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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Ali (1993)
Anakwe et al.
(1999)
Arunachalam
et al. (1998)
Bennett
(1999)
Countries/
Sample
117 managers in
Saudi Arabia
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
noneb
Survey
Individualism (Ali, 1987)a;
decision making styles
424 U.S.
undergraduate
and graduate
students
A total of over
600
undergraduates
in Hong Kong
and the U.S.
Survey
Collectivism (Wagner,
1995); receptivity to distance
learning technology
none
Experiment
Individualism; Collectivism
(Triandis, 1995)c; negotiation
outcome quality
none
64 U.S. and 47
People’s
Republic of
China (PRC)
employees
Survey
All five dimensions of
Hofstede’s cultural values
(Dorfman & Howell, 1988);
work-related attitudes and
beliefs
Social
information
processing;
dissonance
theory
Key Findings
Individualism was positively related to
consultative, participative, and autocratic decision
making styles and attitudes toward risk.
Collectivism was negatively related to distance
learning technology.
Hong Kong subjects were significantly more
collectivistic and less individualistic than U.S.;
H.K. negotiators obtained higher joint outcomes
than U.S. negotiators; negotiators with a high,
rather than low, best alternative to a negotiated
agreement (BATNA) obtained larger individual
outcomes in both countries; mediation had a
stronger effect on outcomes in the U.S.
U.S. was significantly lower on collectivism and
higher on masculinity than the PRC; in both
countries, collectivism was positively related to
favorable attitudes towards group activities and
cooperation; in the U.S., masculinity was
negatively related to positive attitudes toward
human development.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Bochner &
Hesketh
(1994)d
Brett &
Okumura
(1998)
Countries/
Sample
263 Australian
bank employees
representing 28
nationalities
Method
Survey
Managers from
Japan and the
U.S. making up
30 intercultural
dyads and 65
intracultural
dyads
Experiment
Cable & Judge 171 U.S.
(1994)
undergraduates
Experiment
Variables and Measures
Individualism-Collectivism;
Power Distance (both
assessed using country scores
from Hofstede, 1980 and
study specific items used to
validate the use of country
scores); contact with coworkers; knowledge of staff;
extent of working alone;
openness and contact with
superiors; task-orientation;
beliefs in Theory X
Individualism (Schwartz,
1994); Hierarchy (i.e. power
distance) (Schwartz, 1994);
negotiation tactics
Collectivism (Erez & Earley,
1987; Wagner & Moch,
1986)e; preferences for
individual-based pay
Theories/
Models
Social
categorization
theory
Social
cognition
Expectancy
theory; agency
theory
Key Findings
Collectivists had more informal contact with
coworkers, knew staff better, and were more
likely to work on a team than alone than were
individualists; high power distance respondents
were less open with superiors, had more contact
with them, described their supervision as being
closer and direct, were more task-oriented, and
had greater beliefs in Theory X management than
those low in power distance.
U.S. managers were significantly more
individualistic but less hierarchical than Japanese
managers; individualists endorsed self-interest in
negotiations more than collectivists; those with
hierarchical values endorsed distributive tactics
more; in inter- (rather than intra-) cultural
negotiations, significant misunderstandings
occurred about negotiator priorities; and
individualism-collectivism failed to fully mediate
country effects.
Collectivism was negatively related to preferences
for individual-based pay.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Carpenter &
Radhakrishnan
(2000)
Casimir &
Keats (1996)
Chan &
Drasgow
(2001)
Chen et al.
(1997)
Countries/
Sample
34 EuropeanAmerican
undergraduates
and 42
MexicanAmerican
undergraduates
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
Social
categorization
theory
Key Findings
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(independent-interdependent
self-construal; Singelis et al.,
1995); friendship
descriptions
European-Americans scored significantly higher
on individualism than did Mexican-Americans,
but their scores did not significantly differ on
collectivism; collectivists represent more social
connections (i.e., social identities, social traits,
and other persons) in their concepts of people
(i.e., self, other individuals, and in-groups) than
do individualists.
Anglo- and Chinese-Australians did not
significantly differ on individualism-collectivism;
respondents in both cultures preferred leaders who
expressed high concern for both performance and
group relations.
A total of 120
Anglo- and
ChineseAustralian
middle
managers
1,594 military
recruits and 274
junior college
students in
Singapore; 239
U.S.
undergraduates
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(Bontempo, 1993)f;
preferences for leadership
style
PM theory of
leadership
Survey
Social
cognition;
theory of
reasoned
action; selfefficacy theory
Collectivism (both types) was positively related,
and horizontal individualism was negatively
related, to the noncalculative and social-normative
aspects of motivation to lead; vertical
individualism was positively related to the
affective identity and social-normative aspects of
motivation to lead and was negatively related to
the noncalculative aspect.
300 managers in
the PRC
In-basket
exercise
Horizontal Collectivism;
Vertical Collectivism;
Horizontal Individualism;
Vertical Individualism (all
assessed using Singelis et al.,
1995); general cognitive
ability; the Big Five traits;
leadership self-efficacy;
motivation to lead
Horizontal Collectivism
(Triandis et al., 1986);
Vertical Collectivism
(Wagner and Moch, 1986;
Hui, 1988)g; reward
allocation reform
Reward
allocation
preferences
Vertical collectivism was positively related to
reward allocation reform; horizontal collectivism
was negatively related to reward allocation reform
and differential allocation preferences (but only
under the condition of low vertical collectivism).
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Chen et al.
(1998a)
Chiu &
Kosinki
(1999)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 241
undergraduates
in Hong Kong
and the U.S.
A total of 626
registered
nurses in
Australia, Hong
Kong,
Singapore, and
the U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Collectivism (Perloe, 1967,
Hui, 1988)h; equity versus
equality norms; task
interdependence; goals;
achievement motivation
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism;
Confucian dynamism
(Chinese Culture
Connection, 1987); affective
disposition (i.e., positive and
negative affect); job
satisfaction; work strain
Theories/
Models
Distributive
justice;
allocation
preferences;
need for
achievement
none
Key Findings
In both countries, reward allocation was more
differential when task interdependence was low,
rather than high, and when the goal was
productivity or fairness rather than solidarity;
collectivism was negatively related to reward
differential in Hong Kong but not in the U.S.; in
both countries, achievement motivation was
negatively related to differential allocation when
task interdependence was high, however, when
low, achievement motivation was positively
related to differential allocation in the U.S. (but
stays negative for Hong Kong).
Singaporean and Hong Kong nurses were
significantly more collectivistic and less
individualistic than Australian and U.S. nurses;
individualists scored higher on positive affect (no
difference on negative affect) and job satisfaction
and lower on work strain than collectivists;
individualist subjects high in positive affect
scored higher on job satisfaction and lower on
work strain than collectivist subjects; individualist
subjects high in negative affect scored lower on
job satisfaction and higher on work strain than
collectivists.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Clugston et al.
(2000)
Countries/
Sample
156 employees
in a U.S. public
agency
Method
Survey
Cocroft &
Ting-Toomey
(1994)
200
undergraduates
in both Japan
and the U.S.
Experiment
Earley (1986)
36 managerial
trainees in both
England and the
U.S.
Experiment
Variables and Measures
Individualism-Collectivism;
Power Distance; Uncertainty
Avoidance; MasculinityFemininity (all assessed with
Dorfman & Howell, 1988);
affective, normative, and
continuance commitment to
organization, supervisor and
work group
(i.e., three foci)
Individualism; Collectivism
(Befu, 1990, Triandis, 1986)j;
Modified version of
Hamaguchi’s (cited and
translated into English by
Befu, 1990) scale and three
items from Triandis et al.’s
(1986) scale; presentation
strategies in conflict
Collectivism; Power
Distance, Uncertainty
Avoidance, MasculinityFemininity (all assessed with
Hofstede, 1980); positive and
negative feedback; individual
performance; importance of
feedback; trust in supervisor
Theories/
Models
Lewin’s
(1943)i field
theory; Theory
X; social
identity theory
Key Findings
Collectivism was related to affective commitment
to supervisors and work groups, continuance
commitment to work groups, and normative
commitment to all foci; power distance was
related to affective commitment to organizations
and both continuance and normative commitment
to all foci; uncertainty avoidance was related to
affective commitment to organizations and
continuance commitment to all foci.
Theory of
facework;
faceworknegotiation
Japanese scored significantly higher on both
individualism and collectivism; U.S. subjects used
more anti-social, self-attribution, hint, and selfpresentation strategies than Japanese subjects who
used more indirect face strategies.
Theory of
reasoned
action; Ilgen et
al.’s (1979)k
model of
feedback
English subjects scored significantly higher on
collectivism and power distance than did U.S.
subjects; U.S. subjects’ performance increased as
a result of both positive and negative feedback,
whereas English subjects’ performance improved
only as a result of positive feedback; importance
of feedback and trust in supervisor partially
mediated the main effects of positive and negative
feedback and culture on performance.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Earley et al.
(1999)
Countries/
Sample
228 managerial
trainees in the
Czech Republic,
the PRC, and
the U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Managerial
simulation
Individualism-Collectivism
(Earley, 1994); individual
and group level feedback;
self-efficacy; individualbased performance beliefs;
and satisfaction with
performance
Collectivism (Wagner and
Moch, 1986); self-efficacy
for teamwork; need for social
approval; positive past
experience working in teams
Collectivism (Wagner &
Moch, 1986); individual
perceptions of organizational
readiness to change
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores from
Hofstede (Kogut & Singh,
1988); skill utilization;
opportunities to learn new
skills; internship satisfaction;
organizational commitment;
in-role performance
Eby &
Dobbins
(1997)
148 U.S.
undergraduates
Survey
Eby et al.
(2000)
117 employees
and managers in
a U.S. sales
organization
125 U.S. MBAs
participating in
overseas
internships
Survey
Feldman &
Bolino (2000)
Archival and
Survey
Theories/
Models
Information
processing
view of self
Expectancy
theory;
perceived
control; need
for affiliation
Chaos theory;
complexity
theory
Relative
deprivation
theory; Job
Characteristics
Model
Key Findings
U.S. subjects were significantly more
individualistic than Czech or PRC subjects (who
did not differ); collectivism was positively related
to performance beliefs and satisfaction;
collectivists had the highest efficacy in the high
group-high individual performance information
condition; individual feedback was important for
both groups but group feedback was important
only for collectivists.
Collectivism was positively related to selfefficacy for teamwork, need for social approval,
and positive past experiences working in teams.
Collectivism was positively related to individual
perceptions of an organization’s readiness to
change to team-based selling.
Cultural distance was not significantly related to
skill utilization, opportunities to learn or further
develop skills, internship satisfaction,
organizational commitment, or in-role
performance.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Gabrielidis et
al. (1997)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 200
undergraduates
in Mexico and
the U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Survey
Individualism; Collectivism
(Kitayama, Markus,
Tummala, Kurokawa, &
Kato, 1991)l; MasculinityFemininity (Spence &
Helmreich, 1978)m; styles of
conflict resolution
Theories/
Models
Dual- concern
model of
conflict
Geletkanycz
(1997)d
1,500 top
managers in 20
countries
Archival and
Survey
All five Hofstede values
(assessed using country
scores, Hofstede, 1980);
commitment to the status quo
regarding organizational
leadership and strategy
Upper
echelons
perspective
Gibson &
ZellmerBruhn (2001)
107 members of
52 teams in
French, Puerto
Rican, Filipino
and U.S.
subsidiary
locations of five
multinational
firms
A total of 330
MBA students
in Mexico and
U.S.
Interview
and Archival
Individualism and Power
Distance (captured in
interviews based on search
terms derived from Hofstede,
1980a, and others)
Linguistic
theory, social
cognitive
theory,
teamwork
theory
Experiment
Collectivism (Wagner,
1995); evaluation generosity;
ingroup-outgroup distinction;
task and maintenance inputs
Social identity
theory;
allocation
rules
Gomez et al.
(2000)
Key Findings
Mexicans were significantly more collectivistic,
individualistic, and masculine than U.S. subjects;
Mexican scores on accommodation and
collaboration were higher than U.S.; within
Mexico, collectivism was positively correlated
with collaboration and masculinity with
accommodation and avoidance; in the U.S.,
collectivism was positively, and individualism
negatively, correlated with avoidance.
Managers were more likely to believe that the
future CEO of their company should have the
same leadership expertise as the current CEO and
that the company’s future corporate strategy
should be the same as the existing corporate
strategy when they were high on individualism,
low on uncertainty avoidance, power distance, and
long-term orientation.
Power distance was negatively related to the use
of teamwork metaphors containing clear role
content (e.g., family or military metaphors);
individualism was negatively related to
respondents’ use of teamwork metaphors broad in
scope (e.g., community metaphor); teamwork
metaphors carry with them expectations for the
manner in which teams will be managed and the
way in which team processes will unfold.
Mexicans were significantly more collectivistic
than U.S. Americans; collectivists gave more
generous evaluations to ingroup, rather than
outgroup, members; individualists valued task
inputs in determining evaluations more than
collectivists; and individualism-collectivism failed
to fully mediate country effects.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Grimm et al.
(1999)
Harpaz et al.
(2002)d
Helgstrand &
Stuhlmacher
(1999)
Hui et al.
(1991)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 1,286
undergraduates
and high school
students in the
Philippines and
the U.S.
A total of 1,491
new work
entrants from
eight countries
participating in
the Work
Socialization of
Youth study
(WOSY)
167 high school
students in
Denmark and
the U.S.
A total of 160
undergraduates
in Hong Kong
and the U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
none
Key Findings
Survey
Individualism (Hui, 1988);
valence; agreeableness;
conscientiousness; civility;
refinement; gregariousness
Longitudinal
survey and
Archival
Individualism-Collectivism;
Uncertainty Avoidance;
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using country scores
from Hofstede, 1980); work
centrality; work goal
importance
Meaning of
Work modeln;
social
exchange
theory
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism;
Power Distance; Uncertainty
Avoidance; MasculinityFemininity (all assessed
using Hofstede, 1980);
leadership preferences
Collectivism (Hui 1988; Hui
& Villareal, 1989); allocator
generosity; equity vs.
equality norms; friends vs.
strangers plentiful vs. fixed
resource amounts
Implicit
leadership
theories
Danish and U.S. subjects differed significantly
only on power distance (Danes lower);
respondents in both countries rated leaders who
were both feminine and individualistic as most
effective.
Equity theory;
reward
allocation
rules
Hong Kong subjects were significantly more
collectivistic than U.S. subjects; when resources
were plentiful, HK subjects put greater emphasis
on equal allocation than U.S. subjects; when
resources were fixed, HK subjects were more
generous than U.S. subjects and differentiated
between close friends and co-workers; and
individualism-collectivism failed to fully mediate
country effects.
Experiment
Filipinos and U.S. respondents did not
significantly differ on individualism; in the U.S.,
individualism was negatively related to
agreeableness, conscientiousness, civility, and
refinement; in the Philippines, individualism was
negatively correlated with gregariousness.
Over time, new work entrants from low
uncertainty avoidance countries had increased
work centrality; new work entrants from highly
masculine countries began their careers with
higher work centrality than those from more
feminine countries (although this hypothesis was
only partially supported).
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Hui &
Villareal
(1989)
Countries/
Sample
49 and 160
undergraduates
in Hong Kong
and the U.S.,
respectively
Method
Variables and Measures
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism;
(Hui, 1988); preference for
autonomy, deference,
affiliation, succorance, and
nurturance; need for
abasement; social recognition
Theories/
Models
none
James (1993)
50 U.S.
undergraduates
Survey
responses to
reading essay
Individualism-Collectivism,
(Scott, 1965)o; attitudes
toward new technology;
information retention
Theory of
reasoned
action; selfsystem theory
Kirkman &
Shapiro
(2000)
618 line-level
U.S. insurance
company
employees
491 selfmanaging work
team employees
in Belgium,
Finland, the
Philippines and
the U.S.
Survey
Collectivism (Maznevski et
al., 2003)p; receptivity to
team-based rewards
none
Survey
Collectivism; Power
Distance (Maznevski et al.,
2003); job satisfaction;
organizational commitment;
resistance to teams and selfmanagement
none
Kirkman &
Shapiro
(2001a)
Key Findings
In both countries, collectivism was positively
related to preferences for affiliation, succorance,
and nurturance and low need for autonomy. In
Hong Kong, collectivism was negatively related
to preference for autonomy, and deference. In the
U.S., individualism was positively related to a
high need for social recognition and a low need
for abasement.
Collectivists showed more positive attitudes
toward new technology and retained more
information about it when a presentation
contained a group-relevance theme; individualists
showed more positive individual attitudes when
presentation contained a self-relevance theme.
Collectivism was positively related to receptivity
to team-based rewards.
Resistance to teams fully mediated the
relationship that collectivism had with job
satisfaction and organizational commitment;
resistance to self-management partially mediated
the relationship between power distance and
organizational commitment; and individualismcollectivism failed to fully mediate country
effects.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Kwan et al.
(1997)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 378
undergraduates
in Hong Kong
and the U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Survey
Individualism and
Collectivism (independent
and interdependent selfconstrual; Singelis, 1994);
self-esteem; relationship
harmony; life satisfaction
Theories/
Models
none
Lee et al.
(2000a)
A total of 540
U.S. and 512
Hong Kong
undergraduates
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(independent and
interdependent selfconstrual; Singelis, 1994);
promotion versus prevention
focus
Regulatory
focus theory
Leung (1987)
96
undergraduates
and 72 nonstudents in both
Hong Kong and
the U.S.
Experiment
Collectivism (Hui, 1984)q;
negotiation preferences;
rationales behind preferences
for certain negotiation
strategies
none
Key Findings
U.S. undergraduates were significantly more
individualistic (i.e., higher independent selfconstrual) and less collectivistic (i.e., lower
interdependent self-construal) than Hong Kong
undergraduates; self-esteem mediated the
relationship that individualism had with life
satisfaction and relationship harmony mediated
the relationship between collectivism and life
satisfaction (found in both Hong Kong and U.S.
samples).
U.S. subjects were significantly higher on
individualism (i.e., independent self-construal)
and lower on collectivism (i.e., interdependent
self-construal) than Hong Kong subjects;
individualists were attuned toward a promotion
focus, seeing potential gains as important and
responding to events with relatively greater
happiness or dejection, whereas collectivists were
attuned toward a more prevention focus, seeing
potential losses as more important and responding
to events with relatively greater relaxation or
anxiety.
Hong Kong subjects were significantly more
collectivistic than U.S. subjects; HK subjects
preferred bargaining and mediation more than
U.S. subjects due their beliefs that these strategies
helped reduce animosity between disputants.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Leung (1988)
Leung &
Iwawaki
(1988)
Mann et al.
(1985)
McCleanParks et al.
(1999)
Countries/
Sample
Theories/
Models
Procedural
justice;
expectancy
theory
Method
Variables and Measures
96
undergraduates
and 72 nonstudents in both
Hong Kong and
the U.S.
A total of 500
undergraduates
in Japan, South
Korea, and the
U.S.
Experiment
Collectivism (Hui, 1984);
likelihood of suing; stranger
versus friend
Experiment
Collectivism (Hui, 1984);
allocator generosity; equity
versus equality norms; low
versus high inputs; friends
versus strangers
Equity theory
A total of over
300 primary
schoolchildren
in Australia and
Japan
A total of 63
MBAs in
Singapore and
the U.S.
Experiment
Collectivism (study specific
measure); reward allocation
decision rules
Decision
making rules
Experiment
Individualism (Triandis et
al., 1988); resource
allocation; resource recovery;
time duration of allocation
and recovery; equity versus
equality norms
Prospect
theory; social
exchange
theory;
resource
recovery rules
Key Findings
Hong Kong subjects were more likely to sue a
stranger than were U.S. subjects; collectivism was
associated with higher likelihood of suing when
dispute was between strangers but not between
friends.
Japanese and U.S. subjects did not significantly
differ on collectivism; generous allocators were
better liked in all three countries and were rated as
fairer than less generous allocators in Japan and
the U.S.; low-input Japanese and Korean subjects
did not follow the equity norm more closely than
did U.S. subjects nor did they allocate more
equally with friends and more equitably with
strangers; collectivism was positively related to
the use of the equality rule and negatively to the
use of the equity rule.
Japanese subjects were significantly more
collectivistic than Australian subjects; Japanese
subjects were more likely to follow “equal-say”
rules while Australians used more “self-interest”
rules in actual game experiments.
U.S. subjects were, on average, more
individualistic than Singaporean subjects;
individualists took more time to recover resources
than collectivists while the opposite was true for
resource allocation; in both cultures, equity rules
were used more often when allocating a resource
while equality rules were used more often when
recovering resources.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Mitchell et al.
(2000)d
Moorman &
Blakely
(1995)
Morris et al.
(1998)
Countries/
Sample
677 business
professionals
and new venture
creators in
Canada, the
U.S., Mexico,
China, Japan,
Australia, and
Chile
155 employees
in a U.S.
financial
services
organization
132 U.S., 100
PRC, 160
Indian, 44
Filipino MBA
students
Theories/
Models
Social
cognition
theory; expert
information
processing
theory
Method
Variables and Measures
Archival and
Survey
Individualism; Power
Distance (both assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); willingness
scripts; ability scripts;
arrangements scripts; new
venture creation decisions
Survey
Collectivism (values, norms,
beliefs; Wagner & Moch,
1986); organizational
citizenship behavior
none
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(Triandis et al., 1988);
cultural value inventory
(Schwartz, 1994); conflict
handling styles
Thomas &
Kilmann’s
(1974)r
conflict mode
framework;
need for
achievement
Key Findings
Individualism and power distance were positively
related to “ability” scripts (i.e., given resources,
the person is able to carry out a goal);
individualism was positively related to
“willingness” scripts (i.e., given resources, the
person will want to carry out a goal); and the
relationship between “arrangements” scripts (i.e.,
access to required materials) and the venture
creation decision was stronger for individualists
rather than collectivists.
Collectivism was positively related to multiple
dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior
when controlling for procedural justice.
The individualism-collectivism measure was
unreliable and could not be used in analyses;
Chinese managers preferred an avoiding style,
while U.S. managers preferred a competing style
of handling conflict; self-enhancement
(achievement) fully mediated the effects of
country on conflict style for U.S. managers;
societal conservatism (conformity) fully mediated
the effects of country on conflict style for Chinese
managers.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
13
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Nooteboom et
al. (1997)
Countries/
Sample
97 transaction
partners in firmsupplier
alliances in the
Netherlands
Method
Variables and Measures
Survey
Uncertainty Avoidance
(study specific measure);
perceived probability of
potential loss by transaction
partners
Theories/
Models
Transaction
cost
economics;
social
exchange
theory;
resource
dependency
theory;
relational
contract theory
Social identity
theory
Oyserman
(1993)
A total of 1,021
undergraduates
of various
religious
backgrounds in
Israel
Survey
Individualism; Collectivism
(both from study specific
measures); focus on private
or public aspects of self; selfconcept; centrality of social
identities to self-definition;
perceptions of intergroup
conflict
Oyserman et
al. (1998)
93 Jewish
American and
80 Asian and
Asian American
undergraduates
Survey
Collectivism; Individualism
(both assessed from
Oyserman, 1993); social
obligation; cultural identity;
personal goal importance
Social identity
theory; social
categorization
theory
Ozawa et al.
(1996)
58 Japanese and
53 U.S.
undergraduates
Survey
Individualism (self-construal;
Singelis et al., 1995); change
to an affirmative action
program
none
Key Findings
Uncertainty avoidance was negatively related to
the probability of a potential loss by transaction
partners but unrelated to the actual size of loss.
Arabs were significantly higher in both
individualism and collectivism compared to
Israelis; individualism was positively related to
focusing on private aspects of the self and
conceptualizing the self in terms of distinctions
between the self and others; collectivism (and
individualism) was positively related to centrality
of social identities to self-definition, a focus on
public aspects of the self, and heightened
perception of intergroup conflict.
Collectivism was positively associated with social
obligation; individualism reduced social
obligation when participants’ cultural identity was
salient and when social obligation competed with
important personal goals; collectivism increased
obligation to ingroups when cultural identity was
salient.
U.S. subjects were significantly more
individualistic than Japanese; U.S. subjects
perceived a change to affirmative action less
favorably and as less fair than Japanese subjects.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
14
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Pearson &
Stephan
(1998)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 419
undergraduates
in Brazil and the
U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
Dual-concern
model
Experiment
Individualism (Triandis et
al., 1988); negotiation tactics
Collectivism (Earley, 1989;
Wagner & Moch, 1986);
charismatic leadership; work
unit performance; job
satisfaction; satisfaction with
leader; leader effectiveness
Horizontal and Vertical
Individualism and
Collectivism (Singelis et al.,
1995); cooperation; single
group and intergroup
dilemma
Theory of
mechanistic
and organic
structures;
charismatic
leadership
Fiske’s (1990)s
universal
social
relationship
framework
Collectivism (Erez & Earley,
1993; Wagner, 1995)t; need
for achievement; need for
security; human resource
practice preferences
none
Pillai &
Meindl (1998)
463
subordinates
and 133
supervisors in
the U.S.
Survey
Probst et al.
(1999)
165 U.S.
undergraduates
Experiment
Ramamoorthy
& Carroll
(1998)
342 U.S.
undergraduates
Survey
Key Findings
Brazilians scored significantly lower on
individualism than did U.S. subjects; Brazilians
preferred accommodation, collaboration, and
withdrawal tactics more than did U.S. subjects;
U.S. subjects preferred competition more than
Brazilians; U.S. subjects preferred “high concern
for self” tactics while Brazilians preferred “high
concern for others” tactics; Brazilians made
ingroup-outgroup distinctions while U.S. subjects
did not.
Collectivism was positively associated with the
level of charismatic leadership, which in turn, was
associated with higher supervisory ratings of work
unit performance, job satisfaction, satisfaction
with the leader, and leader effectiveness.
Type of social dilemma (i.e., single group vs.
intergroup) moderated the main effect relationship
between individualism-collectivism and
cooperation such that vertical individualists were
least cooperative in the single-group dilemma but
were more cooperative in the intergroup dilemma;
vertical collectivists were most cooperative in the
single group dilemma but were less cooperative in
the intergroup dilemma.
Controlling for need for achievement and security,
collectivism was negatively related to use of
selection tests, formal appraisal practices, and
desire for promotions based on merit and
positively related to preference for equality-based
rewards and job security.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
15
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Satterwhite et
al. (2000)
Steensma et
al. (2000a)
Tafarodi et al.
(1999)
Countries/
Sample
181 U.S., 291
Taiwanese, and
152 Japanese
undergraduates
484
entrepreneurs
from Australia,
Finland, Greece,
Indonesia,
Mexico,
Norway, and
Sweden
94 British and
92 Malaysian
undergraduates
in Wales
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(Triandis et al., 1988);
similarity judgments; ingroup/out-group distinction
Survey
Individualism; Uncertainty
Avoidance; Masculinity (all
assessed using country scores
from Hofstede, 1980);
acceptance of cooperative
strategies; importance of
contractual safeguards and
partner commonality
Individualism-Collectivism
(Hui, 1988); self-esteem
Survey
Theories/
Models
Tversky’s
(1977)u
contrast model
none
none
Key Findings
U.S. subjects were significantly more
individualistic than either Taiwanese or Japanese
subjects (who did not differ); U.S. subjects
viewed the in-group as more similar to themselves
relative to the Taiwanese and Japanese subjects
(who did not differ); U.S. and Taiwanese subjects
(who did not differ) perceived the out-group as
more similar to themselves relative to the
Japanese subjects.
Entrepreneurs viewed cooperative strategies with
other firms as more acceptable when they were
lower in individualism and masculinity, but higher
in uncertainty avoidance; contractual safeguards
were preferred more by those higher in
individualism and uncertainty avoidance; partner
commonality was positively linked to uncertainty
avoidance.
Factor analyzed four dimensions of individualismcollectivism: deference to the direction of
relatives, connectedness to parents, confiding in
others, and instrumental interdependence; in both
countries, “deference” and “connectedness”
dimensions were positively related to the selfliking dimension of self-esteem but negatively to
the self-competence dimension; and
individualism-collectivism fully mediated country
of origin effects.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
16
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Countries/
Sample
Method
Variables and Measures
Collectivism (Maznevski et
al., 1997)v; assessments of
group processes; group
receptiveness; cultural
distance
Theories/
Models
Similarityattraction
paradigm;
social identity
theory
Thomas
(1999)
77
undergraduates
from 14
countries in
New Zealand
Experiment
Thomas & Au
(2002)
111 New
Zealand and 107
Hong Kong
executive
education
participants
A total of 104
businesspeople
from Japan,
Germany, and
the U.S.
Survey
Horizontal Individualism;
Vertical Collectivism
(Singelis et al., 1995); exit,
voice, loyalty, and neglect;
job satisfaction; quality of
job alternatives
Dyad conflict Individualism (Earley, 1993);
simulation
hierarchy (Erez & Earley,
1987); polychronicity;
explicit contracting; various
aspects of conflict
management
None
94 U.S. and 120
Hong Kong
business
students
Dyad conflict Collectivism (i.e., selfsimulation
transcendence; Schwartz,
1994); self-direction;
hierarchy; tradition; various
conflict management norms;
conflict outcomes
Social identity
theory
Tinsley (2001)
Tinsley &
Brett (2001)
Conflict
resolution
strategies
Key Findings
Asian respondents were significantly higher on
collectivism than New Zealanders and Europeans;
collectivism was positively related to participants’
positive assessments of group process but not to
receptiveness; participants’ cultural distance on
collectivism was positively related to group
receptiveness but not to assessments of group
process.
Horizontal individualism was positively related to
voice; vertical collectivism was positively related
to neglect and negatively related to loyalty.
Japanese respondents were significantly lower on
individualism than German or U.S. respondents
(who did not differ); individualism was positively
related to the use of interest strategies and
negatively related to the use of power strategies;
and individualism-collectivism and power
distance fully mediated country of origin effects.
U.S. participants were significantly more selfdirected, less hierarchical, and less traditionbound than Hong Kong subjects; U.S. participants
placed greater emphasis on discussing interests
and synthesizing multiple interests than did Hong
Kong participants; American dyads were
significantly more likely to reach an integrative
outcome than were Hong Kong dyads;
collectivism did not predict cultural differences in
outcomes; and individualism-collectivism failed
to fully mediate country effects.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
17
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Tinsley &
Pillutla (1998)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 231
undergraduates
in Hong Kong
and the U.S.
Method
Experiment
Variables and Measures
Individualism (i.e., selfenhancement; Schwartz,
1994); Collectivism (i.e.,
self-transcendence;
Schwartz, 1994); problem
solving strategies
Collectivism (Hui, 1988; Hui
& Villareal, 1989; Craig &
Tower, 1993)w; allocator
generosity; equity versus
equality norms; low versus
high inputs; friends versus
strangers
Theories/
Models
Social
comparison
processes
Tower et al.
(1997)
80 students each
in England and
Russia
Experiment
Triandis et al.
(1988)
300 U.S.
undergraduates
Survey
Individualism (Hui &
Triandis, 1986; Hui, 1984)x
Social
categorization
theory; need
for
achievement
353 student and
non-student
subjects in
Japan, Puerto
Rico, and the
U.S
Survey
Collectivism (Triandis et al.,
1985)y; conformity; ingroup
influence; concern for
ingroup members; extent of
subordination of own needs
Greenwald’s
(1982)z model
of egoinvolvement
and selfawareness
Study 1
Study 2
Equity theory;
reward
allocation
rules
Key Findings
Hong Kong subjects were significantly more
collectivistic (self-transcendent) and less
individualistic (self-enhanced) than U.S. subjects;
U.S. subjects rated self-interested and joint
problem solving as more appropriate than Hong
Kong subjects.
Russian subjects were significantly more
collectivistic than English; English subjects
allocated more reward to themselves than did
Russians; English low performers allocated more
to themselves than did Russian low performers;
Russians were more generous when their coworker was a friend while Russian high
performers allocated more to themselves when
their co-worker was a stranger; friendship status
was irrelevant to the British.
A measure of individualism was factor analyzed
and generated six dimensions: more concern for
one’s own goals than the ingroup’s goals; less
attention to the views of ingroups; self-reliance
with competition; detachment from ingroups;
deciding on one’s own rather than asking for
others’ views; and less general concern for an
ingroup.
Contrary to expectations, conventional attitudes
associated with collectivists (e.g., they conform
more, they see themselves as always under the
influence of ingroups, they show more concern for
their ingroup members, and they subordinate their
needs to their ingroups) were not true of Japanese
or Puerto Rican respondents.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
18
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Study 3
Countries/
Sample
100 subjects
each in Puerto
Rico and the
U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Survey
Collectivism (Triandis et al.,
1985); social support;
loneliness; competition;
ingroup versus outgroup
Van Dyne et
al. (2000)
183 matchedpair responses
of cooperative
housing
residents in the
U.S.
Survey
Collectivism (Erez & Earley,
1987); organizational
citizenship behavior;
organization-based selfesteem
WadeBenzoni et al.
(2002)
256 U.S. MBAs
and 128
Japanese
undergraduates
Four-party
negotiation
simulation
Wojciszke
(1997)
89
undergraduate
students in
Poland
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(independent and
interdependent selfconstrual; Markus &
Kitayama, 1994; Schwartz,
1994)bb; cooperation;
equality; egocentrism; and
expectations of others’
behavior
Rokeach Value Survey
(Rokeach, 1973)cc;
competence, morality
Theories/
Models
Kagan and
Levi’s (1974)aa
cybernetic
model
Social
exchange
theory;
cognitive
consistency
theory;
cultural selfrepresentation
theory
Social identity
theory
Social
cognition;
social values
orientation
Key Findings
In both countries, collectivism correlated
positively with social support and negatively with
loneliness; U.S. respondents see competition as
occurring between individuals, while Puerto Rican
respondents view competition as occurring more
between in-/out-groups.
Collectivism was positively related to
organizational citizenship behavior but
organization-based self-esteem fully mediated this
relationship.
Japanese participants were significantly less
individualistic than U.S. participants; U.S.
participants were less cooperative, reached fewer
equal solutions, and expected others to be less
cooperative than their Japanese counterparts.
The eight individualistic values on the survey
were more strongly related to ratings of
competence than to morality and were more
strongly related to ratings of self-profitability than
other-profitability (an opposite pattern emerged
for the eight collectivistic values).
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
19
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Yamaguchi et
al. (1995)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 929
undergraduates
in Japan, South
Korea, and the
U.S.
Method
Survey
Variables and Measures
Collectivism (Yamaguchi,
1994)dd; affiliative tendency;
sensitivity to rejection; need
for uniqueness
Theories/
Models
none
Key Findings
South Korea was significantly more collectivistic
than Japan which was, in turn, significantly more
collectivistic than the U.S.; in all three countries,
collectivism was positively related to affiliative
tendency and sensitivity to rejection and
negatively related to need for uniqueness.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Group/Organization Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Cox et al.
(1991)
Eby &
Dobbins
(1997)ff
Elron (1997)
Kirkman &
Shapiro
(2001b)
Countries/
Sample
136
undergraduates
in 17 ethnically
diverse groups
and 16 allAnglo groups in
the U.S.
148
undergraduate
students in 33
teams in the
U.S.
121 intact top
management
teams in
different foreign
subsidiaries of
U.S. companies
491 employees
in 81 selfmanaging work
teams in
Belgium,
Finland, the
Philippines, and
the U.S.
Method
Experiment
Variables and Measures
Collectivism (Triandis et al.,
1986; Hui, 1988)ee;
cooperative behavior
Theories/
Models
none
Key Findings
Ethnically diverse groups (i.e., those higher in
collectivism) behaved more cooperatively than
all- Anglo groups (i.e., those lower in
collectivism). These differences increased when
situational cues favored cooperation.
ComputerCollectivism (Wagner and
simulated
Moch, 1986); team
strategy game cooperation; team
performance
Expectancy
theory; need
for affiliation
Team collectivistic orientation was positively
related to team cooperation, which mediated the
relationship between collectivism and team
performance.
Survey
Collectivism, Power
Distance, Uncertainty
Avoidance, and MasculinityFemininity (all assessed
from country scores in
Hofstede, 1980); team and
subsidiary performance;
issue-based conflict
Upper
echelons
paradigm
Survey
Collectivism (Maznevski et
al., 2003); resistance to
teams; team cooperation,
empowerment, and
productivity
none
Overall top management team heterogeneity on
culture was positively related to team performance
and issue-based conflict; issue based conflict was,
in turn, negatively related to team performance;
heterogeneity on both individualism-collectivism
and masculinity-femininity was positively related
to team performance; heterogeneity in uncertainty
avoidance was positively related to issue-based
conflict.
Resistance to teams mediated the positive
relationships that collectivism had with team
cooperation, empowerment, and productivity.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Group/Organization Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Morris et al.
(1993)
Morris et al.
(1994)
Oetzel (1998)
Pillai &
Meindl
(1998)ii
Countries/
Sample
252 senior
marketing
executives from
84 U.S.
manufacturing
firms
252 senior
marketing
executives from
84 U.S.
manufacturing
firms; 225
managers of
various
functions in
South Africa; 25
senior HR
executives in
Portugal
10 EuropeanAmerican
groups and 10
JapaneseAmerican
groups
101 intact work
groups in the
U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
Social loafing
phenomenon
Key Findings
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(Kilmann & Saxton, 1983;
Hofstede, 1980; Earley,
1989)gg; firm-level
entrepreneurial behavior
Individualism-collectivism had a curvilinear
relationship with entrepreneurial behavior such
that at either extreme, entrepreneurial behavior
suffers.
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(Kilmann & Saxton, 1983;
Hofstede, 1980; Earley,
1989); firm-level
entrepreneurial behavior
Social loafing
phenomenon
Individualism-collectivism had a curvilinear
relationship with entrepreneurial behavior such
that at either extreme, entrepreneurial behavior
suffers (found in South African and U.S. data but
not in Portuguese data).
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism,
(Gudykunst et al., 1996)hh;
cooperation; competition;
conflict
Effective
decision
making theory
The more individualistic European-American
groups had a greater number of conflicts, fewer
cooperating tactics, and more competing tactics
than the more collectivistic Japanese-American
groups.
Survey
Collectivism (Earley, 1989;
Wagner & Moch, 1986);
charismatic leadership
Theory of
mechanistic
and organic
structures;
charismatic
leadership
Work group collectivism was positively
associated with the emergence of charismatic
leadership.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Anand &
Delios (1997)
Arora &
Fosfuri (2000)
Barkema et al.
(1996)
Barkema et al.
(1997)
Countries/
Sample
1,609 Japanese
foreign direct
investments
from 1994
database
153 North
American,
Japanese, and
Western
European
chemical firms
engaging in
licensing or
wholly owned
subsidiaries
between 19811991
Foreign
expansions of
13 non-financial
Dutch firms
between 1966
and 1988
International
joint ventures in
25 large Dutch
firms from 1966
to 1994
Method
Archival
Archival
Variables and Measures
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); choice of
foreign entry mode;
subsidiary performance
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); technology
licensing or wholly owned
subsidiaries
Theories/
Models
Uppsala stage
model;
transaction cost
economics
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased (control variable), Japanese firms were
less likely to initiate joint ventures versus
greenfields.
Transaction cost As the overall cultural distance between countries
economics;
increased, so did preferences for technology
behavioral
licensing rather than wholly owned subsidiaries.
theory of the
firm; “syncretic”
theory of the
entry mode
choice
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); foreign
venture longevity
Behavioral
theory of the
firm; Uppsala
stage model
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, foreign venture longevity decreased.
Survey
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); foreign joint
venture longevity
Organizational
learning theory;
Uppsala stage
model
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, foreign joint venture longevity
decreased.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Barkema &
Vermeulen
(1997)
Barkema &
Vermeulen
(1998)
Benito &
Gripsrud
(1992)
Brouthers &
Brouthers
(2000)
Countries/
Sample
25 Dutch
companies
engaged in 828
international
joint ventures
from 1966 to
1994
25 Dutch
companies
engaged in 829
international
joint ventures
from 1966 to
1994
Norwegian
companies
foreign direct
investments in
manufacturing
in 1970s until
1982
136 Japanese
greenfield
investments and
acquisitions in
Europe
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
none
Key Findings
Archival
Overall cultural distance
(Kogut & Singh, 1988) and
on specific value
dimensions based on
country scores from
Hofstede; survival rate of
international joint ventures
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); mode of
foreign entry (acquisition or
start-up, partially or
wholly-owned)
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); foreign direct
investment location
decisions
Eclectic theory
(Dunning,
1988)jj;
organizational
learning
Economic
theory of the
MNE; Uppsala
stage model
There was no effect of overall cultural distance on
initial or subsequent foreign direct investment
decisions.
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); country
scores on Hofstede’s
cultural value dimensions;
choice between acquisitions
or greenfields
Transaction cost
economics;
institutional
theory
There was no effect of overall cultural distance on
the choice between acquisitions or greenfields;
uncertainty avoidance was positively related to
preference for greenfield startup ventures rather
than acquisitions.
Archival
Archival
Overall cultural distance was negatively related to
the survival rate of international joint ventures;
cultural distance scores on uncertainty avoidance
and long-term orientation (and, to a lesser extent,
masculinity) had negative effects on survival rate
of joint ventures (individualism and power
distance were unrelated); effects of cultural
distance were stable over time.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased (control variable), firms preferred
partially owned start-ups or acquisitions versus
wholly owned acquisitions.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Brouthers &
Brouthers
(2001)
Chang &
Rosenzweig
(2001)
Datta & Puia
(1995)
Diener &
Diener (1995)
Countries/
Sample
231 firms in the
Netherlands,
Germany,
Britain, and the
U.S. doing
business in five
central and
eastern
European
countries
119 firms
making foreign
direct
investments into
the U.S. from
1975-1992
Completed U.S.
cross-border
acquisitions
between 1978
and 1990
Over 13,000
undergraduates
in 31 countries
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
Transaction cost
economics
Survey
Overall cultural distance
(Morosini et al., 1998) and
on specific value
dimensions based on
country scores from
Hofstede; investment risk;
entry mode choice
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988) supplemented
by Ronen and Shenkar’s
(1985)kk country clusters;
entry mode choice
Transaction cost
economics;
knowledgebased theory of
the firm
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); shareholder
wealth
Individualism-Collectivism
(country ratings by
Triandis, personal
communication, 1992);
wealth; cultural
heterogeneity
Eclectic theory
(Dunning, 1988)
Archival and
Survey
Maslow’s
hierarchy of
needs
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, firms preferred joint venture modes of
entry rather than full control modes; when
analyzed separately, cultural distance on
individualism, power distance, uncertainty
avoidance, and masculinity were positively
related to the use of joint ventures; however, firms
entering culturally distant, high risk investment
markets prefer wholly owned entry modes.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, preferences for greenfield and joint
venture entry increased (with joint ventures
preferred over greenfield) and preference for
acquisition entry decreased; the effects of cultural
distance decreased after initial entry; country
cluster analysis allowed for more fine-grained
analyses.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, shareholder wealth in those firms
making cross-border acquisitions decreased as a
result of the acquisition.
Individualism was positively correlated with
national wealth but negatively with cultural
heterogeneity.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
25
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Diener et al.
(1995)
Countries/
Sample
Over 120,000
undergraduate
students in 55
countries
Survey
Erramilli
(1991)
151 U.S. service
firms
Archival and
Survey
Erramilli
(1996)
337 subsidiaries
belonging to
U.S. and
European
advertising
firms
Archival
Author(s)
Method
Variables and Measures
Individualism-Collectivism
(country scores, Hofstede;
1980; country ratings by
Triandis, personal
communication, 1992);
wealth; human rights;
growth of wealth; income
social comparison;
equality; cultural
heterogeneity
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); entry mode
(full versus shared control);
pre-entry international
experience; size
Hofstede’s cultural value
dimensions (assessed using
country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); overall
cultural distance based on
country scores from
Hofstede (Kogut & Singh,
1988); level of ownership
in foreign subsidiaries
Theories/
Models
Maslow’s
hierarchy of
needs; social
comparison
After controlling for income, human rights, social
equality, and heterogeneity, only individualism
was positively related to the subjective well being
of nations.
Uppsala stage
model;
transaction cost
economics
As the pre-entry international experience of a firm
increased, so did the frequency of entering
markets that are cultural dissimilar from the host
country.
none
While controlling for overall cultural distance, the
greater the power distance and uncertainty
avoidance characterizing a firm’s home country,
the more that firm sought majority ownership in
foreign subsidiaries; overall cultural distance was
not related.
Key Findings
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
26
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Erramilli et al.
(1997)
Countries/
Sample
177 Korean
multinational
company
subsidiaries
Method
Archival
Erramilli et al.
(2002)
139 hotel
managers
representing 46
different
countries
Survey
Franke et al.
(1991)
Data from 18
countries
common to
Hofstede (1980)
and the Chinese
Culture
Connection
(1987)
75 joint ventures
formed by 94
British firms
between 1980
and 1998
Archival
Glaister &
Buckley
(1999)
Archival and
Survey
Variables and Measures
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); subsidiary
ownership preferences
(minority joint venture,
equal joint venture,
majority joint venture, sole
venture)
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); franchising
and management-service
contracts
Hofstede’s cultural value
dimensions (assessed using
country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); economic
growth
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); subjective
measures of performance
Theories/
Models
Eclectic theory
(Dunning, 1988)
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, Korean firms were more likely to
choose higher equity ventures.
Organizational
capability
perspective
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the propensity to choose a
management-service contract, rather than
franchising, increased.
none
Confucian dynamism was a strong predictor of
economic growth for the periods 1965-1980 and
1980-1987; individualism was also a strong
negative predictor of growth but only for the first
time period.
Transaction cost
economics
There was no effect of overall cultural distance on
subjective assessments of joint venture
performance.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
27
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Gomez-Mejia
& Palich
(1997)
Gong et al.
(2001)
Habib &
Zurawicki
(2002)
Hakanson &
Nobel (2001)
Countries/
Sample
Culturallyrelated
international
diversification
in Fortune 500
firms
265 CEOs of
international
joint ventures in
the PRC
Three-year
bilaterial foreign
direct
investment data
representing 89
different
countries
obtained from
the International
Monetary Fund
data base in
2002
75 foreign
research and
development
units based in
Swedish
multinationals
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
Transaction
costs
economics;
agency theory
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); firm
performance
Survey
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (1980); role
ambiguity; role conflict;
IJV performance
Transaction cost
economics; role
theory
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); foreign direct
investment
Eclectic theory
(Dunning, 1988)
Survey
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); reverse
technology transfer;
integration; local
embeddedness; innovation
Embeddedness;
Institutionalizati
on theory
Key Findings
There was no effect of overall cultural distance on
firm performance.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the level of role conflict and role
ambiguity decreased; cultural distance and role
conflict were also positively related to CEO
subjective ratings of international joint venture
performance.
There was no effect of overall cultural distance on
amount of foreign direct investment.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, embeddedness and integration
decreased especially for greenfield sites compared
to acquisitions; the probability of reverse transfer
was positively related to the innovativeness and
level of integration.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
28
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Harzing
(2002)
Hennart &
Larimo (1998)
House et al.
(1999)
Husted (1999)
Countries/
Sample
287 subsidiaries
of multinational
companies
located in 22
countries
Method
Survey
28 joint ventures
between two
Japanese firms
and 10 between
two Finnish
firms
Middle
managers in 54
countries
Archival
40 countries
Archival
Survey
Theories/
Models
Overall cultural distance
International
based on country scores
strategy models;
from Hofstede (Kogut &
institutional
Singh, 1988); entry mode
theory;
(greenfield vs. acquisition); integration/
control mechanisms;
responsiveness
presence of expatriates;
framework
local responsiveness
(Prahalad &
Doz, 1987)ll
Overall cultural distance
“National
based on country scores
character”
from Hofstede (Kogut &
theory of
Singh, 1988); preferences
subsidiary
for ownership
ownership;
transaction costs
Collectivism; Power
Implicit
Distance; Uncertainty
leadership
Avoidance (GLOBE - study theory;
specific measures); styles
McClelland’s
of leadership
motivation
theory;
structural
contingency
theory of
organizational
form
Hofstede’s cultural value
Transaction cost
dimensions (using country
economics;
scores from Hofstede,
game theory
1980); corruption
Variables and Measures
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased (control variable), acquisitions were less
likely.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, shared-equity ventures were preferred
over wholly-owned subsidiaries.
Collectivism was positively associated with teamoriented leadership and both power distance and
uncertainty avoidance were negatively associated
with participative leadership.
Power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and
masculinity were positively related to national
levels of corruption.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
29
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Jones &
Teegen (2001)
Kallunki et al.
(2001)
Countries/
Sample
U.S.
multinational
corporation
R&D
investment in 39
countries
79 foreign direct
investments
made by 19
Finnish firms
from 1985-1996
Kashlak et al. Alliances and
(1998)
contracts
between U.S.
firms in the
telecommunicati
ons industry and
firms in 109
other countries
from 1982 to
1993
Kim & Hwang 96 U.S.-based
(1992)
senior-level
managers of
international
operations
Method
Archival
Archival
Survey
Survey
Variables and Measures
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988);
Individualism, Power
Distance, Uncertainty
Avoidance, MasculinityFemininity (all assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); foreign
R&D investment of U.S.
firms
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); abnormal
returns (stock price)
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); structural
changes in alliances and
contracts
Perceived cultural distance
(study specific measure);
entry mode (licensing, joint
venture, wholly owned
subsidiary)
Theories/
Models
Theory of
foreign direct
investment
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, U.S. R&D investment abroad
decreased; investment was also positively related
to individualism and negatively related to power
distance and uncertainty avoidance; there were no
significant relationships involving masculinityfemininity; when considered together, only
individualism was a significant predictor of U.S.
R&D investment abroad.
Transaction cost
economics
There were no effects of overall cultural distance
on abnormal returns after foreign direct
investments were made.
Transaction cost
economics;
alliance theory
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, greater structural changes in alliances
and contracts took place.
Transaction cost
economics
As the perceived cultural distance between the
U.S. and foreign country increased, firms tended
to avoid wholly owned subsidiaries or joint
venturing in pursuit of the lower resource
commitment of licensing.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
30
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Kogut &
Singh (1988)
Krug & Nigh
(1998)
Li &
Guisinger
(1991)
Li &
Guisinger
(1992)
Countries/
Sample
Data on U.S.
joint ventures,
acquisitions, and
greenfields from
1981 to 1985
Method
Archival
103 U.S.
companies
acquired by
foreign firms
between 1986
and 1989
Data on 85
foreigncontrolled
business failures
in the U.S.
Archival
Published data
on 158 large
service
multinational
enterprises
(MNEs) from
1976-1980 and
168 MNEs from
1980-1986 (six
countries)
Archival
Archival
Variables and Measures
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (study
specific measure based on
Hofstede, 1980); country
scores on Hofstede’s
cultural value dimensions
(Hofstede, 1980);
investment strategy choice
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); top
management departure
rates
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); foreign
controlled business failures
in the U.S.
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); U.S. foreign
direct investment
Theories/
Models
Transaction cost
economics;
institutional
theory
Corporate
governance
theory;
transaction cost
economics
Eclectic theory
(Dunning,
1988);
transaction cost
economics
Eclectic theory
(Dunning,
1988);
internationalizat
ion theory;
oligopolistic
reaction
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the tendency to choose a joint venture
over an acquisition increased; the level of
uncertainty avoidance in the home country was
positively related to the tendency to use joint
ventures over greenfields or acquisitions.
As the overall cultural distance between the U.S.
and other countries increased, the greater were the
level of post-acquisition top management
departures; both foreign and U.S. company
international experience moderated (weakened)
the cultural distance-departure relationship.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the failure rate of U.S. affiliates whose
partners came from culturally dissimilar countries
was higher.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the amount of U.S. foreign direct
investment decreased.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
31
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Loree &
Guisinger
(1995)
Luo (2001a)
Luo (2001b)
Luo (2002)
Countries/
Method
Sample
U.S. Department Archival
of Commerce’s
Benchmark
Surveys in 1977
and 1982
282
Archival and
international
Survey
cooperative
ventures (ICVs)
in the PRC
76 wholly
owned
subsidiaries and
92 foreigndominated
equity joint
ventures in the
PRC
255
international
equity
manufacturing
joint ventures
originating in
the PRC
Survey
Archival and
Survey
Variables and Measures
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); U.S. FDI
Theories/
Models
none
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); personal
attachment; ICV
performance
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); local
responsiveness;
environmental complexity
Embeddedness;
transaction cost
economics;
social exchange
theory
Perceived cultural distance
between PRC and other
countries (study specific
measure); IJV sales and
return on investment
Transaction cost
economics;
social capital;
embeddedness
Global
integration-local
responsiveness
paradigm;
transaction cost
economics
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the amount of U.S. foreign direct
investment decreased.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the level of personal attachment
between ICV managers decreased; the level of
personal attachment between ICV managers was
positively related to ICV return on investment and
process performance.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, local responsiveness decreased;
environmental complexity was also positively
related to local responsiveness.
As the perceived cultural distance between the
PRC and other countries increased (control
variable), sales per asset resulting from the IJV
decreased (return on investment is unaffected).
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
32
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Luo & Park
(2001)
Luo & Peng
(1999)
Countries/
Sample
55 wholly
owned
subsidiaries, 49
equity joint
ventures, and 9
contractual joint
ventures in the
PRC
108 upper
managers of
MNE subunits
in the PRC
Method
Variables and Measures
Archival and
Survey
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); subsidiary
strategic orientation;
environmental dimensions;
subsidiary performance
Survey
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); international
expansion performance
Overall cultural distance
(Euclidean distance
measure using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); strength of both
instrumental and expressive
network ties
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); abnormal
return (difference of stock
market return associated
with JV announcement and
firm’s normal return)
Manev &
Stevenson
(2001)
203 managers in
a single UKbased
multinational
enterprise
Survey
Merchant &
Schendel
(2000)
101 U.S. firm
international
joint venture
formation
announcements
Archival
Theories/
Models
Miles and
Snow’s
(1978)mm
strategy
typology;
institutional
theory
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased (control variable), subsidiary return on
assets decreased; analyzer strategy was positively
related to multiple performance indicators.
Organizational
learning;
Uppsala model;
eclectic theory;
resource
dependency
Embeddedness;
Social network
theory
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, international expansion performance
decreased.
Transaction cost
economics;
institutional
theory
There was no effect of overall cultural distance on
abnormal return as a result of U.S. international
JV formation announcement.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, managers had stronger instrumental
ties, but weaker expressive ties, in their
organizational networks.
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33
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Morosini et al.
(1998)
Countries/
Sample
52 companies
that had engaged
in cross-border
activity with
Italy between
1987 and 1992
Method
Survey
Nachum
(2003)
303 publicly
traded service
MNEs in 20
countries
Archival and
Survey
Newman &
Nollen (1996)
176 European
and Asian work
units of a U.S.
manufacturing
multinational
located in 18
countries
Survey
Offerman &
Hellmann
(1997)
Over 400
middle
managers of a
single
multinational
representing 39
nationalities
Survey
Variables and Measures
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); uncertainty
avoidance (country scores
from Hofstede, 1980); the
performance of crossborder acquisitions
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); greenfield
and acquisition entry modes
Individualism-Collectivism,
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance, and
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using dichotomies
of hi/lo based on country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); return on assets,
sales, bonus levels
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance,
Individualism-Collectivism,
Masculinity (all assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); leadership
practices and behaviors
Theories/
Models
Institutional
theory
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the performance of cross-border
acquisitions increased.
Eclectic theory
(Dunning,
1988);
Institutional
theory
none
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, preferences for greenfields decreased.
none
Power distance was negatively related to leader
communication, approachability, delegation, and
team building; uncertainty avoidance was
positively associated with leader control and
negatively associated with delegation and
approachability.
When managers fit their organizational practices
to the values of a country’s culture, their units had
higher returns on assets, higher returns on sales,
and in some cases higher bonus levels than units
in which fit was lacking.
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34
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Oyserman et
al. (2002)
Padmanabhan
& Cho (1996)
Pan (1996)
Pan (2002)
Countries/
Sample
83 empirical
studies in the
meta-analysis;
170 studies in
the qualitative
review
1,519 foreign
direct
investments
made by 402
Japanese firms
in 45 countries
from 1969 to
1991
4,223
international
equity joint
ventures
originating in
the PRC from
1979 to 1992
8,078
international
joint ventures in
the PRC from
1979 to 1996
Theories/
Models
none
Method
Variables and Measures
Key Findings
Metaanalysis and
a Qualitative
review
Individualism-Collectivism
(meta-analysis); selfconcept; self-esteem; wellbeing; attribution;
relationality
Archival
Overall cultural distance
Transaction cost
based on country scores
economics
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); full versus
shared ownership of foreign
affiliates
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); ownership
shares
Transaction cost
economics;
eclectic theory
(Dunning, 1988)
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, equity joint venture partners were more
likely to acquire an equal or majority share, rather
than a minority share.
Archival
Power Distance and
Uncertainty Avoidance
(assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); level of equity
ownership in IJV in foreign
country
None
Uncertainty avoidance was positively associated
with firms’ preference for equity ownership in
international joint ventures in China.
North Americans (U.S. and Canadians) were more
individualistic and less collectivistic than most
countries included in the meta-analytic
comparison; effects sizes tended to be small and
varied depending on the content included in the
various measures.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, Japanese firms were more likely to own
their affiliates as opposed to sharing ownership,
especially in non-restrictive host countries in
which there is freedom to choose among
alternative ownership structures.
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Pan & Tse
(1996)
Pan & Tse
(2000)
Countries/
Sample
483 cooperative
arrangements in
the PRC
between pairs of
firms from
Hong Kong, the
U.S., Japan,
Germany, and
Britain
Over 10,000
foreign entry
activities into
China (19791998)
Method
Variables and Measures
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); choice of
exporting, contractual joint
ventures, equity joint
ventures, and whollyowned operations
Archival
Power Distance and
Uncertainty Avoidance
(assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); entry mode choice
of wholly owned
subsidiary, EJVs,
contractual agreements, and
export
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); the rate of
joint venture dissolution
Park &
Ungson
(1997)
137 cross-border Archival
joint ventures
and 49 domestic
(U.S.-U.S.) joint
ventures
Peterson et al.
(1995)
21 countries
Archival and
Survey
Theories/
Models
Transaction cost
economics
There was no effect of overall cultural distance on
choice of cooperative arrangement.
Transaction cost
economics;
hierarchical
model of entry
modes
Firms from countries with large power distance
preferred subsidiary and EJV entry modes while
firms from countries high in uncertainty
avoidance preferred contract agreements and
export entry modes.
Transaction cost
economics;
institutional
theory;
population
ecology
Individualism-Collectivism, Bureaucratic
Power Distance,
management
Uncertainty Avoidance, and theory
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); role conflict; role
ambiguity; role overload
Key Findings
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the rate of joint venture dissolution
decreased.
Collectivism and power distance were negatively
related to role ambiguity and positively related to
role overload.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Peterson &
Smith (1997)
Countries/
Sample
32 countries
Method
Variables and Measures
Archival and
Survey
IndividualismCollectivism; Power
Distance; Uncertainty
Avoidance; MasculinityFemininity (all assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); role
ambiguity; role overload;
ambient temperature
Overall cultural distance
(Kogut & Singh, 1988) and
on specific value
dimensions based on
country scores from
Hofstede; international
joint venture satisfaction,
efficiency, competitiveness
Pothukuchi et
al. (2002)
127
international
joint ventures
between Indian
firms and firms
in 21 other
countries from
1992-1997
Archival and
Survey
Reuer (2001)
139 joint
ventures with
U.S. acquiring
firms in 24
countries
Archival
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988) supplemented
by Ronen and Shenkar’s
(1985) country clusters;
parent firm valuation effect
of JV termination
Theories/
Models
Institutional
theory;
eco-cultural
theory
Transaction cost
economics
Transaction cost
economics
Key Findings
Power distance was the stronger predictor of role
overload and role ambiguity even when the
ambient temperature of the city in which the data
collection took place was accounted for.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, so did the efficiency and competitive of
international joint ventures; cultural distance on
masculinity was positively associated with all
performance dimensions; cultural distance on
individualism-collectivism, power distance, and
uncertainty avoidance were all negatively
associated with international joint venture
satisfaction.
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, the payoffs from JV partner buyouts
decreased; country clusters allowed for more finegrained analyses.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
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Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
RiahiBelkaoui
(1998)
Countries/
Sample
16 countries
Method
Archival
Richards &
De Carolis
(2003)
1,377 joint
ventures
originating in 47
countries
Archival and
Survey
Ronkainen &
GuerreroCusumano
(2001)
Data from 50
countries in
Hofstede (1980)
and the 1997
Global Software
Piracy Report
Archival
Roth &
O’Donnell
(1996)
Senior managers
from 100
foreign
subsidiaries
from multiple
countries
Survey
Variables and Measures
Individualism-Collectivism,
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance, and
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); systematic risk in
stock exchanges
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); R&D activity
Individualism-Collectivism,
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance, and
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); intellectual property
rights violations
Overall cultural distance
based on country scores
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); proportion of
incentive-based
compensation
Theories/
Models
Asset pricing
theory
Key Findings
Individualism and power distance were positively
related to a country’s systematic risk in its stock
exchange while uncertainty avoidance was
negatively related to systematic risk.
Transaction cost
economics;
Coevolution
theory (Koza &
Lewin, 1988)nn
none
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, joint venture partners were less likely
to engage in R&D activities.
Agency theory
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, a greater proportion of incentive-based
compensation was used for subsidiary managers
of host-country foreign affiliates.
Countries with higher scores on collectivism,
power distance, and uncertainty avoidance had
higher rates of intellectual property rights
violations; masculinity-femininity was not
significantly related.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
38
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Ryan et al.
(1999)
Countries/
Sample
Managers in
over 1,000
companies in 20
countries
Method
Variables and Measures
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism,
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance, and
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); employee selection
practices
Theories/
Models
none
Salter &
Niswander
(1995)
Stock market
data and
accounting
values from 29
countries in
1989 and 1990
Archival
Individualism-Collectivism,
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance, and
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); accounting values
Gray’s (1988)oo
model of
accounting
values
Schneider &
DeMeyer
(1991)
303 MBA
student and
executives from
multiple
countries
Survey
responses
based on
reading case
Country clusters based on
Hofstede’s country scores
(Ronen & Shenkar, 1985);
reactions to crisis in a case
Prospect theory
Key Findings
As the level of uncertainty avoidance increased,
the number used and extent of verification
methods in selection practices decreased but the
number of test types, extent of testing, number of
interviews, use of a fixed list of interviews, and
the number of selection process auditing methods
increased; as power distance increased, the overall
number of interviews used in selection and peer
involvement in decision making increased while
the use of peers as interviewers decreased.
Uncertainty avoidance was negatively related to
the use of professional accounting standards (i.e.,
prescriptive legal requirements, statutory control)
and positively related to uniformity (i.e., whether
a country’s legal system is code law based and
therefore uniform), conservatism (i.e., systems
designed to stop financial reporting that increases
income or assets), and secrecy (i.e., preference for
confidentiality and non-disclosure of
information); masculinity was positively related to
uniformity of accounting principles in practice
and negatively related to conservatism; and
individualism was negatively related to secrecy.
Compared to managers from around the world,
Latin Europeans (e.g., France, Belgium, Italy,
Spain, and Portugal) were the most likely to
interpret the issue in the case as a crisis and as a
threat and recommend proactive behavior.
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39
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Schuler &
Rogovsky
(1998)
Countries/
Sample
Worldwide
compensation
data
Method
Variables and Measures
Archival and
Survey
IndividualismCollectivism; Power
Distance; Uncertainty
Avoidance; MasculinityFemininity (all assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980);
compensation preferences
Power Distance (assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); overall
cultural distance based on
country scores from
Hofstede (Kogut & Singh,
1988); preferences for
foreign direct investment
versus licensing; overall
cultural distance
Power Distance (assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); overall
cultural distance based on
country scores from
Hofstede (Kogut & Singh,
1988); preferences for
foreign direct investment
versus licensing; overall
cultural distance
Shane (1992)
Over 100
manufacturing
industries
investing in 33
countries from
1977 to 1986
Archival
Shane (1994)
Licensing and
foreign direct
investment from
over 100
manufacturing
industries
investing in 50
countries in
1977 and 1982
Archival
Theories/
Models
Resource-based
theory of the
firm
Transaction cost
economics
Transaction cost
economics
Key Findings
Individualism was positively related to the use of
pay-for-performance and individual performance,
social benefits such as child care and career
breaks, and employee stock ownership plans
(ESOPs); power distance was negatively related
to social benefits and ESOPs; uncertainty
avoidance was positively related to seniority- and
skill-based pay plans and ESOPs and negatively
related to a focus on individual performance;
masculinity was positively related to individual
bonuses and commissions, career breaks, and
maternity leave was negatively related to flexible
benefits and childcare.
While controlling for overall cultural distance,
power distance was positively related to
preferences for foreign direct investment over
licensing; overall cultural distance was related to
less licensing and more foreign direct investment.
While controlling for overall cultural distance,
licensing was preferred in countries in which trust
was greater (i.e., countries low in power distance).
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40
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Shane (1995)
Countries/
Sample
Over 4,000
employees in 68
countries
Method
Survey
Shane et al.
(1995)
Over 1,000
employees in 30
countries
Survey
Shenkar &
Zeira (1992)
44 international
joint ventures
originating in
Israel between
1985 and 1987
Managers in 23
countries
Survey
Smith et al.
(1998)
Survey
Theories/
Models
Individualism-Collectivism, Institutional
Power Distance,
theory;
Uncertainty Avoidance, and transaction cost
Masculinity-Femininity (all economics
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); innovation
championing roles
Individualism-Collectivism, none
Power Distance, and
Uncertainty Avoidance (all
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); innovation
championing strategies
Variables and Measures
Overall cultural distance
Role theory
and on specific value
dimensions (using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); CEO role ambiguity
Individualism-Collectivism, none
Masculinity, Uncertainty
Avoidance, and Power
Distance; (all assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); conflict
management style
Key Findings
Lower levels of uncertainty avoidance were
associated with preferences for four innovating
championing roles: the organizational maverick,
the network facilitator, the transformational
leader, and the organizational buffer.
As the level of uncertainty avoidance increased,
preferences for champions to work through
organizational norms, rules, and procedures to
promote innovation increased; higher power
distance levels were associated with an increased
preference for champions to focus on gaining
support from those in authority; more
collectivistic societies preferred champions to
seek cross-functional support for their ideas.
Specific cultural distance scores on individualismcollectivism and uncertainty avoidance were
negatively related to CEO role ambiguity while
overall cultural distance was not related.
Power distance was negatively related to the
frequency of out-group disagreements; within
collectivistic countries, disagreements were more
frequently handled through reliance on rules
rather than personal experience or training; within
low power distance nations, ingroup
disagreements were handled more frequently
through reliance on subordinates while out-group
disagreements were more frequently handled
through reliance on peers.
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41
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Spector et al.
(2001b)
Countries/
Sample
5,185 managers
from 24
countries
Method
Survey
Steensma et
al. (2000b)
494
manufacturing
firms in
Australia,
Indonesia,
Norway, and
Sweden
Survey
Thomas &
Grosse (2001)
176 foreign
direct
investments
from 11
countries into
Mexico from
1980-1995
1,800
undergraduate
students in nine
countries
Archival
21 countries
Archival and
Survey
Thomas &
Mueller
(2000)
Van de Vliert
& Van Yperen
(1996)
Survey
Theories/
Models
Individualism-Collectivism, Various models
(Hofstede, 1994)pp; work
of job design
locus of control;
and stress
psychological and physical
well-being; job satisfaction
Individualism, Uncertainty Transaction cost
Avoidance, Masculinityeconomics;
Femininity (all assessed
dependency
using country scores from
theory
Hofstede, 1980); propensity
of firm-to-firm cooperation
for technology innovation
alliances
Overall cultural distance
Eclectic theory
based on country scores
(Dunning, 1988)
from Hofstede (Kogut &
Singh, 1988); FDI in
Mexico
Variables and Measures
Overall cultural distance
based on Hofstede’s
country scores (Kogut &
Singh, 1988);
innovativeness; locus of
control; risk-taking; energy
level
Power Distance (assessed
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); role
ambiguity; role overload;
ambient temperature
Key Findings
Higher scores on individualism were positively
related to internal locus of control; individualismcollectivism was not related, however, to wellbeing at the ecological level; individualism and
job satisfaction were positively related.
Firms in more masculine cultures were less likely
to pursue technology alliances than were firms in
more feminine cultures; firms in more
individualistic cultures were less likely to pursue
equity ties in their alliance formation than were
firms in more collectivistic cultures.
As the overall cultural distance between Mexico
and other countries increased, the higher the level
of FDI into Mexico; cultural distance was not
significant when examining FDI into the
maquiladora region of Mexico separately.
none
As the overall cultural distance between countries
increased, entrepreneurship-related attributes such
as internal locus of control, risk-taking, and
energy levels decreased.
none
Average daytime temperature for a country’s
capital was positively related to role overload
while power distance was not related (see
Peterson et al., 1995, and Peterson & Smith, 1997,
for related studies).
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
42
Appendix A - Type I Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Main Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Weber et al.
(1996)
Zaheer &
Zaheer (1997)
Countries/
Method
Sample
Eight
Archival and
international and Survey
eight domestic
international
mergers and
acquisitions
from 1985 to
1987 in the U.S.
25 countries
Archival
Variables and Measures
Individualism, Power
Distance, Uncertainty
Avoidance, and
Masculinity-Femininity
(cultural distance on each
using country scores from
Hofstede, 1980); corporate
culture distance; stress;
commitment; cooperation
Individualism-Collectivism
and Uncertainty Avoidance
(dichotomous classification
as high or low using
country scores from
Hofstede, 1980);
information seeking in
networks
Theories/
Models
none
Institutional
theory;
convergence
theory
Key Findings
National culture distance better predicted stress,
negative attitudes towards the merger, and actual
cooperation than did corporate culture distance.
People in countries high in individualism
exhibited lower levels of information seeking in
their networks.
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43
Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Au et al.
(2001)
Brockner et
al. (2000)
Countries/
Sample
87 PRC and 91
Canadian
undergraduates
89 managers in
Taiwan and
Canada; 96
graduate
students in the
PRC; 74 U.S.
MBA students;
86 U.S. MBA
students from 20
cultures
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(Hui, 1988); post-complaint
behavior; fairness of the
complaint process; selfattribution; attribution to
the service provider
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(independentinterdependent selfconstrual; Singelis et al.,
1995); procedural fairness;
outcome favorability;
reactions to a decision
Theories/
Models
Procedural
justice;
attribution
theory
Social exchange
theory; equity
theory;
procedural
justice
Key Findings
Canadians were significantly more individualistic
than the Chinese; country moderated the
relationship between voice and taking
responsibility such that when a service provider
offered voice, Canadians were less likely to
attribute the responsibility to themselves than
were the Chinese. Only country, and not INDCOL, was tested as a moderator.
A three-way interaction (country X procedural
fairness X outcome favorability) showed that
when procedural fairness was high, outcome
favorability had less of an impact on reactions to a
decision in Taiwan than Canada; U.S. subjects
had significantly higher independent selfconstrual than PRC; results were generally
replicated substituting individualism-collectivism
for country in the three-way interaction;
individualism-collectivism also mediated the
moderating effects of country.
Located at doi:10.1057/Palgrave.jibs.8400202
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Brockner et
al. (2001)
Chen et al.
(1998b)
Dickson &
Weaver
(1997)
Countries/
Sample
254 MBA
students in the
PRC and the
U.S.; 297
business
students in
Mexico and the
U.S.; 450
undergraduate
students in
Hong Kong and
Germany; 102
managers and
253 employees
in the PRC
A total of
almost 400
undergraduates
from the PRC
and the U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Theories/
Models
Voice effect in
procedural
justice
judgments
Experiment
Power distance (four
different measures
including two study
specific measures and
Maznevski et al., 2003, and
Earley & Erez, 1997);
voice; procedural fairness
perceptions; organizational
commitment
Experiment
Collective primacy
orientation (Singelis, 1994;
Triandis, et al., 1986);
ingroup favoritism;
performance
Social identity
theory
Individualism-Collectivism
(Erez & Earley, 1987);
perceived uncertainty;
inter-firm alliance use
Transaction cost
economics;
resource
dependency;
institutional
theory
Top managers in Survey
433 Norwegian
manufacturing
firms
Key Findings
Country moderated the relationship between voice
and commitment such that participants were more
likely to respond unfavorably (i.e., with lower
levels of commitment) to low levels of voice
when they were in low power distance countries
(e.g., the U.S., Germany) rather than in high
power distance countries (e.g., the PRC, Mexico);
results were replicated in each study when power
distance was substituted for country; in addition,
power distance mediated the moderating effects of
country showing that culture was the explanation
for country effects.
Participants from the PRC had more of a
collective primacy than U.S. subjects, and the
PRC subjects exhibited more ingroup favoritism
when they performed well individually while their
group performed poorly; results were replicated
substituting collective primacy for country as a
moderator; in some cases, collective primacy
mediated the moderating effects of country
Individualism-collectivism moderated the
relationship between perceived uncertainty and
the odds of using alliances such that the
relationship was stronger when managers were
collectivistic rather than individualistic.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Dorfman &
Howell (1988)
Earley (1989)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 752
Mexican,
Taiwanese, and
U.S. managers
working in
Mexico and
Taiwan
A total of 96
managerial
trainees in the
PRC and the
U.S.
Method
Survey
Experiment
Theories/
Models
Individualism-Collectivism, none
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance,
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using study
specific measures); leader
behavior; subordinate
performance and
satisfaction
Variables and Measures
Collectivism (Erez &
Earley, 1987);
performance; individual
versus shared
responsibility; high versus
low accountability
Social loafing
phenomenon
Key Findings
Cultural socialization (i.e., strong beliefs in the
key cultural values of a society) moderated the
relationship between directive leadership and
subordinate performance and satisfaction such
that for individuals with high, rather than low,
cultural socialization, directive leadership had
stronger relationships to outcomes; the effects of
contingent reward leadership behaviors remained
invariant regardless of the levels of cultural
socialization.
Participants from the PRC were significantly
higher on collectivism than U.S. participants; in a
three-way interaction, collectivism moderated the
relationship between both accountability and
shared responsibility and performance such that
highly individualistic people performed poorest
under conditions of high shared responsibility and
low accountability; highly collectivistic people
performed better under conditions of high shared
responsibility, regardless of accountability;
country did not explain any unique variance in
performance beyond collectivism; country was
substituted for culture in all analyses and similar
results were obtained; thus, social loafing tended
to occur in the U.S. but not in the PRC
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Earley (1993)
Earley (1994)
Countries/
Sample
A total of 165
managers from
the PRC, Israel,
and the U.S.
A total of 251
managers in
Hong Kong, the
PRC, and the
U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(Erez & Earley, 1987);
performance; ingroup
versus outgroup; social
loafing; self and group
efficacy beliefs
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(Earley, 1993); self-focused
versus group-focused
training; self-efficacy;
performance
Theories/
Models
Social loafing
phenomenon;
agency theory;
social identity
theory;
expectancy
theory
Self-efficacy
phenomenon
Key Findings
U.S. managers were significantly lower on
collectivism than PRC and Israeli managers (who
did not differ); individualism-collectivism
moderated the relationship between group
condition (i.e., working in an ingroup, outgroup or
alone) and individual performance such that the
performance of individualists who thought they
were working in an ingroup or an outgroup was
lower than the performance of individualists
working alone; the performance of collectivists
was lower in an individual or outgroup context
than in an ingroup context; and participant ratings
of self or group efficacy and their anticipated
performance outcomes mediated the effects of
individualism-collectivism on performance.
Country moderated the effects of type of training
(individual- vs. group-focused) on self-efficacy
and performance such that self-focused training
had a stronger impact on self-efficacy and
performance for U.S. subjects while groupfocused training had stronger effects for Hong
Kong and PRC subjects; within all three countries,
individualists responded more favorably to
individual-focused training than group-focused
training and collectivists showed the opposite
pattern; collectivism mediated the moderating
effects of country of origin.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Erez & Earley
(1987)
Eylon & Au
(1999)
Countries/
Sample
180
undergraduates
from the U.S.,
urban Israel,
kibbutzim Israel
135 mixed
origin MBAs in
Canada
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
and Power Distance (study
specific measures based on
Hofstede, 1980); goal
acceptance; performance;
goal strategies
In-basket
simulation
Power Distance
(participants were divided
into high and low power
distance groups by
language and by countryof-origin); empowerment;
job satisfaction;
performance
Theories/
Models
Goal setting
Empowerment;
self-efficacy
phenomenon;
expectancy
theory
Key Findings
U.S. subjects were significantly lower on both
collectivism and power distance than Israeli
subjects; country moderated the relationship
between type of goal (assigned, representative, or
participative) and individual performance such
that the relationships between both representative
and participative goal setting and performance
were stronger in Israel versus the U.S.; identical
findings were obtained when power distance (but
not collectivism) was substituted for country such
that the relationships between both participative
and representative goal setting and performance
were stronger for those lower, rather than higher,
in power distance.
Power distance grouping moderated the
relationship between empowerment condition
(i.e., empowered, control, disempowered) and job
performance such that for participants in the high
power distance grouping, the disempowerment
condition was associated with higher job
performance than the empowered or control
condition; participants low in power distance
performed similarly across empowerment
conditions; power distance grouping did not
moderate the relationship between empowerment
condition and job satisfaction; power distance was
not directly assessed.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Gelfand &
Realo (1999)
Countries/
Sample
102 Caucasian
and Asian
American
undergraduates
in the U.S. and
109 in Estonia
Jung & Avolio A total of 347
(1999)
Asian and U.S.
undergraduates
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(Triandis, 1994)qq;
negotiator accountability;
psychological states,
behaviors, and outcomes
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(Bass & Avolio, 1997)ss;
transactional versus
transformational leadership;
number of ideas generated
Theories/
Models
Adams’s
(1976)rr
boundary role
model
Transformationa
l and transaction
leadership
models
Key Findings
Asians were significantly higher on collectivism
than U.S. students; Estonian and U.S. students did
not differ; collectivism moderated the relationship
between accountability and profit from
negotiations such that in high accountability
negotiations, the more collectivistic the dyad, the
higher the level of: willingness to concede,
cooperative behavior, profit from the negotiation,
and positive impressions of one’s opponent; in
low accountability negotiations, collectivism was
negatively associated with these outcomes.
Asian students were significantly higher on
collectivism than U.S. students; country
moderated the relationship between leadership
style and quantity of ideas such that Asian
students generated more ideas working with a
transformational leader rather than transactional;
U.S. students generated more ideas with a
transactional leader versus transformational;
group performance was greater than individual
performance; there were no statistical tests
involving individualism-collectivism directly.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Lam et al.
(2002a)
Countries/
Sample
265 Hong Kong
and 288 U.S.
bank employees
of a
multinational
bank
Method
Variables and Measures
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(Triandis & Gelfand,
1998)tt; participative
decision making
opportunity; participation
efficacy; individual
performance
Theories/
Models
Self-efficacy;
collective
efficacy; shared
mental models
Lam et al.
(2002b)
218 Hong Kong
and 185 U.S.
bank tellers of a
multinational
bank
Survey
Individualism (Triandis &
Gelfand, 1998); Power
Distance (Erez & Earley,
1987); distributive and
procedural justice; job
satisfaction; performance;
absenteeism
Equity theory
Lee et al.
(2000b)
729 university
employees in
Hong Kong
Survey
Power Distance (Hofstede,
1980); trust in supervisor;
psychological contract
fulfillment
Procedural
justice
Key Findings
U.S. employees were significantly higher on
individualism and lower on collectivism than
Hong Kong employees; in a three-way interaction,
collectivism moderated the relationship between
both participative decision making and
participative efficacy and individual performance
such that participative decision making and
individual performance were positively related for
individuals high in individualism and participation
efficacy; further analyses showed that
individualism mediated the moderating effects of
country of origin.
Hong Kong tellers were significantly higher in
power distance, but lower in individualism, than
U.S. tellers; power distance (but not
individualism) moderated the relationship
between both distributive and procedural justice
and work outcomes such that the relationships
between the two types of justice and job
satisfaction, performance, and absenteeism were
more strongly positive for those lower, rather than
higher, in power distance; there were no
moderating effects for country of origin.
Power distance moderated the relationships
between both distributive and procedural justice
and both trust in supervisor and psychological
contract fulfillment such that the relationship
between procedural justice and trust in supervisor
was stronger for those lower, rather than higher, in
power distance; the relationship between
distributive justice and psychological contract
fulfillment was stronger for those lower, rather
than higher, in power distance.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Lind et al.
(1997)
Martella &
Maas (2000)
Countries/
Sample
Over 1000
undergraduates
from Germany,
Hong Kong,
Japan, and the
U.S.
229 employees
and students in
northern and
southern Italy
Theories/
Models
Group-value
theory of
justice; social
identity theory
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Power Distance (Hofstede,
1980); voice; procedural
fairness perceptions
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism none
(Triandis, 1989; Triandis et.
al. 1988)uu; life satisfaction;
happiness; self-esteem
Key Findings
Chinese respondents had the highest level of
power distance, followed by Americans and then
Germans in Study 1; Japanese respondents had
higher power distance than Americans in Study 2;
country failed to moderate the relationship
between typical relational antecedents of
procedural fairness (i.e., voice, trust, status
recognition, perceived neutrality and reported use
of procedures) and actual procedural fairness
judgments; the only exception was in Study 2 in
which status recognition was more strongly
related to procedural justice judgments in the U.S.
compared to Japan; there were no statistical tests
involving power distance directly.
Southern Italians were more collectivistic than
northern Italians; region moderated the
relationship between being unemployed and
having lower life satisfaction, self-esteem, and
happiness such that the relationships were
stronger for northern Italians then for southern
Italians; there were no interaction tests involving
individualism-collectivism directly.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Ng & Van
Dyne (2001)
Countries/
Sample
690 U.S.
undergraduates
in 162 groups
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Horizontal and Vertical
Individualism and
Collectivism (Triandis &
Gelfand, 1998);
improvement in decision
quality; minority influence
Individualism-Collectivism,
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance,
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); job scope;
participative management;
extrinsic rewards; role
clarity; organizational
commitment
Individualism-Collectivism
(Triandis & Gelfand, 1998;
job demands; job control;
self-efficacy; collective
efficacy; absenteeism;
turnover intention; anxiety;
depression
Palich et al.
(1995)
Almost 2,000
managers in 15
European and
Canadian
affiliates of a
U.S.
multinational
Survey
Schaubroeck
et al. (2000)
A total of 431
bank tellers in
Hong Kong and
the U.S.
Survey
Theories/
Models
none
none
Karasek’s
(1979)vv job
demand-control
(decision
latitude) model;
self- and
collective
efficacy
Key Findings
Horizontal individualism and horizontal
collectivism moderated the relationship between
minority influence and improvement in decision
quality such that in groups with minority
influence, individuals higher, rather than lower, in
horizontal collectivism were less likely to improve
their decision quality; these results also held for
those higher, rather than lower, in horizontal
individualism; influence targets higher, rather than
lower, in vertical collectivism also benefited more
when the influence agent held a high status
position in the group.
None of the cultural values moderated the
relationships between U.S.-based predictors of
organizational commitment (e.g., role clarity,
participative management, extrinsic rewards, and
job scope) and commitment in foreign affiliates;
individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and
masculinity had direct effects on organizational
commitment but explained only 2.7% of the
variance.
U.S. tellers were significantly higher on
individualism and lower on collectivism than the
Hong Kong tellers; in a four-way interaction, job
demands, job control, and job self-efficacy were
associated with anxiety, depression, and turnover
intention only for those high in IND (but not high
in COL); results were replicated in the U.S.
sample alone (sample size prevented replication in
the Hong Kong sample).
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Thomas & Au
(2002)ww
Vandenberghe
et al. (2001)
Countries/
Sample
111 New
Zealand and 107
Hong Kong
executive
education
participants
580 employees
of the European
Commission
representing 12
countries
Method
Variables and Measures
Survey
Horizontal Individualism;
Vertical Collectivism
(Singelis et al., 1995); exit,
voice, loyalty, and neglect;
job satisfaction; quality of
job alternatives
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism,
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance, and
Masculinity-Femininity (all
assessed using country
scores from Hofstede,
1980); affective, normative,
and continuance,
commitment; intention to
quit
Theories/
Models
None
Meyer and
Allen’s (1991)xx
organizational
commitment
model
Key Findings
Horizontal individualism and vertical collectivism
moderated the relationships between both quality
of job alternatives and job satisfaction and exit,
voice, loyalty, and neglect; horizontal
individualists were more sensitive to quality of
job alternatives when considering whether or not
to exit; high levels of vertical collectivism
enhanced the relationship between quality of
alternatives and exit; quality of alternatives and
voice were positively related at high, but not low,
levels of horizontal individualism; in a three-way
interaction, for employees high in vertical
collectivism, job satisfaction was positively
related to loyalty, but the relationship was
stronger when quality of alternatives was high; for
employees low in vertical collectivism, the
opposite picture emerged.
Country scores on the cultural values failed to
moderate the relationships between three foci of
commitment (i.e., affective, normative, and
continuance) and intention to quit.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Individual Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Wagner
(1995)
Countries/
Sample
492
undergraduates
in the U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(combination of items from
Erez & Earley, 1987; Hui,
1988; Triandis et al., 1988;
Wagner & Moch, 1986);
group size; individuals’
identifiability; shared
responsibility; cooperation
Theories/
Models
Social loafing
phenomenon
Key Findings
Individualism-collectivism moderated the
relationships between both size and identifiability
and cooperation in small groups such that size and
identifiability have stronger effects on the
cooperation of individualists than collectivists.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Group/Organization Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Chatman &
Barsade
(1995)
Chatman et al.
(1998)
Countries/
Sample
139 MBA
students in the
U.S.
258 MBA
students in the
U.S.
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
IndividualisticCollectivistic
organizational cultures
(manipulated; manipulation
check with study specific
measure); individualistic
vs. cooperative individuals;
cooperative behavior
Experiment
IndividualisticCollectivistic
organizational cultures
(manipulated; manipulation
check with study specific
measure); relational
demography; social
interaction; conflict;
productivity; creativity
Theories/
Models
Person-situation
congruence
Social
categorization
theory
Key Findings
Individualistic-collectivistic organizational culture
moderated the relationship between personal
cooperation and cooperative behavior such that
cooperative subjects in collectivistic cultures
demonstrated more cooperative behavior than
individualistic subjects in the individualistic
organizational culture, individualistic subjects in a
collectivistic organizational culture, and
individualistic subjects in an individualistic
organizational culture.
Individualistic-collectivistic organizational culture
moderated the relationships between relational
demography and social interaction, conflict,
productivity, and creativity such that in
collectivistic organizational cultures, demographic
heterogeneity was positively related to
communication; more conflict was found in
individualistic versus collectivistic cultures but
collectivists viewed conflict as more beneficial; as
demographic similarity decreased, subjects in
collectivistic cultures perceived themselves as
more creative than those in individualistic
cultures; similar people were more productive in
individualistic rather than collectivistic cultures,
while dissimilar people were equally productive
across the two cultures.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Group/Organization Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Earley (1999)
Erez &
Somech
(1996)
Countries/
Sample
288 managerial
trainees from
England,
France,
Thailand, and
the U.S. in 96
groups
122 managers
from Israeli
kibbutzim and
urban cities in
40 groups
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
Power Distance (Earley &
Erez, 1997); group member
status; individual estimates
of group efficacy;
collective estimates of
group efficacy; team
performance
Experiment
Individualism-Collectivism
(independent and
interdependent selves,
McPartland et al., 1961)yy;
group performance; group
goals; group incentives
Theories/
Models
Social
cognition; social
legitimacy;
social learning
theory
Social loafing
and facilitation
phenomena
Key Findings
Thai and French samples were significantly higher
in power distance than English and U.S. samples;
the Thai sample was significantly higher in power
distance than the French sample, but the English
and U.S. samples did not differ; power distance
moderated the relationship between team
members’ personal estimates of group efficacy
and collective judgments of group efficacy such
that in high power distance cultures, collective
judgments of group efficacy were more strongly
tied to higher, rather than lower, status group
members’ personal judgments of group efficacy;
in low power distance cultures, group members
contributed comparably to group efficacy and
performance judgments; there were mixed results
for judgments of team performance.
Kibbutzim managers were significantly higher in
collectivism than urban managers; the kibbutzim
vs. urban split moderated the relationship between
both type of goal (individual vs. group) and type
of incentive (individual vs. group) and group
performance such that group performance loss
was less likely in kibbutzim versus urban groups;
the highest level of group performance occurred
in the kibbutzim groups with a group goal and
group incentives; there were no direct tests of
individualism-collectivism.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Group/Organization Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Gibson (1999)
Lam et al.
(2002a)zz
Countries/
Sample
294
undergraduate
students in the
U.S. and Hong
Kong in 60
groups and 185
nurses in the
U.S. and
Indonesia in 71
teams
265 Hong Kong
and 288 U.S.
bank employees
of a
multinational
bank in 109
work units
Method
Variables and Measures
Experiment
and Survey
Collectivism (Earley,
1993); group efficacy;
group performance
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(Triandis & Gelfand,
1998); participative
decision making
opportunity; participation
efficacy; group
performance
Theories/
Models
Social cognition
Self-efficacy;
collective
efficacy; shared
mental models
Key Findings
Hong Kong students were significantly more
collectivistic than U.S. students; Indonesian
nurses were significantly more collectivistic than
U.S. nurses; collectivism moderated the
relationship between group efficacy and group
performance such that group efficacy and
performance were positively related when
collectivism was high, but not when it was low.
Individualism-collectivism moderated the
relationship between participative decision
making opportunity and group performance such
that participative decision-making and group
performance were positively related for groups
high, but not low, in collectivism and high
participation efficacy; individualism-collectivism
mediated country effects.
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Diener &
Diener
(1995)aaa
Countries/
Sample
Undergraduates
in 31 countries
Method
Variables and Measures
Archival and
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(country ratings by
Triandis, personal
communication, 1992);
friendship satisfaction;
satisfaction with self; life
satisfaction
Individualism-Collectivism
[(country ratings provided
by Triandis, personal
communication, 1996) and
the factor scores obtained
by Hofstede (1980)];
subjective well-being; life
satisfaction; marital status
Overall cultural distance
(assessed by perceptual
estimates of the cultural
distance to China from the
foreign country); overall
and specific control;
foreign parent and Chinese
parent satisfaction with IJV
Power Distance (metaanalysis); job level; job
satisfaction
Diener et al.
(2000)
59,169 people in
42 countries
(World Values
Survey II)
Archival
Luo et al.
(2001)
295
international
joint ventures
originating in
the PRC
Survey
Robie et al.
(1998)
35 empirical
studies
Metaanalysis
Spector et al.
(2002)
5,185 managers
from 24
countries
Survey
Individualism-Collectivism
(Hofstede, 1994); work
locus of control;
psychological and physical
well-being; job satisfaction
Theories/
Models
Maslow’s
hierarchy of
needs
Key Findings
Individualism-collectivism moderated the
relationship between both friendship satisfaction
and satisfaction with self and life satisfaction such
that the relationships were stronger in
individualistic, rather than collectivistic, nations.
none
Individualism-collectivism moderated several
relationships; in terms of life satisfaction, the
benefit of marriage over cohabitation was greater
in collectivist than in individualist nations; in
terms of positive emotions, the benefit of being
married over being divorced or separated was
smaller in collectivist than in individualist nations.
Transaction cost
economics
Cultural distance moderated the relationship
between control and performance such that when
the cultural distance from the host country was
higher, rather than lower, there was a weaker
positive relationship between control and
performance for foreign parents but not for
Chinese parents.
none
Power distance moderated the relationship
between job level and job satisfaction such that
the relationship was weaker in lower, rather than
higher, power distance countries.
Individualism-collectivism failed to moderate the
relationship between locus of control and wellbeing.
Various models
of job design
and stress
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Appendix B - Type II Studies
Summaries of Articles Reviewed – Culture as a Moderating Effect (Country Level of Analysis)
Author(s)
Steensma et
al. (2000b)bbb
Countries/
Sample
494
manufacturing
firms in
Australia,
Indonesia,
Norway, and
Sweden
Method
Survey
Theories/
Models
Individualism-Collectivism, Transaction cost
Power Distance,
economics;
Uncertainty Avoidance,
resource
Masculinity-Femininity (all dependency
assessed using country
theory
scores from Hofstede,
1980); perceived
technological uncertainty;
use of technology alliances
Variables and Measures
Key Findings
Uncertainty avoidance and masculinity moderated
the relationship between perceived technological
uncertainty and the use of technology alliances
such that the relationship was stronger for firms in
high, rather than low, uncertainty avoidance
countries and for firms in less, rather than more,
masculine countries; individualism-collectivism
moderated the relationship between perceived
technological uncertainty and the pursuit of equity
ties such that the relationship was positive only
for firms in individualistic (and not collectivistic)
countries.
a
Ali, A. 1987. Scaling an Islamic work ethic. Journal of Social Psychology, 128: 575-583.
b
The word “none” in the Theories/Models column does not mean that the article did not include a theory section or review of the literature. We used the word “none” to
indicate that the author(s) built hypotheses based on Hofstede’s cultural values alone. That is, no additional theory was used to explain the underlying linkages
between the cultural values and outcomes.
c
Triandis, H.C. 1995. Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview.
d
Indicates a study that used country scores assigned down to the individual level of analysis. Such studies are highly vulnerable to cross-level contamination.
e
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f
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Markus, H.R., & Kitayama, S. 1994. A collective fear of the collective: Implications for selves and theories of selves. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20:
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Yamaguchi, S. 1994. Collectivism among the Japanese: A perspective from the self. In U. Kim, H.C. Triandis, C. Kagitcibasi, S. C. Choi & G. Yoon (Eds.),
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Triandis, H.C., Bontempo, R., Betancourt, H., Bond, M., Leung, K., Brenes, A., Georgias, J., Hui, C.H., Marin, G., Setiadi, B., Sinha, J.B.P., Verma, J., Spangenberg,
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Also found in the main effects, individual level section.
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Gudykunst, W.B., Matsumoto, Y., Ting-Toomey, S., & Nishida, T. 1996. The influence of cultural individualism-collectivism, self-construals, and individual values
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Also found in the main effects, individual level section.
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Karasek, R.A. 1979. Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24: 285-310.
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Also found in the main effect, individual level section.
xx
Meyer, J.P., & Allen, N.J. 1991. A three-component conceptualization of organizational commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 1: 61-89.
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McPartland, T.S., Cummings, J.H., & Garretson, W. 1961. Self-conception and ward behavior in two psychiatric hospitals. Sociometry, 24: 111-124.
zz
Also found in the moderating effect, individual level section.
aaa
Also found in the main effect, country level section.
bbb
Also found in the main effect, country level section.
61