1 Dr. Jucovy - American History V Exam Review Sheet (1996-7) June Final Wade-Davis bill: required that 50% of a state must take an oath of loyalty before being readmitted to the Union; vetoed by Lincoln; did not require black suffrage but enforced emancipation; allowed election of delegates for a constitutional convention by those who swore they never willingly supported the Confederacy Lincoln’s Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction: allowed pardon (except for a few exceptions) to Southerners who acknowledged the legality of emancipation and took oath of loyalty to Union; required only 10% of the people to take oaths in order to set up new government Johnson’s Reconstruction policy: allowed for rapid restoration of states; more exclusions from amnesty but also more pardons; no “10% rule” but required ratification of 13th amendment and repudiation of secession Civil Rights Act of 1866: passed over Johnson’s veto; nullified Black Codes and guaranteed equal security and laws to those which whites have Freedman’s Bureau bill: 1865; provided for immediate needs of ex-slaves; set up schools, courts, and hospitals; made labor contract agreements; rented or sold confiscated or abandoned land to blacks First Reconstruction Act of 1867: AKA Military Reconstruction Act; made 10 states into 5 military districts; required acceptance of 14th Amendment and black suffrage; statehood allowed on passage of constitution by adult males Tenure of Office Act: 1867; required Senate approval for removal of presidential appointees Ku Klux Klan Acts: 1870-71; AKA Three Enforcement Acts; protected freedmen’s right to vote; supervise elections; outlawed Klan activities; made interference with voting a federal crime; allowed president to call out troops and suspend writ of habeus corpus Civil Rights cases: Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896 - allowed segregation if facilities were equal (here, in separate railroad seating); Williams v. Mississippi, 1898 - allowed states to control voting procedure by permitting literacy tests; Cumming v. Board of Education, 1899 - allowed for segregated schools by allowing separate schools for whites even if no comparable ones made for blacks Homestead Act: 1862; allowed for cheap purchase of 160 acres if the owner would improve on it for 5 years; increased Western settlement; many lands abandoned because of bleak life in Great Plains Timber Culture Act: 1873; amended to Homestead Act to grant another 160 acres to those who planted 40 acres of trees in 4 years Timber and Stone Act: 1878; sold barren land for $2.50 per acre Desert Land Act: 1877; resulted in purchase of 2.5 million acres of Western land; tentative ownership of 640 acres at $0.25 per acre; receive full title after irrigating for 3 years and then paying another $1 per acre National Reclamation Act: 1902; AKA Newlands Act; set aside money from sale of lands for irrigation 2 Dawes Severalty Act: 1887; designed to assimilate Indians; divided tribal lands among individual families who got full title after 25 years; half of Indian land lost to white settlement; gave citizenship to Indians who gave up tribal loyalties Munn v. Illinois: 1877; said that state could set a maximum on storage fees in granaries owned by railroad companies because it concerned the public interest Wabash case: 1886; AKA Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois, said that only Congress could regulate matters that extended beyond a single state; weakened decision in Munn v. Illinois Pendleton Act: 1883; created Civil Service Commission whose 3 members would be presidential appointees; determined fitness of civil service workers; listed officers for merit appointments Sherman Anti-trust Act: 1890; prohibited monopolies that combined in restraint of trade; corporations got around it by making holding companies; not enforced by courts United States v. E.C. Knight Co.: 1895; crippled antitrust laws by saying they only applied to commerce and not manufacturing; turned the laws against striking workers Bland-Allison Act: 1878, called for purchase of $2-4 million in silver per month to make into money by the government; provided for a useless international monetary conference; increased money in circulation to raise crop prices and industrial wages Sherman Silver Purchase Act: 1890; used to halt decline in silver prices and to improve economy; provided for further purchase of silver by U.S. Treasury for notes redeemable in gold; repealed in 1893 Gold Standard Act: 1900; committed U.S. to gold standard; standardized the gold dollar as 25.8 grains; established gold reserve of $150 million to back paper money; chartered small town banks McKinley Tariff Act: 1890; unpopular because it raised tariffs; average duty was 49.5%; new duties on agricultural items; ended duty on raw sugar and had bounty of $0.02 per pound on domestic sugar Dingley Tariff Act: 1897; tariffs raised to new high average of 57%; restored reciprocity; had high duties on many items; unchanged until 1909 Interstate Commerce Act: 1887; 5 person agency called the Interstate Commerce Commission that made railroads publicly post fair fates; outlawed pools, rebates, and discrimination between long and short hauls; investigated complaints against railroads; ineffective because first chairman favored railroads and Supreme Court decisions weakened it Elkins Act: 1903; amended the Interstate Commerce Act by defining and reinforcing it Hepburn Act: 1906; amended the Interstate Commerce Act by enlarging it to 7 people, setting rates and bookkeeping methods, and prohibiting free passes and transporting goods made by railroad companies Mann-Elkins Act: 1910; strengthened ICC by allowing them to control the communication industry and suspend rate increasing until they were deemed reasonable Northern Securities v. United States: 1902; initiated by Roosevelt to break up this railroad monopoly; Court ruled to dissolve company in 1904; labeled Roosevelt as an opponent of trusts even though more cases brought under Taft Pure Food and Drug Act: 1906; forbade making or selling of adulterated foods or drugs and mislabeling of interstate items; reaction to muckraking 3 Payne-Aldrich Tariff: 1909; protectionist; favored Eastern industry; increased some duties; not as much tariff reform as promised by Taft and Republicans; made overall tariff of 37% Federal Workmen’s Compensation Act: one of Wilson’s reforms; established compensation for government employees Keating-Owen Act: 1916; forbade interstate shipping of goods made by children under 14 (companies) or 16 (mines) Tariff Commission Act: 1916; created expert commission to recommend tariff rates Federal Reserve Act: 1913; AKA Glass-Owen Act; created flexible economy to adjust to needs of economy; created Federal Reserve system of 12 districts with Federal Reserve bank in each district; were depositories for all national banks and other banks and trust companies joining the system Clayton Anti-trust Act: 1914; strengthened Sherman Anti-trust Act by including other things; included many other corporate practices; officers of the corporation made liable; no use of injunctions in labor disputes except to prevent property damage; labor unions exempted, including strikes, boycotts, and picketing Platt Amendment: 1901; Cuba barely independent; can’t make treaties to impair independence; can’t take on debts that can’t pay; lease Guantanamo to U.S. as naval base; America could intervene; all of this part of Cuba’s constitution Dooley v. U.S.: one of a series of cases from 1901-4 that said that Constitution did not apply to annexed territories; Congress could give rights and citizenship Underwood-Simmons Tariff: 1913; reduced and eliminated tariffs on many items; average tariff was 27%; made a graduated income tax on incomes of $4,000 and over up to 6% for incomes over $500,000 Federal Trade Commission: created by Federal Trade Commission Act in 1914; 5 person group that investigates corporations and requires them publish their activities; could issue cease-and-desist orders against any corporation found guilty of using unfair methods of competition, which were not defined as of yet Radical Reconstruction: made new state constitutions under military supervision; all but three states readmitted in 1868; included black suffrage and civil rights; established segregated schools and social services; extended women’s rights; reformed criminal codes; initiated economic recovery programs; no provisions for land confiscation or distribution Black Codes: required blacks to carry freedom-papers; limited or denied blacks of their civil rights Sharecropper: occupation of many ex-slaves because they did not or could not own land; allowed for little economic opportunity because of its inherent inefficiency; returned blacks to a quasi-slavery Scalawag: Southern white Republicans in Union areas not liked by Conservative Democrats; helped secure Republican power in South Carpetbagger: Northerners who moved South after the Civil War seeking economic opportunities or positions as teachers or missionaries 40 Acres and a Mule: misconception that blacks were going to be granted 40 acres and a mule from property confiscated from or abandoned by ex-Confederates 4 Greenbacks: paper currency issued by Congress; not sound money but only partially removed by Grant; Redemption Act of 1875 paid for greenbacks in gold Credit Mobilier scandal: under Grant’s administration, one of many scandals; profits from construction of Union Pacific Railroad went to road’s promoters Whiskey Ring: another example of fraud during Grant’s presidency Compromise of 1877: last federal troops would leave South Carolina and Louisiana; Republicans would support Southern states financially and politically; Hayes would be elected; solved problems with election of 1876 Redeemers: AKA Bourbons; corrupt oligarchy; similar to ruling class of planters before the war; included businessmen; ended of military occupation of South; Conservative Democrats controlled of the Solid South; Hayes appointed ex-Confederate as PostmasterGeneral; passed Jim Crow segregation laws; caused thousands of disillusioned blacks to move to Kansas in 1877, called Exodusters Trusts: type of business organization that started in 1860s and 1870s; board of trustees make up a holding company hat runs the business; stockholders receive trust certificates Populists: founded in 1891 through the Farmers’ Alliance; affected elections from 18921908; supported coinage of silver, government ownership of railroads and communication, a graduated income tax; direct election of Senators, postal savings banks, and use of initiative, referendum, and recall; failed because of lack of support from labor, because the major parties took its platform, and because farmers stopped supporting them when things got better Homestead Strike: 1892; very violent; occurred when Carnegie Steel Company cut wages of workers of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, an affiliate of the American Federation of Labor; 300 Pinkerton detectives killed 7 men while braking the strike; workers beat detectives on July 6; manager Henry C. Frick got governor of Pennsylvania to send 8,000 National Guard troops; union surrendered 4 months after strike began; by 1900, Amalgamated’s membership was 7,000 from 24,000 in 1891 Pullman Strike: 1894; workers of Pullman Palace Car Company struck to protest a 25% wage decrease; Eugene V. Debs helped by having the American Railway Union boycott Pullman cars in 27 states, paralyzing transportation; Illinois governor wouldn’t send out troops but President Cleveland sent 2,000 in order to restore order and protect mail; Attorney General forbade interference with mail by striking but they did anyway so they were put in jail; strike ended because union leaders were in jail; this injunction was used against many strikers Industrial Workers of the World: started in 1905; organized unskilled industrial workers; militant; wanted one big union of every worker; wanted to build a cooperative, voluntary society; dies out after 1913 Knights of Labor: founded in 1869; opened to skilled and unskilled workers; supported 8-hour work day, abolition of child labor, safety and health laws, prohibition of foreign contract labor, unions, graduated income taxes, and government control of railroads and other public utilities; height at 1866; disappeared after 1890 American Federation of Labor: started in 1881; made up of skilled craftsmen; excluded women and unskilled workers, about 90% of the work force; supported higher wages, better conditions, 8-hour day, usage of union-made products, laws in favor of 5 labor; half a million members by 1900; advocated collective bargaining or strikes if necessary Carnegie, Andrew: Scottish; opened steelworks in Pittsburgh in 1873; bought out rivals; sold out to U.S. Steel Company in 1901; big philanthropist who gave back to society Rockefeller, John D.: consolidated oil industry by 1879 and form the Standard Oil Trust in 1882; had 40 corporations and controlled oil refining; dissolved by Ohio courts in 1892; reorganized as holding company; permanently dissolved by Supreme Court in 1911; also devoted end of life to charity Imperial Presidency: Bryan, William Jennings: Democratic and Populist presidential candidate in 1896; supported unlimited coinage of silver; also Democratic candidate in 1908; prosecuted Scopes for teaching evolution Mahan, Alfred T.: admiral in navy; proponent of imperialism in several books; argued that industrializaton needed the support of overseas markets; said we need larger merchant and navy fleets in order to have these markets; said a colonial empire would strengthen the country; influenced policy enough to make the U.S. Navy the world’s third largest by 1900 Social Darwinism: applied Darwin’s laws of natural selection and evolution to society popularized by intellectuals in late 19th century; rich people survive because of hard work while poor people are that way by their own fault; society will benefit from triumph of the strong; economy controlled by competition; similar to Adam Smith, especially with regard to supply and demand; businessmen supported free market by also tried to eliminate competition and control the market; helped justify action of Carnegie, Rockfeller, and others; some criticized the basis that the natural laws could be applied to society Farmers’ Alliance: created in 1873 before fall of the Grange movement; supported social gatherings for education, organization against railroad abuses, industrial monopolies, and currency control, and cooperation among farmers, including women; formed cooperatives, stores, and banks; got power through Democratic part and later by forming the Populist or Peoples’ party Sub-Treasury System: 12 banks under Federal reserve system Josiah Strong: Congregational clergyman; advocate of expansion; believed in G-d-given responsibility of Anglo-Saxon Christians to spread its institutions Emilio Aguinaldo: led Filipino revolt against U.S. after the Spanish-American War; continued from February 4, 1899 to 1902; captured in 1901 and declared allegiance to U.S. Taft Commission: under the Philippine Government Actin 1902, was the body to govern the Philippines until it set up a two-house legislature, the lower of which would be elected Open Door Notes: sent to Germany, England, Russia, France, Japan, and Italy saying that they should respect China’s independence and allow free trade Treaty of Paris: signed on December 10, 1898ending the Spanish-American War which lost 5,000 lives (only 379 in battle); Spain had to withdraw from Cuba and recognize its independence; U.S. got Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines for $420 million 6 Wisconsin Idea: started by William La Follette; very important reform program in state government; had commission on factory safety and sanitation; improved education, workers’ compensation, public utilities, and conservation; lowered railroad rates and raised railroad taxes; adopted direct primary for all political nominees and a state income tax Square Deal: Progressive reforms; president took very active role; introduced by Roosevelt; started federal regulation of economic affairs; created new departments and commissions and regulated big business New Nationalism: Roosevelt’s platform as a Progressive candidate; supported federal child labor law, workmen’s compensation, regulation of labor relations, and a minimum wage for women; also advocated tariff reform, women’s suffrage, direct election of senators, direct primaries, anti-trust laws, and initiative, referendum, and recall New Freedom: Wilson’s platform; advocated end of monopolies; wanted reform of tariffs, income tax, currency, credit, and anti-trust laws; continued New Nationalism by expanding roles of government in regulating economy and society; Progressive Pinchot-Ballinger affair: Chief of U.S. Forestry Service Pinchot accused Secretary of the Interior Ballinger of allowing people to exploit coal and timber because he profited from it; Ballinger had removed 1 million acres of forest and mineral land from reserved list; Taft supported Ballinger; Taft dismissed Pinchot when he asked Congress to investigate; Congress cleared Ballinger; contributed to splitting Republican party La Follette, Robert M.: started the Wisconsin Idea; very Progressive; governor of Wisconsin and senator; in 1991, became head of National Progressive Republican League in order to liberalize the Republicans; supported by those against conservatism of Taft; helped created Progressive party Hay, John: McKinley’s secretary of state; started the open door policy and sent the open door notes Sussex pledge: unarmed French steamer, the Sussex, attacked by Germany and several Americans injured; Wilson made Germany promise not to sink without warning and to safeguard noncombatants; torpedo attacks resumed in January 1917 anyway Lusitania: in 1915, the British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat; 128 Americans killed; Wilson demanded that Germany respect neutral countries, including American travelers on nonmilitary ships of warring countries Unrestricted submarine warfare: 1941; undeclared naval war; German U-boat fired on American destroyer Greer; Roosevelt ordered attacks on German submarines on sight; American destroyer Reuben James sunk by Nazi submarines and American sailors died; Congress allowed merchant ships to be armed and to enter belligerent ports Fourteen Points: made by Wilson; told to Congress on January 8, 1918; wanted them to be basis for peace terms for WWI; wanted self-determination of nations, boundary adjustments, freedom of the seas, respect for natives of colonies, free trade, arms reduction, and impartial settlement of colonial claims; proposed League of Nations to implement the principles and solve future problems; Treaty of Versailles: signed in June 1919 to end WWI; not approved by Senate because of clause for League of Nations; Congress adopted joint resolution to recognize end of war on August 25, 1921 7 Irreconciliables: people wouldn’t accept 14 Points plan because of the League of Nations; fierce isolationists Isolationism: idea that America should stay out of foreign affairs, especially wars Dawes Plan: 1924; American private banks loaned money to Germany to stimulate its economy; that would allowed Germany to back reparations to European Allies who could then pay back U.S.; England and France would reduce amount of reparations owed over 5 years; got Nobel Peace prize for this Young Plan: 1929; redid the Dawes plan to manage future war debts and reparations; reduced Germany’s reparations to $8 billion; allowed payment over the next 59 years Washington Naval Conference: 1921-2; initiated by Secretary of State Evan Hughes; attempted to prevent naval race between U.S., England, and Japan; those three met with France, Italy, Belgium, Portugal, the Netherlands, and China in Washington; created 3 treaties; the Five-Power Pact - U.S., England, Japan, Italy, and France won’t build ships for 10 years; limited tonnage of ships in a ratio of 5:5:3:1.75:1.75, respectively; the NinePower Pact - maintained China’s independence and the open door policy; the Four-Power Pact - U.S., England, France, and Japan agreed to respect each other’s rights in Pacific and to settle disputes with negotiations Kellogg-Briand Pact: 1928; made by secretary of state of U.S. and foreign minister of France; outlawed war as method to enforce policy; signed by 14 nations and then by 48 more; no provision for enforcement except moral force of world opinion National Origins Act: 1929; limited total number of immigrants in one year to 150,000; quotas for each nationality depended on number of them in U.S. in 1920 Red scare: 1919; communist victory in Russian Revolution in 1917 created fears of revolution in U.S.; Soviet Union made the Communist International to create revolutions throughout the world; radicals blamed for labor and racial unrest; series of bombings is spring of 1919; led to anti-Communist measures Scopes trial: 1925 Tennessee fundamentalist law forbade teaching evolution; Scopes was arrested for teaching it; defended by Clarence Darrow; attracted international attention and broadcasted by radio; convicted and fined but later Tennessee Supreme Court remitted the fine Reconstruction Finance Corporation: 1933; part of Roosevelt’s New Deal; pumped over $1 billion into economy; fought the Great Depression Agricultural Adjustment Act: 1933; subsidized farmers to reduce output on certain items; financed by a processing tax on commodities involved National Recovery Administration: created in 1933 by the Nation Industrial Recovery Act; allowed each industry to make its own codes of fair practices; established working conditions; abolished child labor; workers allowed to form unions and have collective bargaining Public Works Administration: 1933; distributed money for public works programs; made jobs for construction of buildings, roads and other public works; had $3.3 billion Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation: 1933; set up under Glass-Steagall Banking Act Social Security Act: 1935; created many programs; provided for old age, survivors’, and disability insurance; established unemployment compensation; began pension system in 1942 by taking a payroll tax; many workers excluded at first 8 Wagner Act: 1935; AKA National Labor Relations Act; created National Labor Relations Boards; outlawed unfair labor practices; ensured collective bargaining for unions; forced managers to negotiate wages, hours, and conditions; prevented some forms of union-busting Tennessee Valley Authority: built a series of dams in 7 states along the Tennessee River to ease navigation, control flooding, and produce electricity; cheap and abundant electricity helped lift the South out of poverty Works Progress Administration: 1935; spent $5 billion on emergency relief; put the unemployed on the federal payroll; helped ease the Depression even though the jobs were worthless Keynes: economist whose theories became popular during the 1950s; government spending, called pump-priming, along with currency management could stimulate the economy, cure recession, and curb growth to prevent inflation; believed in permanent economic stability and growth Court-packing crisis: submitted by Roosevelt to Congress in February 1937; proposed to add 6 judges to Supreme Court, one for each judge over 70; response to Court’s invalidation of his New Deal legislation; rejected by Congress because it was obviously a political move; Roosevelt ended up choosing 7 new judges anyway from 1937-41 Nye Commission: 1934; Senate investigation of U.S. entrance to WWI; decided arms dealers had pushed us into war for financial reasons; resulted in isolationist feelings Neutrality Acts: 1935 - president could have arms embargo on any warring nation for 6 months; forbade U.S. citizens from going on foreign ships except at their own risk; didn’t prohibit sale of steel, oil, and copper; 1936 - continued the one from 1935 and forbade loans and credit to warring nations; 1937 - president could decide if there was state of war and have embargo; belligerents had to buy nonmilitary goods through cash and carry; 1939 - lifted embargo on England and France; kept cash and carry; president could prohibit American ships from going into war zones Quarantine Speech: October 5, 1937; Roosevelt spoke against isolationism of Neutrality Acts; recommended quarantine of belligerents; response also to Japan’s fighting in China Cash and carry: countries at was had to pay cash for goods (no credit) and use their own ships (no delivery) – SORRY, NO C.O.D.s! Destroyers for bases: September 1940; Roosevelt gave 50 U.S. destroyers to England for 99-year leases on English naval and air bases in West Indies and Atlantic Lend-Lease: March 1941; president could lend or lease arms and equipment to nations whose security is vital to U.S.; designed to help Britain but extended to Soviet Union in 1941 Reuben James: [see “Unrestricted submarine warfare”] Kearney: U.S. destroyer damaged by German submarine on October 17, 1941 Second front: at Casablanca Conference in January 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill decide to open second front; Soviets wanted this so Germany would have to fight another front besides them; U.S. wanted a direct route through France; England wanted a roundabout way through North Africa, Italy, and Sicily; England’s way done first and America’s only later Operation Torch: joint English and American invasion of North Africa 9 Operation Overlord: joint English and American invasion of Europe Midway: site of huge U.S. naval victory over Japan; ended Japan’s chances and forced them to give up Pacific; turning point of WWII in Pacific Yalta Conference: February 1945; Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agree to divide Germany into occupation zones; Soviet Union gets half of Poland and other parts of Far East, including parts of Korea and some islands; plan for United Nations ratified Potsdam Conference: July 1945; Truman, Attlee, and Stalin plan reconstruction of Europe and how to deal with Germany; Council of Foreign Ministers made to make peace treaties for Axes; Potsdam Declaration on July 26, 1945 demanded Japan’s unconditional surrender Truman Doctrine: stated before Congress on March 12, 1947; communism is an ideological threat that must be fought everywhere; urged support for nations threatened by communism; led Congress to approve $400 million to help Turkey and Greece fight perceived Communist aggression Marshall Plan: announced by secretary of state at Harvard graduation in 1947; Truman’s Monroe Doctrine; granted over $12 billion to Europe; Soviet Union preferred to keep communism instead of taking money; was humanitarian and political; would aid growth of Europe and indirectly America and halt communism North Atlantic Treat Organization: 1949; formed by 12 Western European nations; declared that attack on one equaled attack on all; military force kept to prevent Soviet invasion of Europe Containment: outlined by George F. Kennan, a diplomat; said that if we contain Soviet Union, communism will collapse because it needs to expand; focus of Truman Doctrine NSC-68: document that stated national defense policy; advocated massive expansion of military; rejected isolation; saw Soviet Union as mortal enemy of U.S.’ approved by National Security Council in April 1950; showed Truman’s commitment to win Cold War at any cost Massive nuclear retaliation brinksmanship: stop nuclear war by going to the brink; they won’t bomb if they know we’re serious Berlin blockade: 1948-9; England, France, and U.S. made their occupation zones into West Germany; Soviet Union prohibited travel between Berlin and West Germany; Air Force lifted good to West Berlin for a year until Stalin ended blockade; Germany officially divided in October 1949 Baruch Plan: plan for disarmament after WWII; wanted to create international agency to oversee fissionable materials and bombs Truman-MacArthur dispute in Korean Conflict: commander of troops there wanted to start fighting China; Truman removed him because he didn’t want to fight China Fair Employment Practices Committee: committee under Roosevelt to end discrimination in war industries; in return, black laborers would drop other integration demands Taft-Hartley Act: 1947; AKA Labor-Management Relations Act; considered antiunion; passed over Truman’s veto; prohibited the closed shop; required union leaders to take non-Communist oath; forbade union contributions to campaigns; made union publicize financial statements; made 60-day cooling-off period before striking; allowed suits 10 against unions for broken contracts and damages; symbolized end of New Deal reform by Republican Congress Fair Deal: Truman’s liberal agenda, 21-point domestic program told to Congress on September 16, 1945; New Deal-like; supported expansion of Social Security, increase of minimum wage, fight against poverty, public housing, and government-funded research; conservatism blocked later added reforms Loyalty Review Board: under Federal Loyalty Program started in1947; investigated federal workers; fired those who were security risks; many resigned due to the persecution; copied by state and local governments; courts were harsh; schools and union also got rid of Communist sympathizers McCarthyism: led by senator who claimed to have list of 205 Communists in State Department; investigated many federal employees; attacked Truman and Eisenhower for allowing communism to grow in the U.S. government; end when Senate censured McCarthy on December 2, 1954 Army-McCarthy hearings: McCarthy accused army of communism; they resisted and stopped him Rosenbergs, Ethel and Julius: convicted (1951) and executed (1953) on charges of atomic espionage Hiss trial: Chambers, a confessed Soviet spy accused Hiss of stealing State Department documents; went to jail for 5 years for perjury House Un-American Activities Committee: established under Roosevelt in 1938; disclosed foreign influences in U.S.; used in 1947 by republicans to link Democrats to communism; investigated film industry for having Soviet propaganda Sputnik: Soviet satellite that was first one put into orbit showed American that Soviets were ahead in science; lead to increased spending on space program (started in 1958) and education in math and science Federal Aid Highway Act: 1956; gave $26 billion to build a national highway system over 10 years; raised money through new taxes on fuel, tires, cars, and trucks Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas: 1954; Supreme Court unanimously decided against separate but equal decision in Plessy v. Ferguson; called for desegregation of schools; defied by South Montgomery bus boycott: against segregation; ended when Supreme Court ruled against segregation in public transit systems Southern Christian Leadership Conference: led by King, Jr.; was interracial; advocated nonviolent resistance to discrimination Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee: coordinated sit-ins for racial equality Congress of Racial Equality: organized freedom rides during 1961 on buses going from Washington, D.C., to New Orleans; Interstate Commerce Commission desegregated all interstate transportation Greensboro, North Carolina lunch counter sit-in: February 1, 1960; 4 blacks sat in white section at Woolworth and didn’t move; initiated idea of sit-ins Freedom rides: interracial rides on interstate buses to protest segregation of buses, rest rooms, and restaurants; often ended in violence Birmingham, Alabama: King, Jr. put in jail there but released by Kennedy 11 Gideon v. Wainwright: one of the Warren Court’s decisions; 1963; every felony defendant has the right to a lawyer regardless of the ability to pay under the 6th amendment Miranda v. Arizona: 1966; authorities must inform criminal suspects of their rights under the 5th and 6th amendments Escobedo v. Illinois: 1964; a defendant must be allowed a lawyer before being questioned by the police Baker v. Carr: 1962; one person, one vote rule; states must represent all citizens equally, not by geography Civil Rights Act: 1964; prohibited discrimination by employers; granted equal access to schools and public accommodations; created Equal Opportunity Commission to prevent discrimination due to religion, nationality, race, or sex; gave new powers to Attorney General to enforce these rules Voting Rights Act: 1965; allowed Attorney General to send people to register Southern voters; outlawed literacy and other voting tests New Frontier: name for Kennedy’s program of domestic legislation; supported aid to public schools, wilderness preservation, federally funded mass transit; medical insurance for the elderly funded by Social Security; opposed by Congress; appointed bright, young, ambitious people to help him; wanted presidency to be active and visible Great Society: Johnson’s domestic program; focused on war on poverty; helped poor children, dropouts, unemployed teens, college financing, urban areas learn to help themselves; included more workers and benefits in Social Security; created Department of Housing and Urban Development; had new environmental laws to clean water and air; tax increase in 1967 to curb inflation; $6 reduction in funding for programs; economy affected by Vietnam War Quemoy and Matsu: 2 small islands off coast of Taiwan; attacked by China; U.S. threatened to use nuclear missiles to stop aggression in fall of 1954 Formosa: Taiwan; location of exiled Chinese nationalists government who lost to Communists; U.S. protected it by keeping China from Quemoy and Matsu; U.S. promised Chaing-Kai-Shek to protect Formosa Suez crisis: Nasser took over Egypt in 1954 after it gained independence from England in 1952; Nasser closed the canal run by England and France; Israeli, British, and French forces took canal; United Nations condemned this action with the U.S.; France and England withdrew; Egypt and Israel had a cease-fire; Egypt turned to Soviets for help Beirut: 1958; Eisenhower invade Lebanon to contain communism Guatemala: 1954; CIA supported coup there Iran: 1953; CIA agents overthrew Iran’s elected premier in favor of the shah U-2 incident: U.S. spy plane and pilot Francis Gary Powers shot down over Soviet Union on May 5, 1960; caused premier Nikita S. Khrushchev to cancel a meeting in Paris with Eisenhower who authorized the flight; Powers later released Flexible response: defense strategy under Kennedy which emphasized having new and more weapons; wanted a variety of options such as Green Berets, bombers, H-bomb Bay of Pigs: CIA trained anti-Castro Cubans in Central America; invaded Cuba on April 17, 1961 but not supported by populous and American air strikes; complete failure; Castro won in 2 days 12 Cuban missile crisis: October 1962; intelligence learned that Soviet missiles set up in Cuba; Kennedy blockaded Cuba; Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba and to remove missiles from Turkey if Soviet Union would remove missiles from Cuba; in November 1962, Soviets agreed to dismantle all missile bases in Cuba Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: 1964; legalized escalation of Vietnam Conflict; response to supposed attacks by North Vietnam on American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin Tet offensive: 1968; Viet Cong attacked U.S. throughout South Vietnam; U.S. won but showed that war was far from over; stirred anti-war and anti-Johnson feelings Paris Accords: ended Vietnam Conflict under Nixon; had cease-fire and release of American prisoners; did not call for North Vietnam withdrawal from South Vietnam or abandonment of commitment to creation of a reunified Vietnam under communism Détente: under Nixon, relaxation between U.S. and Communist nations Henry Cabot Lodge: against Treaty of Versailles because it called for League of Nations William Borah: against Treaty of Versailles because it called for League of Nations Andrew Mellon: secretary of the treasury; reduced government spending a lot under Harding Harold Ickes: secretary of interior under Roosevelt; head of PWA; gave out useless jobs to relieve poverty Francis E. Townsend: advocated the Townsend plan to pay $200 per month to unemployed people over 60; started in 1933; funded by 2% tax on business transactions Huey Long: politician from Louisiana; proposed the share-our-wealth plan; tax high incomes and inheritances; families would get $5,000 and $2,500 annually Father Charles E. Coughlin: Catholic priest from Detroit; made National Union for Social Justice; supported remonetization of silver, issuing of greenbacks, and nationalization of banking system; gave weekly sermons on the radio Bernard Baruch: rich businessman who financed WWI and made Baruch plan Henry Stimson: secretary of war under Truman who suggested dropping the bomb on Japan Dean Acheson: supported the bomb, one of chief advisers to Truman John Foster Dulles: architect of massive retaliation and brinksmanship; antiCommunist; used threat of nuclear weapons; created mutual defense pacts based on NATO C. Wright Mills: wrote against corporations in 1950s David Reisman: Harvard sociologist; social critic; against conformity and new lazy culture Jack Kerouac: beatnik writer in the 1950s against materialism Rosa Parks: arrested after refusing to give her bus seat to a white person Martin Luther King, Jr.: black civil rights leader; supported nonviolent resistance and integration; used white brutality to get sympathy Jim Clark: sheriff of Selma, Alabama violently stopped King, Jr. from registering black voters in 1965 Bull Connors: cop who used force to stop civil rights movements Earl Warren: liberal chief justice who handed many important decision, especially regarding civil rights