravello the Church of San Pantaleone has the blood of its patron saint and the blood liquefies each May and August. SALERNO Is situated about 50 km southeast of Naples and at the head of the Gulf of Salerno. It had the oldest medical school in Europe from the 11th century until 1812. The Allies used Salerno as a landing place in 1943. The Cathedral of San Matthew (San Matteo) The Cathedral of San Matteo is situated on the Via del Duomo. It was originally build in 1080 and restored in 1768 and 1945. Under the chapel in the crypt is the tomb of Matthew the disciple of Jesus. His body was brought here in 954 AD. To the right of the main altar is the tomb of Pope Gregory VII also known as Hildebrand who died here in 1085 having fled Rome the previous year. He is the pope who kept Henry IV waiting in the snow at Canossa. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 61 MATERA Situated in the province of Basilicata – in the arch of Italy’s boot - nearly 200 km east of Naples and around 60 km south of Bari on the Adriatic Sea. This area is a World Heritage Area having had the inhabitants called the Sassi live in underground dug-out rooms, houses and churches, dating to almost 7000 years ago. Here “The Gospel of Matthew” was filmed in the 1960’s. Mel Gibson also used the area to film his “Passion of the Christ”, staying at the Albergo Italia in the centre of Matera. Another hotel the Locanda uses some 40 cave dwellings for accommodation. NORTH FROM ROME SPOLETO One of the main towns of Umbria it is situated in the mountain area of Italy some 25 km north of Terni (turn off the main autostrada north from Rome at Orte. In the 7th century AD it was the capital of the Lombards. It is noted for the 10,000 early Christians martyred here on the order of Diocletion on 24 December 304 AD in the town’s amphitheatre and reportedly buried near the Church of San Gregorio. NORCIA Sitauted approx 120 km directly northeast of Rome and 30 km directly east of Spoleto or 50 + km by road. It is a mountain town and was the birthplace of St Benedict around 480 AD and died at Monte Cassino in 543 AD. He was the founder of the Benedictine Order – independent monastic communities – the first being the monastery at Monet Cassino. Benedict’s sister Santa Scolastica is also honoured in the Church of San Benedetto on the Piazza San Benedetto. MT SYBILLINI Is situated in the Monti Sibillini National Park northeast of Norcia. The highest peak is Mt Vettore at 2476 m. It has a cave at 2175 m – the site of the Sibilla – or queen of the undergound paradise. Local folklore also says Pontius Pilate was buried here in the mountains. ASSISI This hillside town is on the slopes of Mt Subasio about 135 km directly north of Rome – much longer travelling by road. This town of Umbria is a pilgrim’s mecca mainly because of St Francis with vast numbers making the pilgrimage annually. The medieval ramparts make a good vantage point to see the town and Umbria. The Basilica di San Francesco This basilica was commenced two years after the death of St Francis. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 62 Here the basilica dominates the town and contains the burial place of the famous saint in the crypt. The Tempio di Minerva Is located on the main square – Piazza del Comune. It is a exceptionally well preserved Roman temple from the time of Augustus. The Basilica di Santa Chiara This is situated on the Corso Mazzini. It contains the tomb of St Clare who was St Francis’ companion and who founded the Order of nuns the Poor Clares. In one chapel is the crucifix which bowed its head and ordered St Frances to ‘repair God’s house’. LAKE TRASIMENE (Trasimeno) Is a lake some 20 km west of Perugia. It has no major rivers flowing in or out of the lake and its volume thus depends on precipitation. Here on the northern shore of the lake on 24 June 217 BC during the Second Punic War, Hannibal and his Carthaginian army defeated the Roman army under Gaius Flaminius. Hannibal set an ambush for the Roman army and the Roman army was annihilated with 15,000 of some 30,000 killed or drowned while trying to escape in the lake. This was the greatest ambush in military history to that time. FLORENCE (FIRENZE) Florence is situated some 230 km north of Rome, on the River Arno. Its GPD coordinates are: N 43 49.600 E 11 15.000 Florence has been called the Art Capital of the world! While settlements were in the area before, the Roman city dates from 59 BC. It has been fought over by the Ostrogoths (405 AD) the Byzantines (539 AD) Goths (541 AD) Lombards (570 AD) then the Franks, becoming a free city but with great struggles between the Guelph and Ghibelline factions and later the Medicis etc Another description is the cradle of European architecture. The city has over 500,000 inhabitants and is situated on the River Arno in Tuscany. It is the city of Dante, of the Medicis, and of Machiavelli, the city of art and culture. Its strong influence of humanism touches the media as well. Michelangelo Buonarroti came from here. An early reformer was Girolama Savonarola – who was either loved or detested. Galileo Galilei also lived here for some time. Florence is noted for its leather goods – best area around the Piazza Santa Croce (try Vittorio’s there) or in the markets. SEE APPENDIX 11 FOR BIOGRAPHY OF GIROLAMA SAVONAROLA SEE SPPENDIX 12 FOR BIOGRAPHY OF GALILEO GALELEI Overseas Travel ITALY Page 63 THE CITY CENTRE AROUND THE DUOMO Il Duomo This grand cathedral on the Piazzas del Duomo and S. Giovanni is called the Basilica of Santa Maria del Fiore (St. Mary of the Flowers). It is also called the Marble Cathedral and was the largest cathedral in Europe when it was built, capable of having room for 30,000 people. The GPS co-ordinates are: N 43 46.409’ E 11 15.324’. In 1099 Pazzino dei Pazzi (from the Crusades) brought back three stones from the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The enormous Cupola or Dome designed and built by Brunelleschi, is visible across Florence with its 107m height including the lantern on top of the dome. The Dome was the first one of the Renaissance – completed in 1436, and largest at that time. The Duomo took 150 years to complete. As the tallest building in Florence a spectacular views are available at the top of 463 steps. The exterior of the building in Carrara white marble, Prato green marble and Maremma pink marble was only completed in 1887. Notice the three portals (facing the baptistery) – firstly Charity, the centre has Madonna with patron saints of the city and the right one Faith. The 44 stained glass windows of the cathedral are the largest collection of 14th and 15th century Italian stained glass. A circular feature has the bust of Brunelleschi – the designer of the great dome. Behind the altar at the rear of the apse is the Altar of St Zanobius and of the Blessed Sacrament. An urn there has the relics of the saint. Three stained glass windows by Ghiberti are famous. The paintings on the interior of the Dome by Vasari and Zuccari show “The Last Judgment” Michelangelo’s Pieta dates from 1550 and he depicts himself as Nicodemus. The relative plain bareness of the interior reflects the ideas from Savonarola’s time. Below there are remnants of Santa Reparata the original cathedral on this site, also the tomb of Brunelleschi and an old fresco of the Passion of Christ. Around the Cathedral to the right past Giotto’s Tower is the Piazza Duomo. The Baptistery of St. John Open 1230 – 1830 hrs Mon – Sat and 0830 – 1330 hrs Sun & holidays. GPS Coordinates are: N 43 46.371’ E 11 15.412’. It was once known as the Basilica di San Giovanni. It is one of Florence’s most historical and artistic buildings – the oldest building on the square and originally near the north gate of Roman Florence. The earliest baptistery was built in the same position in the 5th or 6th centuries. It was also octagonal in shape (denoting the 8th day with a reference to Christ’s Resurrection). The present baptistery dates from the middle of the 11th century with additions in the 12th and 13th centuries and much of the decorations from the 14th to 16th centuries. Important events from baptisms to ambassadorial visits took place here. The imposing green and white marble gives it an impressive appearance. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 64 Notice Lorenzo Ghiberti’s famous artistic work. He worked on the North Door from 1403 to 1424. It shows scenes from the New Testament, the Evangelists and doctors of the church. He was then commissioned to design and sculpture the door facing the Basilica, working on it from 1425 to 1452 which shows ten scenes from the Old Testament, figures of Prophets and Sibyls etc. Michelangelo said it was a door worthy to be the entrance to Paradise and so the name has remained “Gate of Paradise”. The doors were deteriorating due to pollution and atmospheric agents and have been replaced with a perfect copy. The original doors are in the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo. Inside the lights will be turned on for a price to show the scenes from Creation, the life of Joseph, Christ and John the Baptist etc. The tomb of the antipope John XXIII is here, and on the right the tomb of the antipope Cosimo. John XXIII killed John Huss at Constance. The South Door is by Pisano showing stores involving John the Baptist. The mosaics on the ceiling are by Coppo di Marcoraldo. Inside note the “Inferno of Hell” above to the right of the main entrance with terrible horned monsters gobbling up little people – representing Lucifer devouring Judas. Piazza Di San Giovanni Is the square between the Cathedral and the Baptistery and around the Baptistery. Between the Baptistery and the road is the Column of Saint Zanobius – it commemorates a dead elm that flowered in the winter of 1384 as the saint’s remains were being carried past. Archbishop’s Palace (Arcivescovile) Behind the Baptistery coming from the Cathedral and across the square is the Archbishop’s Palace or Palazzo Arcivescovile. It is situated across the Piazza di San Giovanni on the corner of Via Roma which comes from the Ponte Vecchio, and the Via de Pecori In the late 11th century Countess Mathilda (of Canossa fame) made it her residence. (She was the daughter of the Duke of Tuscany). It was almost destroyed by fire in 1503. It has had major renovations in the 17th century and in the 19th century. Giotto’s Tower or Campanile It is situated right beside the Cathedral and is part of it made of the same materials. Open Apr – Sep 0900 – 1850 hrs; Nov – Mar 0900 – 1620 hrs. Its GPS co-ordinates are: N 43 46.390’ E 11 15.317’. It is 82m high and has 414 steps. It was built from 1334 to 1359. There are sixteen niches with statues of prophets and sibyls as well as John the Baptist. The view of the orange/red roofs of Florence makes a spectacular sight from the top. Museo dell’Opera del Duomo Is situated in the building behind the Duomo, at the corner of the Via del Proconsolo and Via dell’ Oriuolo. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 65 Here the original door from the Baptistery are kept here along with other great works such as Michelangelo’s ‘Pieta’, and pieces from Giotto’s Tower and Baptistery. Donatello carved a statue of Habakuk (sometimes called here ‘Abakuk’ or ‘Habacuc’. It is kept here in this museum, TO THE SOUTH & EAST FROM THE DUOMO Piazza Della Signoria It is the large square from the Uffizi Art Gallery to the Via Condotta. A copy of Michelangelo’s “David is near the Palazzo Vecchio not far from Hercules and Cacus. The equestrian statue is of Cosimo I de Medici, the Grand Duke of Tuscany. He lived in the Palazzo Vecchio at the age of 18 years. Martyrdom Site of Girolamo Savonarola A few metres from the Statues of David and Hercules is the place where Savonarola the Dominican Monk and two companions – Domenico and Silvestro - were hanged and then publicly burned on 23 May 1498. The body of Savonarola and his two companions were stoned even while the fire still burnt. A brass plaque in the square marks the place of his martyrdom. The inscription on the plaque reads “By Unrighteous Sentence” GPS Coordinates are: N 43 46.176’ E 11 15.345’. The site of the martyrdom is exactly Savonarola had publicly burnt all the mirrors, cosmetics, lewd pictures, pagan books, chess pieces, musical instruments and fine dresses etc he had had collected from the people. His attempts were for a pure simple life in a pure church. Some tourist leaders have said at this point “Savonarola was just a social reformer ahead of his time”, ignoring his great role as a forerunner of the Reformation. Neptune Fountain The square is also a unique outdoor sculpture gallery with the Neptune Fountain in the middle of the square commemorating Tuscan naval victories. This has been called by locals as ‘Il Biancone’ or ‘The White Giant’. The Loggia Dei Lanza On the southern side of the square (river side) is the building - The Loggia dei Lanzi with its display of sculptures including Perseus holding the head of Medusa by Cellini, Hercules and the Centaur and others. The Vecchio Palace (Palazzo Vecchio) Mainly on the eastern side of the square, the Vecchio Palace (Palazzo Vecchio) dominates the square with its crenellated top facia and the tower or campanile. Work began on the Palace in 1294. The Tower rises to 94 m in height. The Salone dei Cinquecento was designed to house the General Council of the People (500) after the expulsion of the Medicis from Florence for the second time. The Mayor and City councillors meet here and have their offices here. The Palazzo Vecchio has so much art and sculpture it is impossible to list them all. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 66 Among the many are Michelangelo’s sculpture “Youth” and Donatello’s famous “Judith” now restored. The Uffizi Gallery Is situated just past the Palazzo Vecchio along the Piazzale Le Degli Uffizi towards the river. Is certainly the most famous art gallery in Italy and possibly in the world. The Uffizi was built in 1560 – 1580 as Duke Cosimo’s administration offices. It has great collections of Florentine artists, together with Venetian artists, Flemish paintings, a collection of self-portraits, and an extensive collection of tapestries. The art collection is on the top floor with the ancient Greek and Italian sculptures arranged in the corridor on the inner side of the building. Famous works such as “The Birth of Venus” by Botticelli are found here with works by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Titian, Reubens, Rembrandt, Michelangelo etc. The Bargello Palace (Palazzo Bargello) It is situated on the corner of Via del Proconsolo and Via Ghibelina. It was built in 1225 as the seat for the Captain of the People and the Ruler of the time. Later it became the home for the Chief of police. Now it houses the National Museum (Museo Nazionale) and is a treasure trove of Renaissance sculpture and so many masterpieces. There are so many rooms each featuring a different artist or period eg Donatello Room. Story of Science Museum (Museo Di Storia Della Scienza) Is located right by the river at the back of the Uffizi. Open 0930 – 1300 Mon – Sat and 1400 – 1700 hrs Mon Wed & Fri. It is almost a shrine to Galileo Galilei. It has his telescopes including the lens he used to see the largest moons of Jupiter. Reconstructions of his experiments in motion, weight, velocity, and acceleration are here – often demonstrated. There are planetary globes, other old thermometers, barometers, and hygrometers. There is a map of the world dating to 1554 and the nautical instruments of a British engineer Sir Robert Dudley. Galileo’s right index finger is also on display. Church of the Holy Cross (Santa Croce) Is located on the Piazza Santa Croce about 5 or 6 blocks east of Piazza della Signoria. Is the most important Franciscan church in Florence. Was built from 1294 to 1442AD. St. Francis of Assisi sent his monks to preach here. Is the burial place of many including Michelangelo (in the right nave), Machiavelli (middle right had side of nave) and Rossini. Galileo’s tomb is on the left. There are plaques to Raphael and Leonardo da Vinci – but who are buried elsewhere. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 67 There is also a funeral monument to Dante (right hand side past Michelangelo). Outside on the steps is a monument to Dante. Dante’s House (Casa di Dante) It is situated at the corner of Via d. Magazzini and Via Dante – some three blocks from the Duomo Alighieri towards the river. It is reportedly the birthplace of Dante. Ponte Vecchio (Vecchio Bridge) This bridge over the River Arno is fascinating, as it appears more like an arcade than a bridge. Its GPS co-ordinates are N 41 46.102’ E 11.15.204’. It was built in 1345 after the previous bridge (second on the site) was washed awy in floods. Shops line both sides. It has been the place for goldsmiths for centuries. Coming from Il Duomo, from the rear of the Baptistery take Via Roma which becomes Via Calimala then at an angle Por S. Maria to the bridge. Across the top of the shops is the corridor known as Vasari’s Corridor. It allowed the great Medici Cosimo I to get from Vecchio Palace to the Pitti Palace without running any risks. Pitti Palace (Palazzo Pitti) Is located across the River Arno by the Ponte Vecchio. It is probably the most imposing of the Florentine palaces and it dates to 1457. The long façade is 205 m long and 36 m high. The Royal apartments and the Palatine Gallery are on the first floor. The second floor has the Gallery of Modern Art. It also has the Museo degli Argenti (Silver Museum) and the Museo Delle Carrozze. Here are the famous Boboli Gardens with the largest green area of Florence. Paintings by Titian, Raphael and Fra Bartolomeo and others are here. TO THE NORTH OF THE DUOMO St Mark’s Church Is located on the Piazza San Marco about three blocks from Il Duomo – the Cathedral – along either Via Cavour or Via Ricasoli. The church dates to the 13th century and enlarged and renovated in 1437. This was the church of Savonarola the Dominican Monk of the 15th century. The church was built by the Medicis to atone for their sins and ill-gotten wealth and was used as a place of refuge. Michelangelo learned to draw from the statues in the Medici gardens over the road from the rear of the church in Via Cavour. St. Mark’s Convent Next to the church is St. Mark’s Convent (of which the church is a part). Open 0900 – 1400 hrs daily except Monday. Sunday 0900 – 1300 hrs. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 68 The convent was in existence in the 12th century. There are 44 cells on the first floor. On the first floor Cells 12 to 14 were the rooms used by Savonarola who became the prior of the Convent in 1491. The painting here by Fra Angelico is entitled “Portrait of the martyr”. From the street these cells are those closest to the church on the first floor facing the road. The celebrated artist Fra Angelico has a number of works here, including “The Crucifixion”, “The Last Supper”, and “The Annunciation”. The Library to the rear of the dormitory cells was designed as Europe’s first public library (1441). It has a collection of ancient music, scores, choir or hymnbooks etc. The Library was in possession of Tacitus ancient history “Annales” 11 -16 bequeathed by Niccolo Niccoli after his death in 1437. Here it was copied and distributed to many humanist thinkers. No flash photography is permitted. Non flash photography is permitted. Galleria Della Academia Is situated diagonally across the Piazza di San Marco on the corner of Via Ricasoli and Via Caesare Battisti. This Academy of Fine Arts was founded in 1563 and was the first school in Europe to teach the techniques of drawing, painting and sculpture. Here is an important collection of sculpture by Michelangelo The original “David” sculptured by Michelangelo is here (a copy is where the original stood for some time in the Piazza della Signoria and another copy overlooking Florence in the Piazzale Michelangelo. Many other paintings and sculptures by other artists are also housed here. The Archaeological Museum This is just over one block from St Marks. Entrance is in Via Della Colonna It is on the Piazza Della Santissima Annunziata – opposite the church Santissima Annunziata. This museum in is what was the Crocetta Palace, and has important collects of Etruscan art. Its Egyptian, Greek and Roman antiquities are considerable WEST FROM THE DUOMO Tourist Stalls (Market) Situated in the Borgo San Lorenzo – north and one block from the rear of the Baptistery A huge variety of goods on sale – watch your pockets and choose wisely! Church of San Lorenzo Located about one block from the Baptistery on the Piazza San Lorenzo. The church site has long been used for worship – the first building being dedicated by Ambrose around 400 AD. The present building dates from 1420 to 1460. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 69 The bare façade of the building should have been faced with marble but Michelangelo’s project was never carried out. It has two bronze pulpits by Donatello The Medici Chapels This large complex – octagonal in shape - is immediately behind the Church of San Lorenzo The tombs of the Medici (at least their ashes) are in the Old and New Sacristies and in the Chapel of the Princes. The sculptor Dontello is also buried here. Many of Michelangelo’s works are here eg “Dawn”, “Dusk”, “Night”, and “Day” – in the New Sacristy. Note also the religious relics with bones of saints entwined with pearls in golden cases etc. Loggia Del Mercato Is situated just off the Ponte Vecchio along the Via Calimala. The Porcellino bronze pig – the boar fountain has its snout rubbed smooth and shiny to bring ‘good luck’. It is in the middle of market traders and their stands. OUTSIDE THE CITY AREA Piazzale Michelangelo Is situated on the southern side – on an elevated area - of the Arno overlooking the city. It is the place of a grand panorama view of Florence and usually tourist coaches make this a stop coming to Florence. The is a copy of Michelangelo’s statue of David standing in the middle of the parking and viewing area. Usually a good number of tourist stalls are waiting for eager tourists to buy their wares. La Certosa Monastery Is situated on the top of a hill just north of the autostrada from the Sienna/Florence exit. It is closed on Mondays. It is on the Monte Sacroi (Holy Mount) in the suburb of Galluzzo – about 4 km from the Porta Romana (Roman Gate). This Chartreuse or Carthusian Monastery was completed in March 1395 – one of six Carthusian Monasteries in Tuscany. In 1957 it became the property of the Cistercian order. It is noteworthy historically as one of the stopping places for Pope Pius VI as a prisoner en route from Rome to Valence. He stayed here from 1 June 1798 until 23 March 1799. The ‘Guest Rooms’ open onto the courtyard in front of the church. The remnants of the bed head etc are original. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 70 Notice the Papal tiara over the entrance to the Guest Rooms – signifying a pope’s presence. Also of interest is the presence of the distillery – typical of many monasteries. SEE APPENDIX 9 FOR STORY OF POPE PIUS VI & 1798 Italian Adventist College Is located to the north of the city at Via del Pergolina 12, 50139. The suburb is Careggi and the college is just past the hospital. It is known as Villa Aurora. PISA Is situated on the west coast of Italy near the mouth of the River Arno which comes down from Florence. Has seen babarian tribes swoop down in 476 AD when Rome was in steep decline. Helped Pope Gregory by supplying a navy in the fight against the Byzantines. At one stage in the 11th century forces from Pisa controlled Carthage, Corsica and Sardinia, and soon after the Balearic Islands with Ibiza, Majorca and Minorca. In the 12th century trading bases were established on the Syrian coast. Then beaten by the cities of Florence and Lucca and then by Genoa, the great city state began to decline. The Medicis from Florence ruled the city until 1737 AD. In 1860 Pisa joined the new state of Italy. Some stone for building from Roman times has been used in the Cathedral, Baptistery and the Leaning Towerwith in some places the inscriptions of Hadrian and Trajan still visible. The Leaning Tower Situated on the Campo di Miracoli (Field of Miracles) northwest of the city centre. GPS Coordinates are: N 43 43.380’ E 10 23.785’. The whole area has a very sandy silt subsoil and most buildings tilt a little. The Tower was begun in 1173. It was completed up to the belfry level in 1319. After 1350 AD the belfry with its Gothic design was added. By the time the third storey was completed it had begun to list. When the list increased in recent years it was closed for over ten years while scientists took preventative measures. By 1993 when the lean was the greatest the top was 5.4m from the vertical The height is 54.5m including the bell chamber. The walls are around 4.2 m across at the base and 3.1 m at the top It was from the Leaning Tower that Galileo proved that heavy weights and lighter weights dropped from the tower hit the ground at the same time. Note the plaque just inside and above the door referring to Galileo and his experiments. Small animals are sculptured into the columns at the base of the tower. The Duomo (Cathedral) Is situated between the Leaning Tower and the Baptistery. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 71 GPS Coordinates are: N 43 43.425’ E 10 23.472’. Is covered with white Cararra marble. This façade is the world of Rainaldo and a Latin inscription to this effect is in the upper righthand section of the central portal. It dates to 1063. The pulpit to the earliest of the 14th century. The upper righthand section of the second gallery has a small Oriental red porphyry columnette which came from Majorca. If you look at this columnette you will be safe from betrayal in love for one day. The architect of the Cathedral – Buscheto – has been buried inside the last arch on the left side façade and has a lengthy inscription on the wall. The main doors of the cathedral show in the centre the life of the Virgin Mary and the side ones – the life of Christ. The St Ranieri Door has scenes from the Lift of Christ and is by Bonanno Pisano who worked on the Leaning Tower. It was here in church that Galileo watched as the lamps were swinging in church. He timed them with his pulse and found that a large or small arc took the same time. His discovery was that the length of the pendulum determined the time of the swing. Midway down the nave is the cast bronze lamp known as “Galileo’s Lamp”. The pulpit is the most important piece inside the cathedral and has nine panels illustrating New Testament stories. They are the Annunciation and the Visitation; the Birth of John the Baptist; The Nativity of Christ, the Adoration of the Magi; The Presentation in the Temple and the Flight to Egypt; the Slaughter of the Innocents; the Passion of Christ and the Crucifixion. Lastly of interest is a woman breast-feeding two infants represents the Church giving life to the Old and New Testaments. The Baptistery Its GPS coordinates are:- N 43 43.396’ E 10 23.663’. It is a circular building – the only circular baptistery in Italy. Its circumference is about 105 m. On the extreme top of the building is a statue of John the Baptist, which with this makes it a shade taller than the famous Leaning Tower. The building took a long time to build with plans dating to around 1153 AD, but it was probably not completed until near the end of the 13th century. The octagonal baptistery font dates to 1246 AD. Some 34,000 families of Pisa paid extra tax so that they would have the world’s biggest baptistery. Originally baptisms here were by total immersion. Only at a later stage was sprinkling introduced. A 20th century statue of Jon the Baptist is in the centre of the font. The pulpit by Nicole Pisano dates to around 1260 AD and is his masterpiece. It has scenes from the life of Christ – the Nativity, the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation at the Temple etc. including The Last Judgment. The Cemetery and Small Museum Is situated behind the Baptistery and the Cathedral. It contains earth brought from the Holy Land. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 72 NORTH AND NORTHWESTERN ITALY BOLOGNA Is located some 80 km north of Florence. Here is the oldest university in Italy and one of the oldest in Europe. It was in Bologna that Marconi worked out many of his inventions including radio. Pope Pius VI arrived here and left here on 30 May 1798 on his journey into exile at Valance. Petrach and Copernicus have studied here. Among other things, pasta is manufactured here; and it is famous for its culinary creation “a la bolognese”. In the Piazza Galvani is a marble statue of Luigi Galvani who was born here and discovered “Galvanic discharges” (electric discharges). The Church of San Petronia Situated on the Piazza Maggiore it has the largest Italian sun calendrical system. It was originally planned to be larger than St Peters in Rome, but had to be shortened when funds were sent to help build Palazzo Archiginnasio. In the year 1547 the famous Council of Trent was moved here temporarily because of the plague. The Kissing Towers The two towers Torri degli Asinelli and Torri Garisenda – often called the Torri Pendenti or leaning towers lean towards each other – hence the name ‘kissing towers’. These are located on the Piazza di Porta Ravegnana. The Torri Garisenda was shortened just after construction as a safety measure but it still leans over 3 m. CANOSSA Open 0900 – 1230 hrs and 1500 – 1730 hrs. Its GPS co-ordinates are N 44 34.563’ and E 10 27.347’. Take the road past S. Polo d’Enza. Canossa is about 32 km southwest of Reggio Nell’ Emilia – and about the same distance southeast of Parma. The ruins are on the top of Mount Cenis – about 600m above sea level (2000 ft). Countess Mathilda of Cannosa had been widowed in 1076. She was a second cousin to Henry IV of Germany. She inherited an area about a third of all Italy. Canossa originally had three walls of defence. Much of the area is eroded today. Hildebrand had been adviser to five popes was elected Pope Gregory VII in 1073. After Henry IV had appointed a bishop the issue was the authority of the church over lay investiture. Here in 1077 AD Henry IV waited three days in the snow in repentance and for absolution, until reinstated on 28 January 1077 AD. In thirty languages “Go to Canossa” means humiliation and penance. Mathilda died 24 July 1115 and was buried in he monastery of San Benedetto, but in 1633 on the orders of Pope Urban VIII her body was exhumed and re-buried in St Peters in Rome. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 73 SEE APPENDIX 4 FOR STORY OF CANOSSA PARMA Is situated nearly 60 km northwest of Modena and 100 km northwest of Bologna. The Cathedral with its cupola is one of the best surviving examples of Italian Romanesque architecture. The Baptistery A large baptistery at Parma testifies to the practice of baptism by immersion in former ages. In the baptistery is a 13th century sculpture showing the Zodiacal picture of Sagittarius. The Baptistery is made of Veronese rose coloured marble – octagonal in shape. The doorways are richly decorated. Inside frescoes from the 13th century show scenes from the life of Christ. BOBBIO Is situated in the Apennine Mountains or northern Italy about 100 km in a direct line NW of Canossa, and some 45 km southwest of Picenza on Road 45, or some 60 km southeast of Voghera. It was here that Columbanus the Celtic missionary from Ireland settled after establishing schools in France at Anegray and Luxeuil and then at Bregenz on Lake Constance. This was towards the end of the 6th century and the beginning of the 7th century. A huge educational centre was established by Columbanus and his monks who among other things observed the seventh day of the week as their Sabbath. The Library had thousands of books with some 700 or more manuscripts dating from the 7th century. Columbanus was called to defend his beliefs in Rome and again before a Gallican Synod in 603 AD. Later most of the manuscripts were taken to the Vatican Library in Rome, the Ambrosiana Library in Milan and some to Turin. The “Bobbio Missal” is now in Paris. It is a Celtic and Irish book. Columbanus died in Bobbio in 615 AD. SEE APPENDIX 13 FOR BIOGRAPHY OF COLUMBANUS MILAN Was founded in AD 222. It is the centre of Italy's business and also fashion industries. Here in 313 AD Constantine the Great issued his famous edict recognising Christianity as the religion of the empire. The Duomo - Cathedral Situated on the Piazza del Duomo in the centre of the city it is an imposing building one of the largest Gothic cathedrals in the world It is 157 m long (514 ft) and was commenced in the 14th century and completed in the 19th century Overseas Travel ITALY Page 74 There are 135 spires On the bronze doors are bas reliefs with pictures of the life of Mary Excavations have found remnants of the original 4th century baptistery Church - San Lorenzo Maggiore Situated on the Corso di Porta Ticinese some five blocks south-west from the Duomo Sixteen Roman columns are in front of the church A statue of Constantine the Great some 4 m high stands in front of the church Church - Santa Maria delle Grazie Situated on the Piazza Santa Maria delle Grazie a distance due west of the Duomo. Most famous for its painting the Cenacolo (The Last Supper) by Leonardo da Vinci. Other places of interest: The Ambrosiana - has an extensive library and art collection (1 block SW of the Duomo). It contains some manuscripts from the Celtic centre at Bobbio. The Castello Sforzesco - a castle now a museum (NW of the Duomo). AZZANO This village is situated about 20 km north of Como on the western shore of Lake Como. In 1945, Mussolini (Il Duce) and his mistress Claretta Petucci were murdered by a member of the Italian Resistance (Committee of National Liberation). Then his body was exposed to insults in Como and also in Milan. TURIN (TORINO) Is situated about 120 km southwest of Milan. Is an industrial city (has Fiat manufacturing plant etc). The Piazza Castello surrounds the Palazzo Madama with its centre the 13th century castle. The Palazzo Reale (Royal Palace) is just to the north across the square. The Cathedral of San Giovanni adjoins the palace on the northwest. The Chapel of the Holy Shroud is behind the high altar where an urn holds the linen cloth believed to have covered Jesus’ body during His burial (Science has been involved in this disputed claim). The Museo di Antichita across the Royal Gardens has artefacts of early to Roman eras. The ruins of a Roman theatre are beside the cathedral. Porta Palatina just north of the Royal Palace has two brick towers. It was the gate of the Roman town. South a couple of blocks from the Cathedral is the Palazzo dell’ Accademia delle Scienze. Built as a Jesuit College, it is now the Egyptian Museum – surpassed only by the Egyptian Museum in Cairo for Egyptian antiquities. See the statues, papyruses and tombs. Here is a papyrus 42 m long dealing with the question of death. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 75 PINEROLO Is the terminus of the railway from Milan and Turin. Is also at the junction of the Chisone Valley with the road winding up to France and Sestrière and Briançon. The Cathedral is in the centre of the small city – on the Piazza S. Donato. Its co-ordinates are: N 44 53.142’ E 07 19.770’. In the days of the Waldenses this was the capital of the Acaja Principality. Outside the Cathedral was the martyrdom site for many Waldenses between 1312 and 1550. This was not Waldensian territory, but the seat of their enemies. The Hospice for Catechumens on Corso Porporato is on the eastern side of the northern end of the Piazza Vittorio Veneto (a large car park with two fountains). It was built in 1740 by Carlo Emmanuele III and used for the conversion of caught Waldensian children to Catholicism. Its GPS co-ordinates are: N 44 53.213’ E 0720.010’. The Palace of the Senate dating to the 15th century is situated halfway up the hill on the western side of the street Via Principi D’Acaja (just to the northwest of the Cathedral). In August 1655 after the Massacre of the Piedmontese Easter, the meeting of the Waldenses led by the Moderator Leger and the representatives of the Duke of Savoy, met here in the presence of the French Ambassador. The “Patents of Grace” were issued which confirmed the religious liberties of the Waldenses. The remains of the Palace of the Princes of Acaja is at the top of the hill of the Via Principi D’Acaja (on Via al Castelo). Take the short street Via Calosso – at the top of the Via Principi D’Acaja – then turn right and the Palace is on the left. In the spring of 1484, Duke Carlo I decided on military expeditions against the Waldenses. His troops were defeated. In this palace he received a delegation of his subjects to discuss peace terms. The Waldensians have a church situated on Via Armando Diaz a few blocks southwest of the Cathedral. Pinerolo had the first Teacher Training College in Italy. THE WALDENSIAN VALLEYS From Pinerolo three valleys lead to Waldensian areas. The Val Chisone to the northwest (it leads over the Alps to France), the Val Germanesca, and the Val Pellice westwards to Torre Pellice and beyond. The valleys of the Waldenses have steep mountains separating them and it is not always possible to cross by car from one valley to the next. Torre Pellice, at the junction of the Pellice Rive and the Angrogna Valley, is a good place to commence a visit to these valleys. SEE APPENDIX 14 FOR SUMMARY OF THE WALDENSES TORRE PELLICE It was situated at the end of the railway line from Turin until floods washed out the track near Pinerolo. It is situated in northwestern Italy on the Pellice River and at the junction with the Torrente Angrogna and valley. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 76 Towering over the town is Castelluzzo, the rocky outcrop on the mountain and a fortress for the Waldenses. The Bars de la Tagliola is a cave high on the mountain at the foot of the rocky outcrop and used in times past as a refuge from persecution. Next to the Waldensian Museum is a Waldensian school. On the corner of Beckwith Street and D’Azeglio Street is a statue of Enrico Arnaud (Henry Arnaud) the brave Waldensian leader who led the Glorious Return. A bronze monument in the grounds of the church is to the Waldensians who settled in Uruguay. Coming from the town centre the SDA church is at Via Giolitti 6 – the third street on the left over the Torrente Angrogna travelling eastwards towards Pinerolo. E.G. White stayed in Torre Pellice during her European stay. The area where she stayed is just off Beckwith Street along a small land to the left just up the street a little from the Museum. Accommodation in Torre Pellice is available at the Waldensian Guesthouse Foresteria – by arrangement. Its GPS co-ordinates are: N 44 49.223’ E 07 13.247’. Otherwise Hotel Gilly is a 4 star hotel on Viale Gilly – the way to Bobbio Pellice. Hotel Central is on Canduti Liberta and Pensione Flipot at the end of Canduti Liberta are 1 or 2 star establishments. It is named after Canon Stephen Gilly an Anglican who established the Waldensian College in 1832. Casa Valdese (Waldensian Headquarters) The Casa Valdese in Beckwith Street is the Waldensian Headquarters and the seat of the annual synod. Permission is usually readily granted to see the Synod headquarters. Inside is a painting of the tree celebrating the 250th anniversary of the Waldensian Movement from the time of the Glorious Return (1689) Underneath are the words taken as a vow, “We vow and promise in the presence of the living God to uphold among us unity and order. We vow fidelity even to the last drop of blood”. The Tree shows some branches missing representing those killed in the times of persecution. Notice the Waldensian Motto in various places “”Lux Lucet in Tenebris” (Light Shining in Darkness). Tempio Valdese (Waldensian Church) Next to the Casa Valdese is the Tempio Valdese – the church. In the church and in their worship the Bible is pre-eminent. The Waldensian Museum Situated on Beckwith Street - near the corner of Via D’Azeglio almost opposite the Casa Valdese. It is open 1500 – 1800 hrs on Saturdays,Sundays and Thursdays or by arrangement. It has great displays of the history of the Waldenses and links them with the Reformation. Several displays of the way of life in the Valleys are also interesting. The history of the Waldenses includes the statement and challenge by General Charles Beckwith - an Englishman - a one-legged survivor of Waterloo and who lived here during the 19th century: “You will be missionaries – or you will be nothing!” Overseas Travel ITALY Page 77 BOBBIO PELLICE Is located some 8 km west of Torre Pellice and further up the Pellice River in one of the westernmost corners of Italy. The border with France is located on the top of the mountains to the west. The Sibaud Monument Is on the hill north of the village and overlooking it. GPS Coordinates are: N 44 48.514’ E 07 06.793’. From the village centre signage indicates the path to the monument. Alternatively when driving into Bobbio Pellice turn right up the hill immediately prior to the sign “Bobbio Pellice”. Proceed about 900m – the road is mostly unpaved and a little rough – until a sign points up the hill towards the monument. Follow the track through hillside gardens until it leads to an open field with the Monument. The Monument commemorates the gathering of the Waldenses after the march over the Alps and the Glorious Return in 1689. Here the representatives of the valleys pledged their allegiance to God. The Monument was constructed using a stone from each valley. SUBIASC VALLEY This valley is to the north from the Pellice River – just before Bobbio Pellice. It was the place of resistance by the last handful of Waldenses to the assault of the French and Savoy troops in 1686. Comba dei Carbonieri Is situated on the south side of the Val Pellice – just before arriving at Bobbio Pellice. Here is an ancient society giving the atmosphere of the Waldenses of by-gone centuries. ANGROGNA VALLEY The steep valley with the Torrente Angrogna leads from Torre Pellice into the mountains. Take the road left after leaving the centre of Torre Pellice and travelling over the Torrente Angrogna. Two roads travel on either side of the Torrente and meet up the valley. The College of the Barba Is situated about 7 km from Torre Pellice along this very windy road with steep mountainsides all around. GPS Coordinates are: N 44 52.080’ E 07 10.620’. The further you travel up the valley, the steeper the road becomes and the corners sharper. Finally at Pra del Tor on the right hand side of the road is a church and then the signage points to the College of the Barba. There is a 10 – 15 minute walk (or climb) to the building. The Barba were the Waldensian ministers (‘Barba’ means ‘Uncle’) who trained here and then travelled throughout Europe. The young pastors wrote out the Scriptures before travelling with them. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 78 This centre was used by God to keep His Word shining through the centuries – truly “Lux Lucet in Tenebris”. This place was also the centre of Waldensian resistance. Often during the attempts to kill them, the Torrente Angrogna ran red with blood – often that of the Waldenses but also with that of their enemies. The American poet John Greenleaf Whittier wrote the poem “The Vaudois Teacher” SEE APPENDIX 15 FOR POEM “THE VAUDOIS TEACHER” The Chanforan Monument Take the road from Torre Pellice up the right (eastern) side of Angrogna Valley to Serre. Is situated on a narrow side road (dirt) about 500 m from Serre Church. Walk up the hill from Serre Church. GPS Coordinates are: N 44 51.060’ E 07 12.984’. The Monument – about 600 m from Serre - commemorates the six-day Synod held here in 1532 at which time the progress of he Reformation was reported to the Synod by William Farel from Switzerland. A short confession of faith was drawn up. The Synod voted to pay for the translation of the Scriptures into French. This was the Waldensian gift to the Reformation (“From the Alps”). It was printed in February 1535 with Pierre Robert superintending the translation. SEE APPENDIX 16 FOR BIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM FAREL School Museum (Scuolo Museo) It is situated a little further along this marrow dirt road. It is an old Waldensian school – now a museum. It was one of many schools established by Beckwith so that at that time the Waldensian children were more educated than most Italian children. Today the Museum displays letters written by Beckwith. Church of the Cave (Gheisa d’ la Tana) This is situated further along the road from the School Museum. Turn left past the School Museum. GPS Coordinates are: N 44 50.948’ E 07 13.357’. It is also possible to park at the other end of the road and a short walk to the cave. The cave has a narrow opening – but is accessible (a torch may be helpful). It was used by Waldenses for worship during persecution times. Once inside some light from openings far above make it possible to see a little. Cliff of Rocciamenent Is situated higher up the mountain – and a stronghold of defence during the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries. On a fine day, Turin can be seen from here. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 79 Grisly Reminder of Persecution Travelling from Torre Pellice on the Angrogna Road to Serre (not the lower road on the left-hand bank of the Torrente Angrogna). A sign says to Angrogna, then a road turns right signed to Pianta, Malan, Pore E’Angrogna and other places. Turn right here. Proceed 400m and take the right hand fork and proceed 200 m There are two or three houses on the right. A small old school building (not signed) is past the last house on the right and near it – both are cement rendered. Near ground level, on the corner of the house nearest the road is the date AD 1683. This small portion is not cement rendered. Here a pastor is said to have been concreted into the wall alive because he would not recant. Not far away was a baker’s oven where some were reduced to ashes. Rocciaglia This place is northeast from Torre Pellice This rocky spur protected the area during the attacks by Count della Trinità in 1560. The name is now used by a guesthouse, convention centre and holiday resort. Rora Village Is situated high in the hills to the south of Torre Pellice. Take the road to the right (Rora and Luserna S. Giovanni) when leaving Torre Pellice towards Pinerolo. It would be at least 5 km winding up to the village. In 1655, a brave man, Joshua Gianavello (or Janavello) with six men, defeated by strategy a force of between 500 and 600 soldiers under the Marquis de Pianerza who had come to wipe out his village. The feat was repeated the next day when the Marquis sent 500 more soldiers to complete the awful command. With only 16 men (11 rifles and the rest with slings), Gianavello killed 52 of the enemy. On April 27 a whole regiment came but the inhabitants had fled. Gianavello surprised the force with captured booty and again was successful. The Marquis was furious with rage and sent a combined attack from two directions to wipe out this ‘renegade’ band. Gianavello defeated one group but was outmanoeuvred by the other group above him. Fighting through the group he gained the summit and victory came again for Gianavello, inflicting huge losses on the retreating soldiers. It took 10,000 soldiers to finally burn the village and slay the inhabitants – or take them as hostages. (Story from “Torchbearers Amid Alpine Snows” by C.C. Dobson published by Pickering & Inglis London – c. 1940) CHISONE VALLEY This valley lies northwest from Pinerolo and was under French control for quite some time. After the Repeal of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV, this area suffered heavy persecution. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 80 After the Treaty of Utrecht at the beginning of the 18th century, the whole valley from Porte to Sestrière was forced to abjure – or go into exile. Most left for Germany. This valley was used many centuries before by Hannibal when he marched his troops and elephants from France over the Alps to Italy. Balziglia Turn off the Pinerolo – Sestrière road at Perosa Argentine. Take the Prali road through Pomaretto for 9 km. Then at a road junction (Prali left) take the road to the right, and follow the signs for 8 km. The last few km is very narrow and steep – almost single lane. Only for cars with careful driving. If ever there was a place “of defence the munition of rocks” it is here. Isolated and almost inaccessible, but where hatred and heroism were displayed in battles. The Museum is in the cluster of houses on the hill over the bridge. The key is kept at the first house on the right over the bridge. Enrico Arnaud in 1689 and 1690, after the Glorious Return entrenched his forces above the village, resisting attacks by Catinat who even dragged cannon up to here. Later the Waldenses stole away at night while completely surrounded in mist, taking an almost impossible path to traverse. POMEANO Waldensians had hidden here from the French, and in 1686 some fierce massacres took place here. From Perrero to Prali there are talc quarries. The Village of Ghigo from the Rodoretta Valley was the most isolated and remote parish of the Waldenses. A Museum here contains some historic documents. NORTHEASTERN ITALY RAVENNA Is a city on the eastern coast of Italy around 100 km northeast of Florence and some 80 km east of Bologna. It was originally a seaport, but now is around 10 km from the shore – connected by a canal. In its history, Odoacer the king of the Heruli made this his capital while ruling Italy. However following his reign, the Ostrogoth king Theodoric from Constantinople reigned here. Then General Belisarius the Byzantine came under the Emperor. Justinian defeated the Ostrogoths. Later the Lombards ruled. In the Piazza del Popolo in the centre of the town, the Palazzo Veneziano is a portico of eight granite columns. Four of the columns have the monogram of Theodoric on them. The Baptistery of Ravenna Is to the north of the Cathedral of Sant’ Orso. It is an eight-sided baptistery dating to the 5th century. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 81 Ravenna is famous for its mosaics and those in the dome are some of the oldest here. The font dates to the 16th century. The Museo Arcivescovile (Archbishop’s Museum) is on the first floor of the Archbishop’s Palace behind the Cathedral. Here is the throne of Archbishop Maximilian dating to the 6th century from Egypt. Dante’s tomb is just north of the Franciscan church of San Francesco. The Sant’ Apollinare Nuovo Cathedral on the Via di Roma (east side of the town) was built by Theodoric as an Arian cathedral. It was made a Roman Catholic Cathedral in 560 AD. At the northern end of the Via di Roma is Theodoric’s tomb, built of white limestone. THE RUBICON Situated in the area near Ravenna is the river now called Fiumincino that passes through the town of Savignano sul Rubicone. The River has changed its course over the years but has been identified as this place which is 19 km north of Rimini. The river is a small one about 29 km long. Julius Caesar crossed this river on10 January 49 BC. Julius Caesar had unlimited political ambition and the ultimate oratory skills and had been a Consul of Rome in 59 BC and was then made Governor of Gaul, where he made a great fortune and subdued the Celtic and Germanic tribes, becoming a popular ruler. Caesar’s popularity had skyrocketed and was seen as a threat to the Senate and to Pompey who ruled Rome. Accordingly the Senate called upon Caesar to resign his command, disband his army – or be declared an ‘Enemy of the State’. An ancient Roman law forbade any general to cross the Rubicon River and enter Italy proper with a standing army – or face charges of treason. The Rubicon was part of the boundary with Cisalpine Gaul over which Caesar was the ruler. After attending some public event in Ravenna where he was staying, Caesar met his army and came to the Rubicon. He told his troops, ‘Still we can retreat! But once let us pass this little bridge, - and nothing is left but to fight with arms’. Caesar snatched a trumpet from one of his soldiers ran to the river with it and sounded the “Advance”. He crossed to the other side, and said, ‘Let us go where the omens of the Gods and the crimes of our enemies summon us! The Die is Now Cast!’. Thus he showed that he was on his way to Rome to challenge and oust Pompey the ruler there. The term ‘crossing the Rubicon’ has meant ‘passing the point of no return’ ever since. FERRARA It is a walled town situated about 50 km north-east of Bologna on the way to Venice. For around 300 years until 1598 it was the stronghold of the Este dynasty. See the Castel Estense which overlooks the town. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 82 It is also noted as being the birthplace – either here of in the village of Occhiobello– of Girolama Savonarola on 21 September 1452 (Occhiobello is located near the autostrada about 7 km north of Ferrara). A statue of Savonarola is located in the Piazza Savonarola – which is noted for its Museum to Freedom. VERONA Is a city somewhat just over half way between Milan and Venice on the A4. It is a very prosperous town and has ancient Roman ruins to add to the atmosphere of the town. Many of the buildings are built using a pink limestone. The San Fermo Maggiore church is worth a visit. The Arena Is located on Piazza Brà. It was built by 30 AD and just very slightly smaller than the Colosseum in Rome. Originally used for gladiatorial contests, it has been also used since for executions, for bullfights and for theatre and opera performances. The Castelvecchio Is a fantastic castle on the Corso Castelvecchio 2. It was completed in 1375 after twenty years. Today it is a great art gallery and has many exhibits of all types. Great views are also had here of the castle and of the town itself. Casa di Giulieta Is the house of Juliet (from Romeo & Juliet) and is located at Via Cappello 27. Romeo is said to have climbed to Juliet’s balcony PADUA Is situated some 40 km west of Venice. Is an old university town, home of Italy’s second oldest university. Galileo lived here when he invented the telescope. VENICE Is situated at the head of the Adriatic Sea just north of the Po delta. The city is built on 118 small islands and has over 100 canals with 400 bridges. The main waterway is the Grand Canal nearly 4 km long. The Piazza San Marco has the Doge’s Palace nearby. The zodiacal clock in St. Mark’s Square (Piazza di San Marco) has images of the zodiac in relief. The hand is a solar head progressing through the signs of the Zodiac. Cassanova lived in Venice and was imprisoned in 1755 before his escape to Spain. A jail under the Doge’s Palace – on St. Mark’s Piazza has torture implements. St. Mark’s Belltower Is also called the Campanille. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 83 It was built from the end of the 9th century. Galileo showed the leaders of Venice his newly invented telescope from here. The Tower collapsed on 14 July 1902. It was reconstructed on the same place thereafter and opened in 1912. Venice Cathedral In the cathedral are two pulpits – the top one for the reading of the gospels and the lower one for the reading of the epistles. TRENT (TRENTO) Is situated about 150 km northwest of Venice and about 100 km north of Verona. It is on the Adige River which runs southward to Verona and then eastwards into the Adriatic Sea just north of the mouth of the Po River. The town was conquered by the Romans in the first century BC, calling it Tridentum (it does have three hills surrounding the city). It was a trade town on the route from Venice to the Brenner Pass and thus into northern Europe. Here the Council of Trent met from 1545 – 1563 in an attempt to undo the work of the Reformation and instigated the counter-reformation. There are many hotels in the town. Hotel Everest at 14/16 Corso Alpini is a good mid- priced hotel The Cathedral The Cathedral of San Vigilio – named after the patron saint of Trent - is situated on the southern side of the Piazza del Duomo in the centre of the town. It dates from the 11th and 12th centuries. Underneath the cathedral are the remains of an early Christian Church from the 6th century – it had a fine mosaic floor. The Council of Trent used the cathedral for many of its meetings. The decrees of the Council were delivered in front of the huge cross in the Chapel of the Holy Crucifix. It is open 0640 – 1215 hrs and 1430 – 1930 hrs. The Piazza del Duomo It is the main square in the town with the cathedral on the southern side. There is a Neptune Fountain (Fontane del Nettano) in the square that dates to 1768. The Palazzo Pretorio Is situated on the eastern side of the square (Piazza del Duomo). Open Mon – Sat 0930 – 1230 hrs and 1430 – 1800 hrs. The Palazzo dates to the 12th century with the Bell Tower being built in the 13th century. Here is the Museo Diocesano with its treasury items, baroque paintings of religious themes, and also items and robes worn during the Council of Trent. The Palazzo was the residence of the bishops until the mid 13th century. Admission to the Palazzo also entitles entrance to the 6th century Christian basilica under the Cathedral. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 84 Santa Maria Maggiore Church A block of so north from the cathedral is the church Santa Maria Maggiore where the preparatory congregations of the Council of Trent met from 1562 until 1563. In the choir is a picture with likenesses of the members of the Council of Trent. Piazza Dante Sometime called the Giardino Pubblico or ‘Public Gardens’ It is situated about three blocks north of the main square and opposite the railway station. Here is an 18 m statue of Dante. He influenced many by the ideas of hell in his work “Inferno”. His views – and those of the church of the Middle Ages have influenced thinking about hell and death to this day. The Castello del Buonconsiglio Is the castle to the north-eastern side and on the edge of the town. The name of the castle means ‘good council’ and was from the time when public meetings of the town council met here. It dominates the town from its place on a rocky spur above the town. It had been the seat of the bishops who controlled the area for centuries, until 1803. Here in 1848, 21 volunteers who fought for the inclusion of Trent into Italy instead of Austria were put to death by the Austrians. Originally a city wall went from the castle and surrounded the town but now has been demolished. It has great paintings in the museum in one of its towers, as well as other objects of the fight for freedom of the area, sections on archaeology etc. SEE APPENDIX 17 FOR A SUMMARY OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT THE ITALIAN TYROL AND THE DOLOMITES Just to the north of Trent at Ora, take a detour through Cavalese, Predazzo and Moena and Vigo and back to Bolzano. You will probably wish you had double the time available. This drive has breathtaking scenery, delightful picturesque towns, houses with window boxes with colourful flowering plants and the majestic Dolomites towering above. It is a place for driving, walking, relaxing and photographing – it is fantastic! Try skiing here in the winter. CHIUSA Is situated some 30 km northeast of Bolzano (about 85 km from Trent). Jacob Hutter – an Anabaptist leader of the Hutterites came to the Tyrol and won converts. This brought persecution and Hutter and his pregnant wife were captured here in November 1535 in the home of Hans Steiner. He was imprisoned in the episcopal fortress of Branzell, November 1535. Then he was moved to Innsbruck and was tortured with the rack and brutal whippings, but he never recanted. He was burnt at the stake 25 February 1536. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 85 PUSTER VALLEY Here in the Tyrol was the birthplace of Jacob Hutter, leader of the Hutterites who were Anabaptists. He pastored his first church here in 1529. APPENDIX 1 CONSTANTINE Was born on 27 February about 280 AD (though one reference says 274AD). Born in Nassius now Nis (today in Serbia) His mother Helena was the first wife old Constantius Chlorus His full name was Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus usually known as Constantine I or Constantine the Great. He went with his father to Gaul and on to what is now Britain and there on 25 July 306 his father died at York Then the troops made him Emperor in 306 AD proclaiming him Augustus. To legitimise his claim to be Caesar, he askled Galerius the eastern augustus to recognise him as heir to his father’s throne – which he did by granting him the title of Casear. He remained in Gaul for ten years living in Trier. In 312 Constantine in endeavouring to gain total control took his troops back to Italy First he defeated Maxentius’ forces including his heavy cavalry at Turin. The next battle with Maxentius’ forces was at Verona. He then advanced swiftly to Rome. Maxentius could have remained inside Rome. The Aurelian walls had been hightened and the city had withstood a siege by Galerius. For some reason Maxentius decided to meet is opponent north of Rome across the River Tiber at Saxa Rubra. It was here at the battle of Milvian Bridge Constantine’s army was 100,000 strong (90,000 infantry and 8000 cavalry). Maxentius had the famous Praetorian Guard as his centrepiece of his defence. Constantine is reported to have seen a vision at Saxa Rubra with the words “In Hoc Signo Vinces” – or “By this sign you will conquer”. This labarum sign he told the historian later was the two Greek letters “Rho” and “Chi” which have been used since as symbols for Christ Constantine had his soldiers place the labarum symbol on their shields. Christians say this was the Cross showing he was now Christian. Other historians dispute this as paganistic symbols. Constantine routed the forces of Maxentius and they fled trying to return to the safety of the city of Rome. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 86 Maxentius in full armour was drowned as the quickly made wooden pontoon bridge broke up – and so did many of his soldiers. On this day – 28 October 312 AD Constantine became the ruler of the western Roman empire. In 313 he met with Licinius in Milan. Here he issued the Edict of Milan which ended the official persecution of Christians by granting total tolerance to all religions in the empire. Constantine later battled with Licinius in 323, and the next year Licinius was put to death for treason, leaving Constantine solely in control. Also in 324 he declared he would make Byzantium the New Rome. A nice person he had his son Crispus tied and executed in 326 because of accusations he was having an affair with Constantine’s second wife Fausta. Shortly afterwards he finds that the story emanated from Fausta and she was killed for that. In 325 AD he called the Council of Nicaea – really perhaps the first ecumenical council of the early church. On 11 May 330 he proclaimed the city the capital of the Roman Empire The city was renamed Constantinople after his death Contrary to false belief, Constantine was baptised just before his death and not by Pope Sylvester after Milvian Bridge. He died 22 May 337 and was buried in Constantinople. During his reign he built the Church of he Holy Sepulchre. Bibliography: The Encyclopaedia Brittanica “Battles of the Ancient World” Amber Books London 2007 APPENDIX 2 MITHRAISM Mithraism originated in Persia with the worship of Mithras a Persian and or Indian god. In eastern countries Mithraism is always connected with the sun. Mithraism was brought into most aspects of life – even to swearing oaths and establishing contracts etc. Gradually Mithraism was seen as a warlike god and as such it spread throughout the Roman Empire. It was particularly attractive to soldiers – with only male adherents. This worship had a ‘redemptive’ character and included initiations. The Persian elements of Mithraism worship were later replaced by Babylonian ones and astrology and magical aspects became part of it. It reached a peak in the third century AD. The myth of Mithras is that this god appeared young and beautiful out of the sky, placing him by a river near a sacred tree. Shepherds witnessed the miraculous birth. This miraculous birth took place on 25 December. They gave him shelter, and offered gifts and worshipped him. From his birth Mithras performed miraculous deeds and endeavoured to subjugate the evil of the cosmos. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 87 Mithras at first challenged the Sun but built an alliance and the Sun gave him his crown. Thus he became a Sun god. Mithras captured a bull overcoming many obstacles in so doing and then the bull escaped – but the Sun sent his messenger the Raven telling Mithras to kill the bull. Mithras slew the bull plunging the knife in its side from which came all the beneficial plants, and grains and vines etc. The Evil one in the cosmos sent his attendants the scorpion and the snake to combat these life-giving forces, and then from the bull came the helpful animals. Mithras and the Sun sealed this great victory by an agape feast, and Mithras ascended in the Sun’s chariot to the heavens to care for the faithful. Mithras is reported to have killed the bull in a cave and most Mithraic sites were then dug underground to resemble caves. It also gave an awesome and mysterious atmosphere to the worship. The initiates into this worship were inducted into the various seven stages of development – the Raven, the Occult, the Soldier, the Lion, The Persian, the Runner of the Sun and lastly the Father. These stages involved purification. Sevens were a feature of the worship – seven grades, seven doors, seven planetary spheres, seven days of the week and seven metals. The Moon was assigned to the first door, Mercury the second, Venus the next, then the Sun god, then Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. This purification journey was symbolically enacted by each initiate going through the stages of the initiation rites. The initiates wore animal masks at each stage and animal sacrifice was a central part of the Mithraic religion. Also in these rites there was a total commitment to Mithras. These initiations included a state of drunkenness, exultation and abandon, and then were performed rituals of purification similar to Christian baptism. Lastly the banquet or Mithraic agape feast was celebrated with bread and wine. The early Christians saw the demonic counterfeit of the Eucharist or Lord’s Supper. Lastly the new life coming from the animal sacrifice had eschatological connections with the beginning and the end of the world. All Mithraic sites featured the slaying of the wild bull as the central place in the cave. The signs of the zodiac were also part of this worship. There are scores of sites in ancient Rome were Mithraic temples were established – most of which became Christian places of worship by the fourth and fifth centuries. Some of these include the Pantheon, the Circus Maximus, St. Clements, St Sopra Minerva etc. - “Subterranean Rome” by Ivana della Portella APPENDIX 3 POPE JOAN This corner just a couple of blocks away from San Clemente holds the secret of the legendary Pope Joan of the ninth century. It has been called the “Vicus Papissa” or the “street of the woman pope”. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 88 Pope Joan is reputedly an Englishwoman who moved to Fulda in Germany and disguised as a man became eventually a Pope after Leo IV in 855, taking the name of Pope John VIII. She reigned for more than two years. Then during a papal procession moving to the Lateran Basilica which was then the headquarters of the church, she gave birth to a child. Both the pope and the child were subsequently put to death. The small shrine or what looks like a doorway protruding from the building on this corner is the place where it is reported a statue to Pope Joan once stood before being removed on the orders of the church. The story gained much credence during the Middle Ages but is only seen as an ancient Roman folk-tale by church authorities. Likewise the story says that in the Cathedral of Sienna in the sixteenth century the bust of Pope Zachary was placed here replacing one of Pope Joan. Some further evidence is that after the incident occurred, on the election of a pope a cardinal was assigned the task of manually feeling that the pope-elect was a male as he sat on a specially prepared chair the ‘sedia stercoraria’. Such a chair it is claimed has been kept in the Vatican Museum. Lastly an eleventh century pontifical (Parisinus Lat 5140 in the Biblical Nationale in Paris) shows a gap between the mention of Leo IV and Nicholas I, as though the intervening reference has been edited out. Tarot cards have long featured La Papesse or the female pope. Naturally the church which insists on Apostolic Succession and the ordination of only males for priests has much to lose if the story is authenticated. It is also seen that Bernini’s baldacchino over the main altar in St. Peter’s features a little of the story of Pope Joan as just under the papal crown a woman’s face is pictured in various contortions on the woman’s face shows she is in the pains of childbirth. The eighth small picture shows a baby. - “The She-Pope” by Peter Stanford by Heinemann London 1998 APPENDIX 4 THE EVENTS OF CANOSSA Pope Gregory VII (formerly Hildebrand) had enforced the celibacy of the priests and now found his greatest struggle against lay investiture – the choosing of bishops etc were chosen by non-clergy often kings. If Gregory VII could enforce investiture only by the church, he would become the universal ruler in all kingdoms. Gregory VII promptly excommunicated Henry IV and released his vassals and subjects from all allegiance to Henry. Henry was just 21 years of age took his most trusted soldiers and left Germany for Italy. Henry IV’s aunt was Mathilda of Canossa. Having been widowed she had inherited the Castle of Canossa – situated about 32 km southwest of Reggio Nell’ Emilia and the same distance southeast of Parma in northern Italy. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 89 Pope Gregory VII heard of Henry IV’s travels and made directly for the mountaintop fortress of Canossa locking the gates and waiting for Henry’s arrival. It was wintertime and Henry and his party was forced to wait in the snow, muttering his deep apologies and seeking forgiveness. Henry donned sackcloth and was humiliated, waiting in the snow for three days – in public view of Gregory VII, Mathilda and the others inside the castle. Finally Gregory was admitted and having said the necessary words of regret and apology was granted pardon and re-instated as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire after swearing allegiance to the pope. Henry IV returned to Germany and put down any small rebellion due to his excommunication and resumed his rule. Eight years late in 1084 Henry IV returned to Italy with his army, entering Rome by the Porta Asarinia (The Donkey’s Gate) near the Basilica of St. John Lateran. Pope Gregory VII knowing he was the target of Henry’s wrath fled southwards into the mountains near Salerno. Gregory died there in exile in 1085 and is buried in the Cathedral of St. Matteo in Salerno on the right hand side of the main altar. On Henry IV’s death his son Henry V wanted to have him buried in consecrated ground – part of the Speyer cathedral. Having been seen as the one who sacked Rome in 1084 this was not possible until due reparations had been paid. Henry IV was first buried by the sidewall of the Cathedral in Speyer but later moved to the crypt with others in his dynasty. This issue and conflict while flaring again paved the way for the supremacy of the Papacy which perhaps reached its zenith in the 13th century as the universal ruler. The events of Canossa show the struggle for ultimate authority – the king or the pope. The year was 1076AD. Henry IV of Germany the Emperor of the Hoy Roman Empire with his palace in Speyer had ordained a bishop. APPENDIX 5 POPE GREGORY VII Known as Hildebrand of Soana, he was born somewhere between 1020 and 1025 AD. Soana is now known as Sovana a small town in Tuscany some 30 + km south east of Grosseto and 12 km northwest of Lake Bolsena. As a youth he was sent to be with his uncle, the Abbot of St Mary’s monastery on Aventine Hill in Rome. Pope Gregory VI may have been one of his teachers – but when Gregory VI was deposed by Henry III of Germany, Hildebrand went with him into exile in Germany. While in Germany he studied at Cologne, but soon returned to Rome with Pope Leo IX. Hildebrand was sent to the German Court to endeavour to have Gebhard of Calw elected as pope. He was and was known as Pope Victor II. Hildebrand became the papal legate in France. On the death of Pope Victor II, Pope Stephen IX was elected in 1057 without consulting with the German Emperor. Hildebrand was sent there to secure recognition for his election. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 90 This was done but early the next year Stephen died. While Pope Benedict X was elected he was supplanted by Pope Nicholas II in 1059. Hildebrand succeeded in getting support for the new pope. During the reign of Pope Nicholas II the mode of election of popes was transferred to the College of Cardinals – taking it out of the hands of Roman nobility or German influence. The office of the pope was consolidated by Hildebrand during the reign of Alexander II who spent much of his time at Lucca. On Alexander II’s death – 21 April 1073, the crowd of clergy and people in the Basilica of St John Lateran called for Hildebrand to become pope. This was formally ratified in the church of San Pietro in Vincoli, taking the name of Pope Gregory VII, being consecrated 30 June 1073. Young Henry IV of Speyer and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was just 23 years of age. The German monarchy was weakened with some uprisings following the death of Henry III. Pope Gregory VII sent a letter to Henry accusing him of not obeying his promises and a furious response by Henry resulted in a national council being convened at Worms. The assembly opposed Gregory VII and Henry declared Gregory VII deposed from his title and position. The bishops of Lombardy agreed. The message was conveyed to Rome by Roland of Parma to the synod assembled in St. John Lateran church. Henry IV had also appointed bishops without consulting the pope. The Pope duly sent a letter of excommunication to Henry that took from him all of his royal prerogatives and absolved his subjects from any oaths or promises made to Henry. The Saxons again rebelled and anti-royalist sentiment was growing. The princes were more united in their stand against Henry and used the papal order as a cover for their actions. Henry IV was deposed – but the princes could not agree on a successor. Henry taking a loyal band of soldiers with him set off for Italy and Pope Gregory was in the northern part of the country and secured a safe place in the castle of Canossa with Mathilda a close friend of his and his main Italian supporter. The year was 1073. Henry arrived and decided on penance, bareheaded in the snow muttering, “I’m sorry. Please forgive me” over and over for three days. Finally Gregory VII admitted the German King back into the church and restored his position, but the issues surrounding investiture were not resolved. The term “The Walk to Canossa” is used as a symbol of the relationship between the Church and the State. On 16 June 1081, Henry IV again had Pope Gregory VII deposed and appointed Guibert of Ravenna as Pope Clement III. Henry IV took Rome in the year 1084 and Gregory went into exile into Sant’ Angelo. The Duke of Normandy came to the aid of Gregory VII and marched on Rome. Gregory VII had to flee and went to Monte Cassino and then to the castle of Salerno where he died in 1085. Just before his death he withdrew all the orders of excommunication he had ever pronounced except those against Henry IV and Guibert (Pope Clement III). Gregory is buried in the cathedral of Salerno to the right of the main altar. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 91 Bibliography: * Wikipedia – article Pope Gregory VII * “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Church” by Malachi Martin APPENDIX 6 GIORDANO BRUNO Born on 21 September 1452 in Ferrara or sometimes reported in Occhiobello a small village about 7 km from Ferrara - approximately 50km from the Adriatic Sea and just south of the River Po. He was a man of small to medium height, had bony hands, big nosed, dark haired and had grey eyes. His grandfather had been professor of medicine at Padua university and was then called to be court physician for the lords of Ferrara – the Estes. As a young student he studied the Bible and also the writings of St Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle. He entered the University of Ferrara – Italy’s premier university at the time - and studied an advanced Arts degree. When he was just 20 years of age he wrote a poem “On the Downfall of the World” which included a strong stand against corrupt clergy. When just 23 years of age in 1475 he wrote another poem “On the Downfall of the Church” calling the Roman Curia a ‘false, proud whore’. He was well educated and left home that same year for Bologna. Because of the corruption in the church he decided to become a Dominican monk, entering the convent of San Domenico near Bologna. He took his final religious vows just a year after entering the convent. In 1479 he transferred to the convent of Santa Maria degli Angeli in Ferrara as the teaching master of novices. He remained in monastery life for fifteen years studying theology and Hebrew and Greek. When he travelled from one city to the next he walked as a statement of his poverty and humility – horses were for gentlemen! During this time in 1481/1482 he was moved to the Convent of St. Mark’s in Florence - becoming a reader or professor there – the chief instructor in theology and lecturer on Scripture. He was thought as being ungainly and a poor orator. By 1483 he had begun preaching on prophecy and in 1486 preached on Revelation In 1484 Pope Sixtus died – he had been one of the best examples of nepotism during his pontificate. Pope Innocent VIII was elected – he was known as the ‘unholy father of children’. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 92 Florence at this time was a city of some 40,000 inhabitants – it also had 70 international banking houses directing its trade as the leader of the Renaissance. In 1487 he left Florence returning to Ferrara as ‘master of studies’. In 1490 he again went to Florence on the request of Count Pico della Mirandola who was more than comfortable with Savonarola’s anti-clericalism. Appointed again to his old convent and church of St. Marco he was now 40 years of age and soon was elected by the friars as Prior of the convent. He was a fearless preacher of righteousness, and tried to reform the church by preaching. Crowds listened to him particularly from 1490 onwards coming by the thousands not only from Florence but the surrounding areas. In 1491 he became Prior of St. Marks, preaching in St. Marks and in Il Duomo - the main cathedral. He was known for his passionate preaching about the Last Days. An invitation to preach the Lenten sermons in the great cathedral gave him the opportunity to proclaim his themes – the avarice of he rich, the evil of a superficial religious life, and he buying of masses in private chapels of the church etc. His aim in preaching was for Christians to take their Christianity seriously and let it change the substance and direction of their daily lives. As a result of his preaching to the crowds, many repented, and led humble upright lives. About this time the Medicis lost their power and were expelled from Florence ending a sixty year rule. This was also around the time because of 1494 when Charles VIII of France invaded Italy. Savonarola managed to negotiate with Charles and the city was spared bloodshed. Savonarola virtually ruled Florence, being a secular ruler and priest. He began to preach piety and condemned excesses - including those of the popes. He was charged with heresy. He based all his preaching directly on the Bible - the only book he read for the last eight years of his life. He encouraged the forming of a Florentine republic and become a theocracy. Becoming the spokesperson for democracy, he believed that good and responsible government must have a strong basis of morality as well as sympathy for the greater good of the community and recognise the value of the individual soul. Florence under his rule became a Christian and Religious Republic. Sodomy – tolerated under the Medicis became a capital offence. He denounced the Pope – Alexander VI for his corruption - called his court the ‘sink of Christendom’. Alexander offered Savonarola a Cardinal’s place if he would change his preaching he refused. Savonarola was very wary of priests and monks because of their hypocrisy and also their ignorance. He preached strongly against he church, claiming that it trafficked in “the blood of Christ”. In July 1495 he declined a summons to Rome because of ill-health and the dangers en route. Savonarola was called a religious prophet, a rabble-rouser – or a fiery preacher, was the leader of a secret political party, ambitious and crafty, a holy man and a saint, a homosexual, an intellectual, a heretic and a schismatic, and a victim of syphilis. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 93 Thus his accomplishments have been pilloried, his mission and message debased, and his honesty and sincerity questioned. Millennial feeling began to run high as the new millennium approached, and many thought the Last Days were impending. In October 1495 he was forbidden to preach in public or private- and stopped for a short time. February 1496 he preached again publicly denouncing the church in even stronger terms. That year he sent boys from door to door collecting items associated with moral laxity – mirrors, cosmetics, lewd pictures, pagan books, immoral sculptures, chess pieces, lutes and other musical instruments, fine dresses, and womens’ hats and had them burnt in the Piazza della Signoria. Many fine Florentine Renaissance artworks were publicly destroyed at this time including works by Michelangelo and Botticelli. He was excommunicated on 13 May 1497. He declared Alexander’s sentence unjust and thus not binding. He was quiet for the rest of the year until Christmas. On 4 May 1497 during his Ascension Day sermon bands of youths rioted and a revolt began with dancing and singing, and taverns re-opened, the Florentines becoming tired of the dull life and economic miseries. From Christmas Day 1497 and into 1498 he preached publicly from the Duomo and in the Piazza of San Marco. The pope threatened an interdict which would ruin Florence. He was cited before the city council, found guilty of heresy - forbidden to preach. His last sermon was March 18, 1498 - a solemn appeal and a warning to Rome. He tried to appeal to the churches across Europe to form a council and depose the pope. His letters were intercepted, and the ordeal by fire was demanded by the Franciscans to prove the truth of his doctrines. The convent was attacked on 8 May 1498. This attack was supported by the government of Florence and lasted six hours and small artillery was used. Several of his guards and religious supporters were killed. Savonarola and his two closest associates surrendered and were made to walk a gauntlet of mocking jeering screaming men trying to attack him as he walked over 1000 m to the government palace. He was then thrown into prison cells. Savonarola was tortured on the rack - as were his associates, but he declared his preaching was to purify the clergy. All three signed confessions – the torturers sparing his right arm to allow him to sign the confession. He pleaded to God for mercy in his weak condition and for confessing crimes which he did not commit. From his writing the following points were gleaned:Justification by faith in Christ Communion in both kinds Papal pardons and indulgences are of no effect Preached against the wicked lives of cardinals Denied the supremacy of the pope Declared that the keys were not given to Peter - but the universal church Called the pope Antichrist Declared the excommunication of the pope invalid That confession to a priest was not necessary Overseas Travel ITALY Page 94 He was asked to recant of these but he and his two companions refused. On 23 May 1498 the sentence was carried out in the square outside the old palace. Savonarola and his friends were stripped of their robes, hands bound and publicly defrocked from the priesthood. “From the Church triumphant” replied Savonarola, “that is not thine to do!” Savonarola and his two companions, Domenico and Silvestro were hanged on the gallows and then publicly burned - and as the fire burned and even consumed the gallows - the bodies were stoned. The execution – or martyrdom – took place exactly where the “Bonfire of the Vanities” had been lit back in 1496. The plaque in the Piazza della Signoria reads that it was “By Unrighteous Sentence”. Today guides tell visitors that Savanarola was a social reformer ahead of his time and was killed for it! The martyrdom of Savanarola convinced Luther he could not hope for the reform of Rome. He may have been extreme, but it echoed his whole life’s journey to have the church purified. He could be seen as an example of absolute power claiming the support of God and reigning totally over the lives of those around him. Today we could well call him a “Fundamentalist”. Bibliography: Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers Vol II – L.E. Froom The Wikipedia – article Savonarola Scourge and Fire – Savonarola and Renaissance Italy – Lauro Martines Published by Jonathan Cape London 2006 The Agony and the Ecstasy by Irving Stone APPENDIX 7 JOHN MILICZ John Milicz was born in Kremsier in Moravia. His name has also been spelt as Militz, Miliz, or Milic. John Milicz was the forerunner of the Bohemian Reformation. He became a priest in 1350. The Emperor Charles IV of Bohemia made John his secretary. Then he became canon and archdeacon of the Cathedral of Prague. In 1363 he resigned his position and lived at Bischof-Teinitz as a minister. Returning to Prague he became a powerful and eloquent preacher who spoke four or five times a day - once in Latin at the University and the other times in German and Bohemian. Milicz believed the fundamental truths of the Waldenses. He stressed the need for true conversion. He also preached from Revelation, from Matthew 24 and from Paul’s writings. Overseas Travel ITALY He believed a reformation in the church would prepare the way for the Second Coming. He was soon imprisoned - but freed by the pope. He is credited as preaching “There is no truth in the pope, cardinals, prelates, priests and monks, nor do they teach the way of truth”. Milicz had accepted the year-day principle of prophetic interpretation. Believing that the pope would listen to his appeal for reformation in the church, he set out for Rome in 1367 with some companions. The pope had delayed his return from Avignon and Milicz undertook a time (a month) of prayer, fasting, and the reading of the Scriptures. Not able to keep quiet, Milicz posted on the door of the original St. Peters a sign: “The Antichrist has come: he has his seat in the church”. He then placed a sign at the entrance to St. Peter’s church to say that on a certain day he would publicly address the assembled multitude and announce the coming of Antichrist. He asked people to pray for the pope and emperor that they might be true spiritual and temporal rulers. Milicz was arrested by the Inquisitor and Milicz was imprisoned with the Franciscans He stayed there until the next year - 1368, when the Pope returned. When asked what he had intended to preach, he asked for a Bible and pen and ink. He preached his sermon in Latin in St. Peter’s Cathedral. Then he was returned to his prison cell. From his cell he wrote “De Antichristo” (On the Antichrist). On his release from prison, Milicz took this treatise back to Prague. In 1369 he commenced a school for about 200 preachers in Prague and copied books and manuscripts for them. His powerful preaching stirred Prague. He “weaned away many people from the Catholic faith in Poland, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia and other countries”. His work also transformed 200 prostitutes of Little Venice in Prague and the Emperor helped him rebuild a large institution for their care. In 1372 Gregory XI sent bulls with twelve accusations against Milicz to the bishops of Prague and other cities and to the Emperor, and demanded his excommunication. Milicz went willingly to Avignon in 1374 to face his examination. He expressed surprise that they had waited so long to act thus. With the protection of Cardinal Albano he preached before the Cardinals on 21 May. His accusers were forced to withdraw their charges against him. He died there before judgment was passed on him. - (“Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers” Vol II, p 31-37 Froom ) APPENDIX 8 BIOGRAPHY OF LOUIS ALEXANDRE BERTHIER Page 95 He was born at Versailles on 20 February 1753. His father was an officer in the army – the Corps de Genie. He came from a Huguenot background. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 96 From his father he learned his military skills. He joined the army at the age of 17 and served as an engineer and as a dragoon. In 1780 he went with Rochambeau to North America. On his return he was promoted to the rank of colonel. During the French Revolution, he was the Chief of Staff of the Versailles National Guard, protecting the aunts of Louis XVI. He became Chief of Staff to Marshal Lefleckner in 1792. By 1796 he was general of a division and the Major General of the army of Italy commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte. He accompanied Napoleon from 1796 and was in charge of the army after the Peace of Camp Formio. He was appointed by Napoleon after his fighting with Austria in early 1798 to go to Rome and take Pope Pius VI captive. He entered Rome on 14 February 1798 and took the Pope prisoner and within a week had the pontiff begin his long trek into exile to Valence. When Napoleon became emperor, Berthier was made a Marshal of France. In 1806 he became the Duke of Valengin. Also that year he became the sovereign prince of Neuchâtel (Switzerland). In 1809 he became the Prince of Wagram and married the niece of the King of Bavaria. He stayed with Napoleon as Major General of the Grand Armee in Russia (1812), Germany (1813), and back into France in 1814. He died at Bamberg after Napoleon’s return from Elba on 1 June 1815. His death was in suspicious circumstances – and possibly a suicide by jumping to his death. He was not noted as a great military genius, but renowned for faithfully carrying out his master’s directions. APPENDIX 9 POPE PIUS VI AND 1798 During 1796/7 Napoleon Bonaparte had continued his march across Europe and had now come to Rome. As Napoleon marched on to further conquests he left a young general Leonard Duphot in charge of the French troops left in Rome. On 31 August 1797 Joseph Bonaparte (the Ambassador of the Directory) and General Duphot moved into the 15th century palace as their headquarters. It had been restored in 1736 by Cardinal Corsini and is situated some 1.5 km south of the Vatican on the west bank of the Tiber. During December 1797 the rumour circulated through Rome that Napoleon had been defeated in his battle with the Austrians near Vienna. Pope Pius VI wishing to exert complete control over Rome encouraged an attack on the French headquarters. On 28 December 1797 a riot ‘broke out’ in front of the Corsini Palace with some revolutionaries calling for the intervention of the French against the Papal government. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 97 Between the Palace and the Porte Settimiana in the ensuing scuffle, General Duphot was shot and killed. It just ‘happened’ that Leonard Duphot was the fiance of Pauline – Napoleon’s sister. When the news of the death of his future brother-in-law and a general in his army reached Napoleon, it caused him to select his chief-of-staff General Berthier and a Huguenot to capture Rome and take Pope Pius VI prisoner. When the fullness of God’s time clock came, Berthier entered Rome on 10 February 1798 and the Pope was taken prisoner accurately fulfilling the 1260-year prophecy. Pope Pius VI was escorted out of Rome on 20 February 1798 and began his exile. His first stop was Monterosi – a small town on Highway 2 some 40 km northnorthwest of Rome. (This town is just to the northeast of Lake Bracciano) From Monterosi, the journey into exile proceeded northwest to Viterbo (on Highway 2) a further 40 km along the road. The next stop was at Bolsena, some 35 km northwards along the road. Bolsena is situated on the northeast edge of Lake Bolsena. From Bolsena, the pope was escorted to Sienna – a further 120 km northwest. At Sienna an earthquake made it necessary to move the papal party towards Florence and they stayed at La Certosa a monastery on the southwestern outskirts of Florence for 3 months. This was a Cistercensian monastery. At La Certosa the Guest Apartments have the rooms used by Pope Pius VI and his party including some of the original furniture. The exile continued to Parma, then backtracked to Bologna arriving 30 May 1798. Leaving almost immediately the exiled pope was taken through Turin, to Pinerolo and over the Alps to France arriving at Briançon where they stayed for three months. In Briançon at No 64 Le Grand Rue there is the notice over the door indicating that the pope stayed here for three months. The last stage of his exile was from Briançon to Grenoble over the alpine road then finally from Grenoble to Valence arriving there 14 July 1799. Pope Pius VI died in Valence 29 August 1799 and a statue of him behind the main altar in the Cathedral in Valence attests to this. Napoleon selected Valence as he had spent some time there in 1791 and 1792 as a lieutenant doing his artillery training. Napoleon knew of the Crussal Castle atop the steep slope west of the town over the Rhône River. Also at that time the area around Valence was a Huguenot stronghold and thus escape was impossible. - “Encyclopaedia Brittanica” - “The Decline and Fall of the Roman Church” by Malachi Martin APPENDIX 10 THE TREATY OF TOLENTINO Overseas Travel ITALY Page 98 In his push for the domination of Europe, Napoleon had occupied Modena, Bologna and Forli and other cities in northern Italy. On 23 June 1796 an armistice was signed between Pope Pius VI and the French Republic which included among other things 21 million lire indemnity. Negotiations on a formal treaty dragged on for nine months. Hostilities resumed after just seven months. The papal army was defeated at Faenza on 3 February 1997, by the 10 February he was in control of Ancona and on 12 February entered Macerata. Pope Pius VI sent Napoleon a plenipotentiary delegation to try to come to fair and reasonable terms of armistice. The papal team and Napoleon and his staff arrived at Tolentino on the evening of 16 February 1797. Napoleon refuses the treaty proposed by the papal delegates. On 18 February he asks François Cacault the French ambassador to the Holy See to draw up final articles. On Sunday afternoon 19 February, the four papal representatives from the Curia reluctantly sign the Treaty to avoid the military occupation of Rome. Napoleon Bonaparte and François Cacault signed for France. There were 26 articles in the Treaty. The papal city of Avignon and its territory and also the Comtat Venaissin – an area of land surrounding and to the north and east of Avignon about 50 km by 60 km - were formally ceded to France. They included an additional 15 million lire in addition to the 21 million agreed to at the armistice of Bologna. Hundreds of works of art were to be sent to France with over 100 to be sent to the Musée Napoléon in Paris. French commissioners had the right to enter any building, public religious or private, to make assessment of what was to be included in the Treaty. This extended to all of Italy. France is accorded the most favourite nation status. The Vatican agrees not to permit any war ships or pirates who are enemies of France to dock in the Papal States. The Pope agrees to withdraw from any association with the enemies of France, The Pope agrees to free political and war prisoners. Pope Pius VI signed the treat on 24 February 1797 and ordered a copy to be kept in the Castle of St Angelo. The French Directory confirmed the Treaty on 30 April 1797. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 99 APPENDIX 11 GIROLAMA SAVANAROLA Born in Ferrara - approximately 50km from the Adriatic Sea just south of the River Po - in the year 1452. He was educated well but left home for Bologna in 1475 to become a Dominican monk - because of the corruption that existed within the church. He remained in the monastery for fifteen years studying Hebrew and Greek. During this time in 1481 he moved to the Convent of St. Mark’s in Florence becoming a reader or professor there. By 1483 he had begun preaching on prophecy and in 1486 preached on Revelation He was a fearless preacher of righteousness, and tried to reform the church by preaching. Crowds listened to him particularly from 1490 onwards. In 1491 he became Prior of St. Marks, preaching in St. Marks and in Il Duomo - the main cathedral. As a result of his preaching to the crowds, many repented, and led humble upright lives. In 1494 Charles VIII of France invaded Italy. Savanarola managed to negotiate with Charles and the city was spared bloodshed. Savanarola virtually ruled Florence. He began to preach piety and condemned excesses - including those of the popes. He was charged with heresy. He based all his preaching directly on the Bible - the only book he read for the last eight years of his life. He encouraged the forming of a Florentine republic and become a theocracy - which took place in 1494 after the French invaded Italy. The Medicis were banished. He denounced the Pope - Alexander for his corruption - called his court the ‘sink of Christendom’. Alexander offered Savanarola a Cardinal’s place if he would change his preaching he refused. In July 1495 he declined a summons to Rome because of ill-health and the dangers en route. In October 1495 he was forbidden to preach in public or private- and stopped for a while. February 1496 he preached again publicly denouncing the church in even stronger terms. He was excommunicated in May 1497. He declared Alexander’s sentence unjust and thus not binding. He was quiet for the rest of the year until Christmas. Some of his followers collected books and items of luxury, which were burnt publicly in 1497. From Christmas Day 1497 and into 1498 he preached publicly from the Duomo and in the Piazza of San Marco. The pope threatened an interdict which would ruin Florence. He was cited before the city council, found guilty of heresy - forbidden to preach. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 100 His last sermon was March 18, 1498 - a solemn appeal and a warning to Rome. He tried to appeal to the churches across Europe to form a council and depose the pope. His letters were intercepted, and the ordeal by fire was demanded by the Franciscans to prove the truth of his doctrines. The convent was attacked. Savanarola surrendered and was thrown into a prison cell. Savanarola was tortured but declared his preaching was to purify the clergy. From his writing the following points were gleaned: Justification by faith in Christ Communion in both kinds Papal pardons and indulgences are of no effect Preached against the wicked lives of cardinals Denied the supremacy of the pope Declared that the keys were not given to Peter - but the universal church Called the pope Antichrist Declared the excommunication of the pope invalid That confession to a priest was not necessary. He was asked to recant of these but he and his two companions refused. On 23 May 1498 the sentence was carried out in the square outside the old palace. He was stripped of his robes, hands bound and publicly defrocked from the priesthood. “From the Church triumphant” replied Savanarola, “that is not thine to do!”. Savanarola and his two companions, Domenico and Silvestro were hanged on the gallows and then publicly burned - and as the fire burned, they were stoned. The plaque reads that it was “By Unrighteous Sentence”. Today guides tell visitors that Savanarola was a social reformer ahead of his time and was killed for it! The martyrdom of Savanarola convinced Luther he could not hope for the reform of Rome - (Prophetic Faith of Our Fathers, L.E. Froom Vol II) APPENDIX 12 BIOGRAPHY OF GALILEO GALILEI He was born about 1564. He became a professor of mathematics first at Pisa and later at Padua. He developed a telescope and began studies of heavenly bodies which supported Copernicus and his belief that the earth and planets revolved around the sun. In 1604 his study of the heavens demonstrated that a new star which was a supernova was further away than the moon. This would prove that the earth was not the centre of the universe. In 1610 he became the chief mathematician and philosopher for the Cosimo de Medici and moved to Florence. In 1610 a pope and a cardinal inquisitor warned him to cease moving into the heavenly realm. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 101 From 1610 until 1617 he was silent on the subject (the earth revolving around the sun) and during this time developed a compound microscope. In 1632 he was summoned to Rome by Pope Urban VIII. Before the Inquisition he abjured on 22 June 1633 his belief in the movement of heavenly bodies. It is rumoured that on rising after abjuring before the Inquisition he muttered, “Eppur si muovo” (But it still moves), but it was probably said at a later stage. Galileo’s book “Dialogue” was duly placed on the published list of prohibited books and stayed there for nearly 200 years until 1822. He died about 1642 still faithful to his church despite being challenged and tried. APPENDIX 13 BIOGRAPHY OF COLUMBANUS Columbanus is sometimes referred to by historians as Columban. He was born in 543 AD in Ireland. He was a student for several years at Bangor in County Down on the east coast of Ireland. St. Comgall founded the Abbey at Bangor in 559 building on the church which Patrick helped to found. Just as Columba had left Ireland to evangelise Scotland, Columbanus left for Gaul – now known as France. He was welcomed by King Guntram a descendant of Clovis and given a ruined fort at Anagrates (Anegray) in eastern France in the Vosges Mountains Soon this school was insufficient for the needs and a second training school was opened at Luxeuil – and later another at Fontaine. The Church of Rome with its bishops objected to the stern rebuke by the industrious and pure lives of these Celtic missionaries who were making disciples from across Europe. Queen Brunhilda the wife of King Sigebert and brother of Guntram violently opposed Columbanus and urged the Roman Church to attack the Celtic faith. During this time the influence of Columbanus reached across Europe with increasing converts to the simple life of the disciples of Jesus. Columbanus was also welcomed by King Clotaire II of Neustria (later expanded into France) and also King Theodebert of Austrasia. The area of the kingdom of Austrasia is part of what today is Germany. Here the Celtic missionaries brought Celtic Christianity to Germany long before Boniface came from Rome. Columbanus worked for some years in Germany and Switzerland and established a series of missions. Columbanus left Bregenz – now in Austria – in the charge of Gallus who was later known as St. Gall, he now made his way over the Alps to Lombardy – though being more than seventy years of age. Agilulf the King of the Lombards received him joyfully and he was granted Bobbio in northern Italy as his headquarters. Here the early Christians led by Jovinianus from the 4th century had spread throughout Lombardy. Columbanus established a school with a library unequalled in much of Europe and Italy. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 102 Columbanus had been such a successful Celtic missionary that like Patrick and Columba he has been claimed by later historians as a monk of the Catholic Church. Columbanus died shortly after establishing Bobbio as a great centre for the Christian church in 543AD. - Truth Triumphant by B.G. Wilkinson The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church APPENDIX 14 THE WALDENSIANS Many historians say the first reference to Waldenses is of Peter Waldo or Valdenses or Valdensius of Lyons, France. Peter Waldo was a merchant who abandoned his wealth and distributed his goods to the poor. In 1173 he commissioned the translation of several books of the Bible into the local dialect - French Provençal. One source says he sent to Rome and presented the translations to the pope who was pleased. He became a public preacher of the Gospel. In the 12th century the Waldenses were mainly in Languedoc, France and in Lombardy in Italy. The followers of Waldo were often called ‘The Poor’, becoming a close-knit movement though scattered through Europe. Their beliefs were Christ, the Scriptures and a life in conformity to the apostles. However a number of historians of the early church mention that Christians in the Alps of Lombardy followed ‘primitive Christianity’ and not complying with the dictates of the Roman Church. Even Voltaire in his ‘Additions to Ancient and Modern History’ refers to them. Until the 16th century they stayed within the Church of Rome but finally began building their own churches. Neander in his ‘General History of the Christian Religion and Church’ mentions that the Waldenses date their separation from Rome to 325AD when Sylvester was given recognition as the Bishop of Rome and the church became more aligned with the secular power. Vigilantius (or Vigilantius Leo) (364 – 408 AD) who came from Spain became a leader of the believers in the Alpine valleys. The Waldenses have as their motto “Into Darkness, Light”. John Hus had been influenced by the Waldenses - as well as the writings of Wycliffe. Nearly 150 years after Hus’s martyrdom (1415), a Confession of Faith of the Bohemian Brethren, published in Wittenberg, called Hus’s followers – ‘Waldenses’. The Barba or Waldensian missionaries met annually from 1526 in Piedmont and Provençe. Reports of the Reformation and its progress were carefully examined. The Waldenses made contact with William Farel of Neuchâtel, Oecolampadius of Basel and Martin Bucer of Strasbourg. William Farel the Swiss reformer came over the Alps and played a major role in persuading the Waldenses to unite with the Protestant Reformation. The Synod of Chanforan in 1532 - at which 140 Barba met with Farel, began the journey towards the organisation of the Waldenses as a Protestant church along the lines of Calvin’s church in Geneva. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 103 From the middle of the 16th century, the Reformation and the Counter Reformation collided - often with force. The first battle was in 1560 when the Duke of Savoy forced the Catholic religion on his subjects, basing it on the Diet of Augsburg which stated that the religion of the ruler would be the religion of his subjects. This was the first war of religion in Europe when subjects rebelled to defend their religious freedom. The Waldenses won and were conceded the right to exist with the number of ministers and worship centres listed. Persecution of the Waldenses continued and receded for the next hundred years or so. About 1560 a determined attempt to wipe out the Waldenses of Calabria in southern Italy was effected by Spain who controlled that part of the country with the Inquisition and massacres. At San Sisto of Guardia and Montalto Uffugo in Cosenza district were examples with prisoners being butchered on the town hall steps - or set ablaze as torches. On January 25, 1655 the Duke of Savoy issued an Edict ordering all Waldenses to become Catholics or give up their property and leave their valleys - in the midst of an alpine winter. The Easter Massacre in Piedmont (1655) followed with 15000 troops marching to the valleys on April 17. The massacre began on April 24 with butchery, torture and enslavement. Hundreds trapped in a cave on Castelluzzo were thrown over the precipice. Thousands left the valleys for refuge in Switzerland and other countries. The British Government intervened and by June 1655 Sir Samuel Morland arrived in Turin. The opinion of the world assisted in lessening the hostilities. In 1689, 1000 Waldenses led by Pastor Henri Arnaud led "The Glorious Return" and held the French and Piedmontese armies at bay the whole winter at the siege of Balziglia. By 1690, most of the Waldenses who survived had returned to their valleys. John Milton's sonnet "On the Late Massacre in Piemont" was one of several protests from around the world: “Avenge O Lord thy slaughter’d Saints, whose bones Lie scattered on the Alpine mountains cold, E’en them who kept thy truth so pure of old, When all our Fathers worship’t Stocks and Stones, Forget not: in thy book record their groanes Who were thy Sheep, and in their ancient Fold Slayn by the bloody Piemontese that roll’d Mother with Infant down the Rocks. The moans The Vales redoubl’d to the Hills, and they To Heav’n. Their martyr’d blood and ashes so” O'er all the Italian fields where still doth sway The triple tyrant: that from these may grow A hundred-fold, who having learned thy way Early may fly the Babylonian wo. Bibliography: - “You Are My Witnesses” – by Giorgio Tuourn Claudiana Turin - “The Waldensian Story” by Prescot Stephens 1998 – The Book Guild Overseas Travel ITALY Page 104 Ltd Lewes, Sussex - “Christian History Magazine” Issue 22 (vol 8 No 2) - “Truth Triumphant” B.J. Wilkinson APPENDIX 15 POEM “THE VAUDOIS TEACHER” “O lady fair, these silks of mine are beautiful and rare, -The richest web of the Indian loom, which beauty’s queen might wear; And my pearls are pure as they own fair neck, with whose radiant light they vie; I have brought them with me a weary way, - will my gentle lady buy?” And the lady smiled on the worn old man through the dark and clustering curls Which veiled her brow as she bent to view his silks and glittering pearls; And she placed their price in the old man’s hand, and lightly turned away, But she paused at the wanderer’s earnest call, - “My gentle lady, stay!” “O lady fair, I have yet a gem which a purer lustre flings Than the diamond flash of the jewelled crown on the lofty brow of kings, A wonderful pearl of exceeding price, whose virtue shall not decay, Whose light shall be as a spell to thee and a blessing on thy way!” The lady glanced at the mirroring steel where her form of grace was seen, Where her eye shone clear, and her dark locks waved their clasping pearls between; “Bring forth thy pearl of exceeding worth, thou traveller gray and old, And name the price of they precious gem, and my page shall count the gold.” The cloud went off from the pilgrim’s brow, as a small and meagre book, Unchased with gold or gem of cost, from his folding robe he took! “Here, lady fair, is the pearl of price, may it prove as such to thee! Nay - keep thy gold - I ask it not, for the word of God is free!” The hoary traveller went his way, but the gift he left behind Hath had its pure and perfect work on that highborn maiden’s mind, And she hath turned from the pride of sin to the lowliness of truth, And given her human heart to God in its beautiful hour of youth! And she hath left the gray old halls, where an evil faith had power, The courtly knights of her father’s train, and the maidens of her bower; And she hath gone to the Vaudois vales by lordly feet untrod, Where the poor and needy of earth are rich in the perfect love of God! - John Greenleaf Whittier “The manner in which the Waldenses and heretics disseminated their principles among the Catholic gentry, was by carrying with them a box of trinkets, or articles of dress. Having entered the houses of the gentry and disposed of some of their goods, they cautiously intimated that they had commodities far more valuable than these, - Overseas Travel ITALY Page 105 inestimable jewels, which they would show if they could be protected from the clergy. They would then give their purchasers a Bible or Testament: and thereby many were deluded into heresy.“ - R. Sacchoni. APPENDIX 16 BIOGRAPHY OF WILLIAM FAREL William Farel was born in southeastern France at Gap in Dauphine in 1489. In French he is known as Guilliame Farel. At the University of Paris he met Jaques Lefèvre d’Etaples who gave him a love of the Scriptures and the belief of Justification by Faith. He graduated from the University in 1509. He went with Lefèvre to the city of Meaux in 1520 to bring reform there and was part of the evangelistic group. He was banished from France in 1522 and went to Switzerland preaching the reformed message and opposing that of Rome. In 1523 he left the Catholic Church and went to Basle. From Basle he left for frequent evangelistic campaigns to many places in Switzerland and France, from Metz to Neuchâtel and Geneva. In 1525 he wrote his “Summary’ which was a summary of doctrinal beliefs supported by the Bible. He was a fearless leader and was responsible for the message of the Reformation to be heard in Geneva from 1532 to 1535. He vividly charged John Calvin to stay at his post of duty in Geneva. He first came to Neuchâtel in November 1529. In later life he spent his last 27 years as pastor at Neuchâtel and fearlessly preached the gospel there from 1541 – 1565 even though the opposition was fierce. He became a leader and planter of Protestant churches throughout the French speaking areas of Switzerland – even giving them a liturgy. He journeyed to Chanforan in 1532 to the Waldensian Synod and was responsible to a large degree in having the Waldensians join the Reformation – and provide a French translation of the Scriptures – translated by Olivetan, which was the first French Protestant translation. This Bible was printed in 1535 and is known as the Bible of Olivetan. Farel was a firebrand, a man of action, and an eloquent preacher. A deeply fervent person noted for his piety and an unshakeable faith in God and the Scriptures. His theology was not that of an original theologian but eclectic, taking the beliefs of Zwingli and to a large extent Calvin. Farel wrote prolifically, and brought a book publisher – Pierre de Vingle - to Neuchâtel. Here between 1533 and 1535 over 20 books were published and circulated widely across Europe Farel’s statue at the Collegiale church in Neuchâtel with an open Bible is a summary of his Scriptural, fearless and practical preaching during his life. Farel is featured as one of the four main figures of the Reformation in Switzerland and is featured on the Reformation Wall in Geneva. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 106 APPENDIX 17 SUMMARY OF THE COUNCIL OF TRENT It was held mainly in Trent, Northern Italy from 13 December 1545 to 4 December 1563. Trent was then a free city of the Holy Roman Empire under a prince-bishop. Firstly the Pope and Emperor ordered a Council to convene in Mantua on 23 May 1537 but it never convened as war had broken out between France and Charles V. At the Council of Trent there were 25 sessions in three periods of time. These sessions were delayed and interrupted because of political or religious disagreements. From 1545 – 49; from 1551 – 52; and from 1562 – 63. The ninth to eleventh sessions were held in Bologna – because of fear of the plague. The Council was held under the auspices of three popes Session 1 to 11 were under Pope Pius III (the last 3 in Bologna. Sessions 12 to 16 were under Pope Julius III. Sessions 17 to 25 were under Pope Pius IV. Not more than 255 were present – these signed the decrees but at most sessions not more than sixty prelates were present. While the emperor intended it to be a general and ecumenical council at which the Protestants should have a fair hearing, but this rarely happened (at the 13th session Johannes Brenz came but Protestants were denied the right to vote led to the end of Protestant participation. The Nicene Creed was adopted as the basis of Catholic faith. The canon of the OT and NT books were fixed. Tradition was accepted as a source of faith along with Scripture. The Latin Vulgate was accepted as adequate for proof of doctrine. The Catholic Church only had the right to interpret the Bible – any Christian with his or her own interpretation was a heretic. The Bible and Church Tradition were determined to be equally authoritative. The Number of Sacraments was fixed at seven. The Nature of Original Sin was defined. It rejected the doctrine of Justification by Faith. It was voted that man was justified by faith and the co-operation with divine grace. Bishops had to reside in their sees (and thus eliminated the plurality of bishoprics). In 1547, the Council was transferred briefly to Bologna because of political problems. The Eucharist was defined (the real presence of Christ). Penance and extreme unction were defined. The Mass was defined as a true sacrifice. Statements were issued on holy orders, purgatory indulgences, the veneration of saints, images etc. Institutional reforms were introduced to eliminate the excesses attacked by the reformers. The Protestant heresies were defined. Most of the work was done in committees and the reformers within the church lost out By specifically naming Catholic doctrine on salvation, the sacraments and the Biblical canon it answered Protestant disputes and beliefs. The implementation of the Council decrees were entrusted to the Pope. A revised Roman Breviary was issued in 1568 and a revised Roman Missal in 1570. Overseas Travel ITALY Page 107 This initiated what is called the Tridentine Mass. Pope Clement VIII issued a revised edition of the Vulgate in 1592. It very successfully launched a counter reformation. When Pope John XXIII called the Vatican II he stated that the precepts of the Council of Trent continue to the modern era. – which was reaffirmed by Pope Paul VI.
