Facilitating Sustainable Innovations: Sustainable Innovation as a Tool for Regional
Development
Co-organized by The Greening of Industry Network,
The Cartesius Institute and The Province of Fryslân
June 26-28, 2008, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
Innovations And Barriers To Achieving Sustainable Tourism In Island Destinations.
Dr. Sonya Graci
Ted Rogers School of Hospitality and Tourism Management
Ryerson University
Dr. Rachel Dodds
Ted Rogers School of Hospitality and Tourism Management
Ryerson University
ABSTRACT
Over the last several years, the environmental and social impacts of the tourism
industry have come to the forefront of global issues. This attention is due to the fact that
tourism is considered the worlds’ largest industry and employs approximately ten per
cent of the global workforce (Theobald 1998; Budeanu 1999; Pryce 2001). Due to the
importance of this industry, there is a strong need to ensure that sustainable practices are
implemented industry wide as environmental degradation has impacted several tourism
destinations leading to a rapid decline in economy for many countries. Despite the
movement to integrate sustainability practices into tourism destinations, considerations to
reduce tourism’s impact on the environment have been mainly conceptual to date and
have not translated into industry wide practice (Anguera, Ayuso et al. 2000; Pryce 2001).
This is the case in the four island destinations studied, (Calvia, Mallorca, Spain;
Mallorca; Sanya, Hainan Island, China and Gili Trawangan, Indonesia) and the
burgeoning growth of the tourism industry has raised concern over the state of the
environment (Cheyne and Barnett 2001). In order to move the agenda forward, how to
assist these destinations in ensuring that its resources are not degraded beyond repair
must be established. These studies identify the barriers faced by each destination in its
varying attempts to implement innovative initiatives to offset impacts created by tourism
development. Through the examination of barriers, recommendations for strategies to
move the agenda forward can be identified.
INTRODUCTION
Since the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, the environmental and social impacts of the tourism
industry have come to the forefront of global issues. Tourism, as an economic sector that
needs to be managed sustainably, has been discussed at length through global
conventions, policies within the United Nations and at the individual country level
(Bohdanowicz 2005; Dodds 2005). Despite these initiatives, sustainability considerations
have been mainly conceptual to date and have not yet been translated into industry-wide
practice. This has been the case in our four case studies, that despite the development of
plans and policies that are innovative, the actual implementation has been riddled with
barriers that hinder the success of these initiatives.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Twenty years have passed since the 1987 World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED), where sustainable development had initially become a major
global concern. At this event, the deteriorating condition of the world’s natural resources
inspired an agreement amongst world leaders that sustainable development should be the
central principle of governments, private institutions and organizations (WCED, 1987).
This event brought attention to the fact that the destruction of the natural environment is
clearly associated with the effects of human economic activities and developments
(Middleton 1998). The concept of sustainable development, defined as “…development
that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs” provided an alternative to past development schemes that were
less practical as they were based largely on economics without sufficient thought to the
long-term viability of the development and its externalities (WCED, 1987). Unlike these
previous theories of development, sustainable development incorporated ecological,
social and economic aspects and became the new global agenda for change (WCED,
1987; Sharpley, 2002).
Subsequent to the World Commission on Environment and Development (for tourism is
not mentioned in their documentation), the United Nations has viewed tourism as a key
sustainable development issue in light of the industries’ both beneficial and destructive
nature. In 1995, the World Tourism Organization, the World Travel and Tourism Council
and the Earth Council published Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry. The aim
of this document was to establish systems and procedures to incorporate sustainable
development considerations into the decision-making processes of tourism enterprises. It
emphasized the importance of partnerships between government and industry, and
demonstrated the benefits of making the whole industry sustainable and not just the niche
ecotourism sector (Pryce 2001).
Subsequently, through these several high level discussions, sustainable tourism has
become a buzzword in tourism research. Despite the theoretical discussions regarding the
need for sustainable tourism, there are few studies that indicate how to practically
implement sustainable tourism. According to Liu (2003), there is an urgent need to
develop policies and measures that are not only theoretically sound but also practically
feasible. Without the development of effective means of translating ideals into action,
sustainable tourism runs the risk of remaining irrelevant and inert as a feasible policy
option for the real world of tourism development. In particular, ways of applying the
principles of sustainable development to mainstream, conventional mass tourism should
be studied (Liu 2003). In order to move this agenda forward in a practical and feasible
fashion, what must be understood are the reasons for this gap between attitude and action.
Despite the numerous reports, studies, and discussions on sustainable tourism, what is
impeding its successful implementation and how these impediments can be overcome
must be identified. In order to pursue this objective, an identification of barriers to
sustainability was examined in the literature.
Few studies have been conducted that identify the barriers to sustainability, especially
within the context of tourism. The studies that have been conducted generally discuss
potential barriers to sustainability. Kirkland and Thompson (1999) examined barriers that
affect the implementation of environmental management initiatives in an organization.
They state that the implementation of an environmental management strategy involves
several dynamic stages that may be affected by various barriers. The specific barriers
that may affect an organization depend on its size, corporate culture and formal and
informal management styles, as well as the individuals involved in the process, and the
stage of development of the organization’s environmental program (Kirkland and
Thompson 1999). Many of these barriers may be related to one another and often the
presence of one barrier may increase the likelihood of, or lead to, the presence of another
barrier. Lack of information, knowledge, and resources; incompatibility with an
organizations’ corporate culture; and the presence of multiple stakeholders with
conflicting interests are the main barriers identified (Kirkland and Thompson 1999) .
Drawing upon the findings of an empirical study of corporate environmental policies in
the United Kingdom, Ghobadian, Viney et. al (1998) identified several factors that work
with or against external pressures and determine the capability of the organization to
implement environmental management strategies. The barriers identified by this study
are technological requirements; opportunity and cost assessment; human resource
availability; capital availability; organizational adaptability; and organizational culture
and leadership. Approaches to environmental issues are influenced by the attitudes held
by managers, and an unsupportive manager can be a significant hindrance to the
development of an environmental program (Ghobadian, Viney et al. 1998).
In a study of the Dutch dairy industry, Mauser (2001) identified variables important in
determining the level of environmental management in an organization. These variables
consist of the level of centralization of the authority to make environmental decisions and
organizational culture. Organizations with a high level of centralization and an
organizational culture open to environmental management will have a better level of
environmental performance (Mauser 2001). Ownership structures incorporating multiple
shareholders leads to conflicting interests and hinders the process of incorporating
environmental management into an organization (Mauser 2001). This is especially
pertinent on a regional basis, where ownership consists of several shareholder
partnerships, many involving public organizations (Pine, Zhang et al. 2000; Pine 2002).
Four studies were conducted on barriers to sustainable tourism development in island
destinations. Islands were chosen as they share many similarities: they have discrete,
physical boundaries within which dynamics are more clearly inter-related. Clear borders
often suggest confinement to the islanders while, in turn, this specificity is often a draw
for tourists seeking escape and relaxation (Gossling and Wall 2007). Many island states
are also micro communities. As Richards 1982 argues “islands are contained and
inclusive in most social respects, possessing their own organs of political representation
and a self-conscious political identity (Richards 1982:154). As well as islands being
accentuated by their social characteristics, warm water islands share similar geographic
characteristics as most are mainly situated in what Turner and Ash (1975) called the
“pleasure periphery”. These “warm water” destinations have historically focused on sun,
sea and sand tourism for development purposes and many destinations are dependent on
this type of mass tourism for a large proportion of their GDP (Gossling and Wall 2007;
Dodds 2007). Mass tourism, developed quickly and with little differentiation, has forced
islands to compete with other islands or sun, sea and sand destinations, often resulting in
the neglect of historical, cultural and environmental impacts for the rest of the island. In
addition, up/down turns in tourism numbers have rapid multiplier effects on the rest of
the island economy and infrastructure strains are quickly felt as are the ratio of visitors to
locals. This stage is often referred to as the decline stage in Butler’s (1980) destination
lifecycle model, which explains various stages which a destination faces moving from
exploration to involvement, development, consolidation and then either decline or
rejuvenation. With uncontrolled growth and overdevelopment, the quality of the tourist
experience is often eventually reduced and a destination’s comparative natural-uniquereal advantage is lost.
As various authors (Briguglio et al. 1996; Butler 1999; Ioannides 1995; Mowforth and
Munt 1998) have outlined, the potential negative effects of island tourism showcase the
need to move towards more sustainanble forms of development and policies to manage
and control tourism growth.
RESEARCH SETTING
This paper is based upon four studies that were conducted between 200X and 2007. The
four studies examined the barriers to sustainable tourism development in island
destinations. Sustainable tourism development was examined through qualitative
interviews with key stakeholders in Sanya Hainan China (2004-2006); Malta (2004);
Calvia, Mallorca, Spain (2004) and Gili Trawangan, Indonesia (2005-2007).
All four case studies can be seen as archetypal examples of package holiday mass tourism
(Gili Trawangan is still in its development stage but is moving towards this form of
tourism) and have experienced over-development, environmental damage, overdependence on the tour operator and marketing dependant on pricing (Knowles and
Curtis, 1999). Although two case studies are in a region on an island (Sanya in Hainan
island and Calvia in Mallorca); Gili Trawangan is an island amongst a series of islands in
a region; and Malta is a country, there are many similar elements. The islands receive a
high economic contribution from tourism and the majority of their visitors come for the 3
S (sun, sand, sea) experience. All destinations have been developed on ad-hoc basis that
has resulted in unplanned tourism resorts and environmental and social degradation. All
the islands have attempted to integrate sustainability into its policies and development,
Malta through a national policy; and Mallorca, Gili Trawangan and Hainan through
regional policies developed by regional governments. Despite the sustainable tourism
policies that have been developed on paper the move from attitude to action has been
slow. It is due to this, that these studies have been conducted to determine the barriers
that hinder action in regards to sustainable tourism implementation on these island
destinations.
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this research was to identify barriers to implementing innovative
initiatives related to sustainable tourism. The research also investigated recommendations
for future initiatives that would move the sustainability agenda forward. Applied
research was used in all four studies to “find solutions to problems which arise in
particular policy, planning or management situations” (Veal, 1997: 28). The approach
used in these studies was both descriptive and exploratory in order to gain a broad
understanding of the destination and barriers to achieving objectives. The studies all
focused on case studies of island destinations with similar attributes. A case study is an
in-depth investigation of a single instance and can involve a unit as small as an individual
or as large as an entire community or region. It is the preferred strategy when “how” or
“why” research questions are being posed and when the focus is on a contemporary
phenomenon within some real-life context. The case study approach contributes to
knowledge and understanding of individual, organizational, social and political
phenomena. It allows an investigation to retain holistic and meaningful characteristics of
real-life events such as organizational and managerial processes, neighbourhood change,
international relations and the maturation of industries (Sommer and Sommer 1991; Yin
1994). As this research focuses on gaining further knowledge and understanding of the
factors that hinder sustainability in an island destination, it was beneficial to conduct case
studies of similar islands. This method emphasizes the individuality and uniqueness of
the participants and setting as well as provides a means to test the theories presented in
the literature (Sommer and Sommer 1991).
Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted in each case study. The interviews
discussed the history of sustainable tourism initiatives on the island, identified barriers to
implementing sustainable tourism, strategies to overcome the identified barriers and
innovative means to increase the level of sustainability on the island. Interviews were
conducted with key stakeholders; businesses, tourists, employees, government and the
local community on each island. The data was analyzed using a coding method. This
method identified emerging themes related to barriers, strategies and recommendations
for innovative initiatives (Sommer
and Sommer 1991).
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Several themes identifying the main barriers to sustainability were identified through
these four case studies. The research concluded that although there were great strides
made towards sustainability through the high level policies and general movement
towards these actions, there were still several barriers faced that hinder substantial action
on the matter. The barriers that were faced by the four islands have been organized into
four general themes: (1) inadequate resources particularly funds and information; (2)
corporate culture of the organization/destination; (3) government bureaucracy; and (4)
economic priority over environmental and social concerns. These barriers are not
different from the literature however this paper provides context in terms of what island
destinations face while moving towards sustainability. This paper identifies that the idea
for sustainability may not be enough to motivate innovation to occur.
Theme One: Inadequate Resources
Despite enthusiasm from a number of business owners and government on the islands,
sustainable tourism initiatives continuously faced a number of barriers. The first theme
identified was related to barriers associated with inadequate resources such as high costs,
lack of information, skills, knowledge, expertise, time and the reluctance to acquire
assistance from outside consultants. It was these particular barriers that were identified
as the most significant and often experienced. Several of the interviewees indicated that
despite the numerous ideas for initiatives (for example, payments to stop fisherman from
illegal fishing in Gili Trawangan), without adequate resources many of these plans fail.
For example, the Gili Eco-trust, a not for profit organization that is charged with
implementing sustainability initiatives in Gili Trawangan attempted to implement a waste
management collection system including the building of a landfill with areas to separate
and organize recyclables. Due to inadequate resources such as the lack of information,
skills, expertise and the reluctance to acquire assistance from outside consultants the
landfill development failed. What resulted was an open dump pit and no real collection
system of waste in general let alone sorted at source. The walls built around the landfill
were stolen piece by piece by deviant locals and an open area of hazardous and non
hazardous waste resulted in breeding rodents and leachate in the water stream. A number
of business owners and the current local government identified that inadequate resources
was the greatest barrier as it is realized that without proper systems in place the
environment will degrade even further which will affect tourism. The problem remains
the ability to implement feasible systems without the necessary funds and knowledge.
Without sufficient resources, the businesses and local government cannot properly plan
and implement sustainability initiatives and, in many cases, do not know where to begin.
Resources include finances, knowledge, time and skilled personnel to design, implement
and guide the sustainability program. Many of the stakeholders claim that because of the
non-regulatory nature of implementing sustainability initiatives in these four destinations,
these actions are not a priority in the organization or destination and, therefore, resources
such as money and employee time are not allocated to develop programs. Much of the
time required to research initiatives occurs on a voluntary basis, resulting in the slow
progression of many sustainability programs. Despite the enthusiasm from a number of
organizations and local government, they faced numerous barriers related to resources.
Several of the respondents identified that despite the numerous ideas for initiatives,
without adequate resources many of these plans fail. This is especially pertinent in
destinations in decline where the market has fluctuated considerably over the years and
many tourism organizations are struggling economically. Investments in sustainability are
not a priority.
Lack of capital for sustainability initiatives is also due to the short-term thinking
employed in many of destinations. A focus on short term objectives creates a negative
feedback loop with economic priority – the shorter the term, the more attention is focused
on job creation and development for growth and other immediate results, which leads to
economics being given priority over environmental and social concerns. This harmful
feedback loop is often perpetuated by political agendas being usually of a five-year
duration whereas sustainability objectives often need considerations of ten plus years at
least. A shorter term is simply not long enough to achieve sustainability objectives. In
Sanya, general managers of accommodations are typically employed by one facility for a
maximum of one to two years. At the outset of their employment, general managers think
very short term and institute one-year business plans. The business plans focus on
generating revenue rather than implementing a long-term strategy for sustainability of the
facility. In addition, there is a very high turnover rate with employees. Employees also
stay employed by a facility on average for one year. In addition, political terms are often
only four to five years which is not long enough to achieve sustainable tourism
objectives.
The lack of skills, knowledge and expertise in other environmental matters has led to the
very slow uptake of initiatives. There is very little knowledge about sustainability in
general, in terms of what it really means and how to achieve it. Whereas there may be a
few involved stakeholders in terms of non governmental organizations, government and
enlightened business owners and managers, there is a gap in what sustainability actually
means in practice.
Theme Two: Incompatibility with the Corporate Culture of the
Organization/Destination.
The second theme was related to the corporate culture of the island. Corporate culture is
comprised of the attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values of an organization. An
organization, and in this case a destination, has a corporate culture that has its own
behavioral quirks and interactions which can affect the development and implementation
of programs and projects. Isolation of environmental issues from other aspects of the
destination, an incompatibility with the current corporate culture of the organization
and/or destination, and the bureaucracy that exists within each destination have affected
the implementation of sustainable tourism initiatives.
There was a lack of integration amongst businesses and local government, as well as
local government and higher levels of government. In all the destinations, it was
indicated that without national and regional support, policy plans could not be effective
as sustainability is wider spread than at the local level. In addition, instances of the local
government not communicating to the higher levels of government was evident. For
example, in 1998 the government of Western Nusa Dua in Indonesia developed the Gili
Mantra Marine National Park Strategy. The marine park strategy however was never
communicated to the local government or the businesses on the island; was never
developed as a policy and was never implemented in practice.
The presence of multiple stakeholders with conflicting interests can also hinder the
development of sustainability initiatives in island destinations. Lack of stakeholder
involvement in decisions was mentioned by a large majority of the respondents in all four
case studies as a major barrier to development. For example, Friends of the Earth in
Calvia, Spain have raised considerable awareness about the issue of sustainability and the
environment and have pushed these considerations in to the policy arena through the use
of the media and promotional pieces to the public, however were not involved heavily in
the policy process for Calvia.
Theme Three: Government Bureaucracy
The third theme identified was related to government. Government bureaucracy are
significant barriers in all four destinations despite the government being the most salient
stakeholders that can influence change. Bureaucracy has complicated government
procedures in all four destinations. Many government agencies are responsible for
various regulations associated with environmental and social aspects. The tourism
industry has to work with the bureaucracy in these government agencies as well as
between them. In Sanya China for example, on a local level, an accommodation facility
has to work with five different agencies on a similar issue. The “silos” and conflicts
between government departments impede the adoption of sustainability strategies. As
government agencies have numerous levels of authority and require massive amounts of
paperwork, the implementation and enforcement of sustainability initiatives may fall to
the wayside.
In Calvia, although the tourism policy was the central framework for the local
government, there was a lack of coordination with other levels of government and other
government bodies. Sustainable tourism requires close coordination between many other
sectors – taxation, transportation, housing, social development, environmental
conservation and protection and resource management. It is often the case that a policy is
subjected to change during the process of implementation (Younis, 1990) and these other
sectors need to be aware of each other and communicate their needs and concerns in
order to move the agenda forward.
Theme Four: Economic Priority Over Social and Environmental Concerns.
One of the most common barriers to successfully implementing sustainable tourism
initiatives was that economics took priority over social and environmental concerns. This
barrier is inextricably linked with the short-term focus of governments and organizations
and multiple other barriers arise out of this. A focus on short-term objectives creates a
negative feedback loop with economic priority. In addition, the lack of environmental
awareness has also been determined to be a key impediment in this study. It is difficult to
discuss sustainability in a destination when there is not a complete understanding of the
meaning amongst key stakeholders. In Sanya, China, to many of the tourism
organizations sustainability was never heard of and the definition of environmental
management for the majority of the population was defined as cleanliness. The local
community in Sanya consists of residents, employees of the tourism organizations,
government agencies and corporate decision makers. The majority of the community
does not have the environment as a priority on their mind. Increased awareness is
necessary so that the community keeps Sanya clean, as spitting, littering and illegal
dumping of hazardous waste and sewage are normal daily occurrences. In addition, as
Sanya is a new tourist destination on an island rich in natural resources, there is no
immediate demand for energy and water conservation, as they are not faced with
immediate crises. It is therefore indicated that economics takes priority over social and
environmental issues as the issues are not deemed as immediately pressing.
Many of the study respondents in each case study indicated that action should be taken to
educate the local residents. Without a general increase in environmental awareness, it is
not beneficial for the tourism industry to implement sustainability initiatives beyond ones
with immediate economic gain. . Environmental education and awareness, not only in the
tourism organizations itself but within the community, is imperative in order to increase
the overall level of sustainability. This is important, as tourism facilities do not operate in
a vacuum and the implementation of sustainability initiatives are discouraged when
sustainability is not a priority in the community.
The key themes identified are the most often encountered barriers to sustainability.
Inadequate resources; the incompatibility with corporate culture in an
organization/destination; government bureaucracy and economic priority over social and
environmental concerns. Through this research, strategies and innovative initiatives were
identified to overcome the stated barriers. Strategies such as conducting a cost-benefit
analysis of initiatives; employee training; marketing and advertising; customer education;
guidance and subsidies from government agencies were identified as a means to
overcome potential barriers. The strategies and incentives identified contributed to the
recommendation for the development of a multi-stakeholder sustainable tourism
partnership that encourages and supports action in the tourism industry. The partnership,
which incorporates the participation of all involved stakeholders in the industry, will
provide a method to begin the dialogue, overcome several of the major barriers and
increase the level of sustainability in the tourism destination.
RECOMMENDATION: A MULTI-STAKEHOLDER SUSTAINABLE TOURISM
PARTNERSHIP
Collaboration is seen as key to moving the tourism industry towards sustainability.
Throughout the literature, cross-sector partnerships are recommended for their likelihood
to result in sustainable development outcomes (Selin 1999; Bramwell and Alletorp 2001)
and subsequently form the basis of the recommendations to move the tourism industry
forward to a higher level of sustainability. The recommendation was developed with one
main goal, to develop a multi-stakeholder partnership where each stakeholder has various
roles and responsibilities that contribute to the overarching goal of moving the tourism
industry towards sustainability. This partnership recommends the development and
implementation of several initiatives based on a cohesive environmental vision that
enables the industry to focus resources, share information, increase environmental action
in all facets of the industry, learn from the leaders and ultimately protect the resources
that sustain the industry. The partnership would include all stakeholders (the tourism
businesses or allocated representatives; the local tourism associations; the local,
provincial and national governments, certification bodies, non-governmental
organizations and local community representatives. The partnership would provide
funding and financial assistance through mechanisms such as a revolving funds, tax
breaks and government subsidies. It would also provide guidance and training through
best practice exchange between tourism organizations and the partner agencies, training
and education through books, workshops, seminars and conferences and support for third
party certification through certification bodies. In addition, the partnership would
support the marketing and advertising of the tourism organizations that are practicing
sustainability. The purpose of the partnership is to involve all the stakeholders in the
tourism industry in order to alleviate the impediments that hinder the increase of
sustainability in the tourist destination. It also provides a holistic approach to sustainable
tourism implementation that includes all stakeholders involved.
CONCLUSION
Through these four case studies it is evident that there are several barriers that impede the
implementation of sustainability initiatives in the tourism industry, more specifically in
island destinations. The barriers identified are specific to these four cases but are broad
in nature. This exemplifies the fact that businesses generally face the same impediments
as others around the world and that general strategies that have traditionally worked in
other regional contexts can be employed. This research also identified that applications
such as partnerships, which is a relatively new concept in the island studied can be
undertaken with successful results. The recommended partnership addresses many of the
factors that have impeded sustainability progress in the four destinations tourism industry
and can potentially lead to closing the gap between attitude and action. Further, this
partnership, which would represent a new means of stakeholder integration and dialogue
in these destinations, would address regionally specific barriers such as bureaucracy and
low public environmental awareness. This would also open the door for other tourism
destinations to develop similar partnerships to increase the level of stakeholder
integration and sustainability.
Despite the multitude of studies conducted on environmental management and more
specifically sustainable tourism, there has been limited insight as to the reasons for the
slow implementation of sustainability initiatives in the tourism industry. Why some
organizations are more environmentally proactive than others and what hinders
increasing performance in terms of sustainability in an organization is not fully
understood. Therefore it is especially pertinent to study barriers on an industry and
regional basis in order to fully understand how the tourism industry can be encouraged to
introduce more sustainable practices (Kirk 1995; Kirkland and Thompson 1999; Mauser
2001; Tinsley 2002). The results of these studies provide a further understanding of the
factors that impede the implementation of sustainability initiatives in tourism
destinations. As tourism destinations are being faced with exponential growth, it is
important to plan accordingly and take action prior to resources being degraded beyond
repair.
REFERENCES
Anguera, N., S. Ayuso, et al. (2000). Implementation of EMS's in Seasonal Hotels.
Assuring Sustainability. ISO 14000 Case Studies and Practical Experiences. R.
Hillary. Sheffield, Greenleaf Publishing: 162-171.
Bramwell, B. and L. Alletorp (2001). "Attitudes in the Danish Tourism Industry to the
Roles of Business and Government in Sustainable Tourism." International Journal
of Tourism research 3: 91-103.
Brigigulio, L. and Brigiglio, M. (1996) Sustainable Tourism in Islands and Small States:
Case Studies. London: Pinter.
Budeanu, A. (1999). A Tour To Sustainability. A discussion on Tour Operators
Possibilities for Promoting Sustainable Tourism. International Institute for Industrial
Environmental Economics. Lund, Sweden, Lund University: 84.
Butler, R.W. (1980) ‘The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of Evolutions: Implications
for Management of Resources’, Canadian Geographer, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 5-12.
Butler, R. W. (1999) "Sustainable Touirsm: A state of the art review." Tourism
Geographies. 1(1): 7-25.
Cheyne, J. and S. Barnett (2001). "The Greening of Accommodation. Stakeholder
Perspectives of Environmental Programmes in New Zealand Hotels and Luxury
Lodges." Journal of Corporate Citizenship Spring.
Dodds, R. (2005). Barriers to the Implementation of Sustainable Tourism Policy in
Destinations. School of Management. Surrey, University of Surrey. PhD: 300.
Dodds, R. (2007) ‘Sustainable Tourism and Policy: Lessons from the Case of Calviá,
Spain’, Current Issues in Tourism, Vol. 10, No. 4.
Ghobadian, A., H. Viney, et al. (1998). "Extending Linear Approaches to Mapping
Environmental Behaviour." Business Strategy and the Environment 7(13): 13-23.
Gössling, S. & Wall, G. (2007) ‘Island Tourism’ in G. Baldacchino (ed.) A World of
Islands, Malta and Canada, Agenda Academic and Institute of Island Studies, pp. 429454.
Ioannides, D. (1995) ‘A Flawed Implementation of Sustainable Tourism: The Experience
of Akamas, Cyprus’, Tourism Management, Vol. 16, No. 8, pp. 583-592.
Kirk, D. (1995). "Environmental Management in Hotels." International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management 7(6): 3-8.
Kirkland, L. and D. Thompson (1999). "Challenges in Designing, Implementing and
Operating an Environmental Management System." Business Strategy and the
Environment 8: 128-141.
Knowles, T. & Curtis, T., (1999) The Market Viability of European Mass Tourist
Destinations: A Post-Stagnation Life Cycle Analysis, International Journal of Tourism
Research, 1, pp. 87-96.
Liu, Z. (2003). "Sustainable Tourism Development: A Critique." Journal of Sustainable
Tourism 11(6): 459-475.
Mauser, A. (2001). The Greening of Business. Environmental Management and
Performance Evaluation: An Empirical Study in the Dutch Dairy Industry. Delft,
Eburon Publishers.
Middleton, V. T. C. (1998). Sustainable Tourism: A Marketing Perspective. New York,
Longman.
Pine, R. (2002). "China's Hotel Industry. Serving a Mass Market." Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly June.
Pine, R., H. Q. Zhang, et al. (2000). "The Challenges and Opportunities of Franchising in
China's Hotel Industry." International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management 12(5): 300-307.
Pryce, A. (2001). "Sustainability in the Hotel Industry." Travel and Tourism Analyst 6: 323.
Richards, J. (1982) ‘Politics in Small Island Communities: Conflict or Consensus?’
Journal of Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 155-171.
Selin, S. (1999). "Developing a Typology of Sustainable Tourism Partnership." Journal
of Sustainable Tourism 7(3&4): 260-273.
Sharpley, R., (2000). "Tourism and Sustainable Development: Exploring the Theoretical
Divide" Journal of Sustainable Tourism 8 (1):1-19.
Sommer, B. and R. Sommer (1991). A Practical Guide to Behavioural Research. Tools
and Techniques. New York, Oxford University Press Inc.
Theobald, W. F. (1998). Foreward. Global Tourism. W. F. Theobald. Oxford,
Butterworth-Heinemann. second edition.
Tinsley, S. (2002). "EMS Models For Business Strategy Development." Business
Strategy and the Environment 11: 376-390.
Turner, L. & Ash, J. (1975) The Golden Hordes: International Tourism and the Pleasure
Periphery, London, Constable.
Veal, A.J. (1997) Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: A Practical Guide,
London,
Longman.
World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.