“With the help of science we can improve”:
A professional development project
in post-war Sierra Leone
Richard Frazier and Daniel Kamanda*
Abstract: A tragic, chaotic civil war during the 1990’s devastated the educational infrastructure in Sierra Leone.
This study reports findings from a post-war professional development project for science teachers. The effort was
organized through Operation Classroom, a program sponsored by the United Methodist Church. Thirty teachers
participated from twenty diverse schools around the country. The purpose of the project was to identify the most
effective and desirable ways to rebuild and support science education and science teacher development in Sierra
Leone while simultaneously offering the in-service. The two-pronged approach allowed assessment of challenges
and opportunities. For example, the reasons teachers gave for teaching science in Sierra Leone contrast with test
items on the all-important Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE). The clarity of reasons for teaching
science contrasts as well with vague lesson objectives that often involve test preparation through rote memorization.
The lack of apparatus and materials, texts, funds, and administrative support contrasts with a tropical environment
rich in biodiversity, geology, traditional knowledge, and emerging local technologies. Future goals are two-fold and
will focus on reconciling the reasons for teaching science with the examined syllabus and will include use of local
knowledge, apparatus built from available materials, and new (sustainable) technologies.
Paper prepared for the annual meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, San Francisco,
April 5, 2006
African Science, Education, and Sierra Leone
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Frazier / Department of Curriculum and Instruction / 2132 Lovinger / University of Central Missouri /
Warrensburg, MO 64093 / 660-543-8391 / frazier@ucm.edu
Kamanda /Department of Education/100 Ochre Point Ave/Salve Regina University/Newport, RI
02840/401-463-1909/ Daniel.Kamanda@salve.edu
1
Speaking on African Science, Aline Edith Mekeu Noutcha (2004) calls it “powerless science” and uses the
very real problems with electricity to suggest an all too real metaphor for problems facing scientists in sub-Saharan
Africa.
Musa Lansana Sesay (2004), Principal of Kamabai Secondary School in Sierra Leone describes the efforts
to rebuild the school that was devastated during the tragic, chaotic, brutal civil war that plagued the country from
1991 until 2002. Sesay writes, “It is undeniable that the rebel war left almost every part of the country in ruins.”
However, he concludes his report on a hopeful note:
Despite the awful state of the school, as principal I am encouraged by the determination of the
pupils who still opt for the school, the parents who keep sending their children to the school and the
relentless efforts of our teachers in ensuring steady improvement in internal and external examination
performance. Our immediate needs are material resources in all senses . . . This is not a hopeless task: after
the brutality and destruction of the civil war our best resource is the determination of the people of this
country to raise the educational attainment of our pupils in the new democratic Sierra Leone. (p. 86)
Muwanga-Zake (2004) asks in an article from Science in Africa: Africa’s First On-Line Magazine, “Is
science education in a crisis?” Though he examines the situation in South Africa, his analysis can be easily applied
to many other sub-Saharan countries in terms of teachers’ misconceptions of their problems, problems in the science
classroom, cultural barriers, a decline in the number of science education students, and inadequate funding to
science classrooms and to science education NGOs.
Pryor and Ampiah (2003) in a report on the impact of information and communication technologies entitled
“Understandings of education in an African village” summarize in three lists findings for pupils, teachers, and the
community emerging from a case study of a village in Ghana. The lists paint a picture of stable incompatibility such
that improving the quality of education will require complicated and simultaneous changes on a number of
dimensions. What is summarized for a village in Ghana could be extended to many others in wider Africa. Single
points from each of the lists illustrate:
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Most children are unable to follow the main ‘text’ of school lessons, which is constructed by the
teacher assisted by one or two higher achieving pupils and by ritual responses from the rest of the
class.
Teachers (posted to rural areas) find the material conditions, as well as the attitudes and
expectations of pupils and parents demotivating and blame these for the lack of success of their
work.
Many villagers consider that education in Akurase is not worthwhile because:
 It is not relevant to the children’s future prospects as farmers.
 The schooling in the village is not of sufficiently good quality to warrant investment of
time, energy and economic resources.
 People are too poor to afford the relative luxury of schooling.
 Some are indifferent to the progress of the children in their care. (p. xi)
2
The March 1999 issue of the Journal of Research in Science Teaching is devoted to science education in
developing countries. In the opening editorial, William Kyle (1999) writes, “Poverty is a worldwide phenomenon.
Poverty serves as one of the primary contributors to the inequitable social distribution of knowledge and the
inequitable access to knowledge. Of all factors that combine to degrade health, poverty stands out for its
overwhelming role.” (p.257)
In a companion guest editorial, Brian Gray (1999) concludes:
I argue that, because of the marked differences between First and Third World contexts, there is an
urgent need for those working in the developing world to recognize the First World hegemony that exists
and the extent to which that pervades much of the thinking about what should be done in the developing
world. What is needed is for people in the developing world to believe more in themselves and to develop
systems, programs, and practices that are authentic and contextually relevant and not to uncritically follow
the dominant order.” (p. 266-267)
While the other articles in the JRST special issue examine a range of issues from the relationship of culture
to cognition to the influence of post-colonial global politics on education and economy in developing countries, few
specifically mention the catastrophic devastation from civil war. Describing a collaborative effort among
environmental educators in Sierra Leone and Canada, Nikki Skuce (2002) writes:
According to the United Nations quality of life index, Sierra Leone is considered the worst place
in the world to live. Life expectancy in this West African nation is a mere 36 years and adult literacy hovers
around 31 per cent. While remnants of a decade of war linger, Sierra Leone is now officially at peace and
there is a willingness and passion to reinvigorate the under-funded and under-staffed education system as a
way to build hope for the future.
Skuce goes on to explain, “The underlying cause of environmental degradation in Sierra Leone is
diamonds. While the war initially began for ideological reasons, it turned into a resource conflict over the precious
gem.”
Operation Classroom: The professional development project
It is against this complex backdrop of science and science education in Africa and in Sierra Leone in
particular that this project took place. The essential question was (and is): What are the most effective and
desirable ways to support and rebuild science education and science teacher development in Sierra Leone?
The method emphasized practice, partnership, and participation on the part of teachers and facilitators and was
planned as a professional development experience coupled with action research. Inquiry, place-based pedagogy, and
coherence between objectives and assessment all informed the particular format of the work with the teachers.
The complexity of the situation in Sierra Leone meant that decisions about design and implementation were
often colored by logistical constraints and limited resources as much as by philosophical and theoretical foundations.
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Flexibility and pragmatism both tempered and enhanced the discussion of difficult questions and the introduction of
new ideas (from teaching techniques to experimental apparatus). At base, however, was optimistic good will in the
face of nearly overwhelming odds.
This paper addresses the central question through descriptive analysis and draws upon diverse sources of
data that include (1) teacher surveys, work, and discussion, (2) examination of past test questions and prescribed
science syllabi, (3) review of current efforts involving community-based, culturally responsive science in
comparison with efforts to develop school science curriculum, and (4) an assessment in the local context of
curricular and material constraints and opportunities.
Both authors are experienced science educators with ties to Sierra Leone. Kamanda was born and raised in
Sierra Leone. He held various positions in science education at Njala University College, including directorship of
the Science Curriculum Development Centre, before the war and moved to the United States. He is currently
involved in the development of education and health initiatives in Sierra Leone, through Operation Classroom and
CITA International, a faith-based non-governmental organization. Frazier was a Peace Corps Volunteer in Sierra
Leone from 1976-78. He taught secondary mathematics and science and provided primary teacher training in
science. Kamanda and Frazier are members of a volunteer team from the United States working through Operation
Classroom (a program sponsored by the United Methodist Church).
Our specific project involved a math teacher workshop, a science teacher workshop (the focus of this
paper), and building a block of classrooms that would enable a targeted school to develop its senior secondary
program. (See Hedd, 2004, for a description of the school system in Sierra Leone.) Workshops and materials,
building expenses, and the transportation, feeding, and lodging of the volunteer team and teacher participants were
funded by the team and through donations. The director of Operation Classroom in Sierra Leone, staff from the
school, and volunteers from a local UMC church made arrangements for accommodating and feeding the thirty
teachers who came from twenty schools around the country. Though the sponsoring group was affiliated with the
UMC, teachers came from schools sponsored by Roman Catholic, other Protestant, and Muslim groups. While a
significant number of schools in Sierra Leone are affiliated with such groups, membership in a particular religion is
not required of students or teachers. Government pays teachers’ salaries and all schools are under the jurisdiction of
the Ministry of Education. We planned a weeklong series of sessions that began with discussion of reasons for
teaching science, learning theory, the prescribed government science syllabus, and assessment—including the all
4
important external examinations. Much of the week involved rotation through a set of activities organized around
water and related to particular content standards in several specific science disciplines. Questions for investigation
structured the activities further with a combination of directed and open-ended procedures. Apparatus ranged from
what was locally available, to that constructed from inexpensive materials, to imported items involving new
technology. Several activities used immediately accessible examples from the schoolyard and community.
Participants visited the Bumbuna hydroelectric site. The project had been disrupted by the war and offered for
teachers an embodiment of the promise and cost of national development and science. Along with sessions on
environmental education in Sierra Leone and plans for future partnership and professional development efforts,
teachers presented lessons they had designed as a result of inspiration and experience from the weeklong workshop.
Findings
The problems facing science teachers in Sierra Leone seem insurmountable. When asked to identify the
chief challenges, the majority of teachers speak of what they lack. While teachers do recognize the rhetoric of their
role as change agents, a deeper question remains as to the extent teachers actually imagine themselves as
empowered to effect change. The lingering hopelessness is counterbalanced by a nascent optimism and a
determination never to return to the state of chaos that existed in the past decade. But the question of how and what
will prove most effective and desirable for the improvement of science education remains.
Teachers were quite aware that their own local environment could have enormous potential as a source of
teaching material. They were often constrained by conceptions that success in science was solely determined by
passing marks on external examinations. Younger teachers were amazed at earlier exemplary efforts in science
education in Africa and Sierra Leone and were eager to acquire copies of units like “Tilapia” from the African
Primary Science Project. (See EDC, 1966 and Dyasi, 1980.) Of significance is the difference between reasons
teachers gave for teaching science in Sierra Leone and their perception of what is actually tested on the major
external examinations.
Ideas for future partnership and professional development include methods for reconciling motivations for
teaching science with objectives, techniques for better use of resources in the local environment—including the
manufacture of apparatus from locally available materials, and the solicitation from donors of reference materials,
standard laboratory equipment, and new technologies (Carlese, 1983; Swift, 1983; Hazeltine, 2003).
5
Why teach science in Sierra Leone?
During one of the initial sessions of the workshop, we raised the
question with participants about reasons for teaching science in Sierra Leone. Among the responses were:
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We teach science in order for our children to know about their health condition in order to improve
their living conditions.
In SL with regards to SL and development, science plays a role in development, how to use resources
in the country. With the help of science we can improve.
From development we can plan and set problems for ourselves for future, planning for today and the
future.
To know much about our environment.
Our children are so curious. We need to develop the trait in them.
The character of doing things.
Science helps us acquire skills. Technology.
Observation skill.
Science also helps children to change their attitudes and beliefs.
Let us talk about sterility. Traditional belief says sterility is caused by Bundu society/witchcraft.
Science says it is caused by gonorrhea, venereal disease.
In traditional settings, eating eggs by children is taboo. Now there are new ideas about nutrition.
Phases of moon cause by tortoise or rainbow. Now phases explained by science.
Disease prevention. We can learn about causes.
We can also learn about critical judgment.
In another session that followed, we began with a list of topics for teaching science in Sierra Leone that had
been derived from the earlier discussion. They included:
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Human health
Living conditions
National development
National planning
Learning
Environment
Curiosity
Skill acquisition
Students' attitudes
Disease prevention
Knowledge construction
Critical judgment
We hoped to use the list to structure the development of relevant plans for lessons
and activities. When we asked the question, “How would the items on this list compare with ideas tested in the
West African Examinations Council Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE),” the participants exclaimed,
“They would not!”
All students in Sierra Leone prepare for the BECE during their Junior Secondary Schooling. It is a high
stakes test. We examined released items from the 1997 version. Most of the questions demand recall of specific
information. Examples include:
6
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Name any four common elements and give their corresponding scientific symbols.
Name any four organs of the digestive system.
State three common characteristics of living things.
State three ways by which heat is transferred and briefly explain using suitable examples how the
transfer is carried out each way.
The few “why” questions posed require specific factual responses. For example, one question asked, “Why
does a living thing need food?” No questions reviewed involve interpretation and analysis of real data. No questions
ask for the development of a scientific argument based on data. Two questions do approach issues of science and
society:
Give one good and one bad effect in each case of scientific discovery in
1)
Agriculture
2)
Medicine
State one negative effect of each of the following on man and the environment:
i)
deforestation
ii)
flooding
We had access to two texts produced in 2002 and 2004. The first, Sierra Leone and the environment: A
handbook for environmental education is a product of a partnership between Friends of the Earth Sierra Leone and
One Sky, The Canadian Institute of Sustainable Living. It was written by teachers and environmental educators from
both Sierra Leone and Canada. A significant number of activities are adapted from North American sources and
have been modified to make examples and cases more relevant to Sierra Leone. There are, however, no specific
references to names of plants, animals, landforms, or natural processes in any of Sierra Leone’s local languages. The
treatment of tropical forests is somewhat general. The only plant species named in botanical Latin is from Southeast
Asia. In a section on the conservation of biodiversity nine species of plant and animal are named in Latin and are
indigenous to western and central Africa. Real data on HIV/AIDS in Africa is supplied in a section on Human
Health and the Environment.
We received copies from Friends of the Earth Sierra Leone that were distributed to the teacher participants.
There was great excitement among the group upon receiving the text and we comment on teachers’ perceptions of
the challenges and opportunities facing them in the next section of the paper. Sierra Leone and the Environment
does address a good number of topics from the participant-generated list of items related to reasons for teaching
science in Sierra Leone. These topics include living conditions, human health, national development, national
planning, environment, and disease prevention. The handbook makes no references to subject matter syllabi or
preparation for the BECE.
7
The Junior Secondary Integrated Science for Sierra Leone series (Davies, King, Harding, and Sam, 2004)
is specifically “written for pupils preparing for the Basic Education Certificate Examination” (BECE). We were able
to obtain inspection copies of Pupil’s Book 1. Participants in the workshop had heard of the series but had not yet
seen copies. No one among the group felt that their students would be able to find copies for purchase and that the
cost would prevent many from buying a copy if and when it became available.
Six themes are covered in Book 1. The first is called “Science and society: Science is a way of doing and
knowing things.” On the second page of the first section, “What is science,” paragraphs are devoted to
“Superstitions, beliefs, and taboos” as well as “Good and bad effects of science.” The good effects are listed as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Science keeps us in good health—science has discovered cures, for example, for many diseases.
Science makes work easier by improving technology.
Science makes communication and transportation easier by developing aeroplanes, satellites,
telephones, and motorcars.
Science helps change our ways of thinking.
Bad effects are:
1.
2.
3.
Warfare is one use of science that makes life worse.
Pollution from industries and agriculture is becoming a serious problem.
Poisonous chemicals from mining areas are damaging the environment.
The other five themes are the universe, energy, matter, ecology, and continuity and change. Questions at
the end of the chapters are mostly in the form of multiple choice and largely request answers of a factual nature.
Activities (called Tasks) are interspersed through the chapters. Many involve practical (hands-on) work.
Photographs depict scenes and examples from Sierra Leone. Specific places in Sierra Leone are named and familiar
plants and animals are used. A few decision-making activities are included among those that appear in the ecology
section. Elements of Book 1 suggest an attempt by the authors to bridge the demands of an exam-driven syllabus
with some of the recommendations derived from research in the teaching and learning of science.
Challenges and resources for teaching science in Sierra Leone
After the initial discussion of why
science should be taught in Sierra Leone, we asked participants to list the three greatest challenges to teaching
science in Sierra Leone. Out of the possible 90 challenges (for 30 participants), 70 involved some kind of lack,
absence, or inadequate supply of material, books, chemicals, apparatus, etc. Time limitations were mentioned three
times. Some challenges were mentioned only once but indicate complications that could result from the poverty of
resources. Poor motivation, inadequate compensation and incentives for teachers, linguistic interference,
predominant practices like teacher exposition and descriptions of experiments in the abstract, little or no
8
administrative support in the school, and insufficient command of the subject by teachers were all listed at least
once.
At the midpoint of the workshop before we investigated science teaching resources in the local
environment, we asked participants to list three resources they had for teaching science. The predominant items
included plants and animals (16 times), specifically named plants, plant products, and animals (13 times). Materials
like water, soil, clay, wood, batteries, foil, charcoal, and kerosene were mentioned next in frequency, along with
discarded objects like bottles and tins. Some landforms (rivers, mountains) and earth processes were mentioned like
rain, wind, and solar radiation. Local technology was offered a few times in examples like the “wonder stove” (used
as a heat source in the activities we had planned), local blacksmiths, gara dyers (tie-dye), herbalists, soda-soap
makers, and local ceramicists/potters. On several occasions problems were mentioned again in terms of the lack of
something.
The workshop
Eight activities provided a core set of experiences for the workshop. We selected water
as a unifying theme in the hope of capturing a number of links to the science syllabus. Our intention was to use a
locally available resource and to explore aspects of this resource from a variety of perspectives, commensurate with
the short time available for the workshop. Kamanda had been away from Sierra Leone for more than a decade and
Frazier had last been in the country in 1978 when his Peace Corps service ended, thus some uncertainty surrounded
the appropriateness of our approach. Our question, what are the most effective and desirable ways to support and
rebuild science education and science teacher development in Sierra Leone, informed decisions about how to
structure the workshop and how to punctuate activity with discussion and reflection. Each element of the workshop
was a kind of probe to elicit information that could be used to address our question.
The eight activities invited participant to investigate questions clustered around 1) water in the community,
2) life in water, 3) water in plants, 4) water flow (siphons and pumps), 5) water and heat, 6) surface tension of water,
7) density of water and palm oil, salt water, and vinegar, and 8) electrolysis of water using battery, dynamo, and
solar panel. Each activity included a set of directions, information, challenges, and questions. Some were focused
and some more open-ended. Each activity was scheduled for 90 minutes, which provided enough time for some
groups for some activities but not for others. Groups posted comments, difficulties, and results on chart paper at
various times.
Two of the activities and sets of comments follow:
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Water in the community. Mapping of water resources and systems. Calculations of human water use. Watershed
model.
A) Examine the schoolyard and neighborhood. Create a sketch map.
B) Where are the sources of water used by the school and the nearby community?
C) Locate any water courses nearby. Include them on your map. Collect samples. Take temperatures. Record
observations and data.
D) In your group discuss the “watersheds” in which you live and work.
E) How do human beings use water?
F) Calculate the number of liters of water you use in one day (on the average)?
G) Estimate the human water use in a small city like Makeni. Explain your calculations and estimations.
H) Examine the environmental curricular materials designed by Sierra Leoneans for Sierra Leone.
I) How might questions and investigations about the water cycle, watersheds, and water use serve as relevant
examples of scientific topics for secondary science students in Sierra Leone?
J) Discuss the links between such ideas and the science syllabus and the critical examinations students aspire to
pass?
K) Review the watershed model provided. As a group invent a model that might realistically portray the watershed in
which your own school is situated.
L) What is the relationship between water quality and human health?
M) If time permits, test some samples of water collected during your neighborhood survey (we have a limited amount
of water quality testing materials).
Results:
Four of the eight groups produced maps. There were three significant variations on the orientation
of the school building and a local prominent landmark. Two of the maps showed both bird’s eye and frontal
views on the same sketch. The other two depicted only a bird’s eye view. Only one group shared estimates
of water use.
Comments from participants:
 Problems encountered:
o Location of site of map
o Calculation of the number of litres of water used per person per day in the city of Makeni
o Environmental curricular material designed by Sierra Leoneans for Sierra Leone
o The meaning of watersheds
 Difficulty in sketching an accurate map of the schoolyard and neighborhood
 Sketching of school environment was a problem and to even estimate the population of Makeni town.
Quantity of water used by individuals was also a problem to estimate for uses of water by individual
varies.
 Problems in sketching the map.
 Incomplete work due to late arrival of lunch.
Exploring water flow. Siphons and pumps.
You will need:
A supply of water; a basin; several containers of different sizes; tubing of different diameters and lengths; the plastic
pump/siphon. Funnels. Stopwatch.
A) Practice starting the siphon by filling a length of tubing completely with water. Hold your thumb firmly over the
end of the tubing and lift the tubing so that the uncovered end is down. Does the water remain in the tubing?
Explain.
B) With the tubing full of water and both ends covered with your thumbs, lower one end into a vessel of water that is
positioned above a second vessel. Lower the other end of the tubing so that it can flow into the lower vessel.
Release your lower thumb and then your upper thumb. Do not let the upper tubing come out of the water (the
siphon will stop).
C) Observe and record.
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D) After each member of the group is successful at starting a siphon (you may NOT use your mouth so that it is in
physical contact with the tube!), begin an investigation of the factors that seem important in determining the rate
of siphoning.
E) You might consider: The height of water in the upper vessel; The distance between the level of water in the upper
vessel and the end of the tubing; The length of the tubing; The diameter of the tubing; The straight distance
between the upper end of the tubing and the lower end; other factors suggested by your group.
F) Design an experiment or contest to see how fast a fixed volume of water can be emptied from a vessel by
siphoning. How will various factors (variables) be controlled? What will be measured? How will these quantities
be measured? How will you keep the experiment and/or contest fair?
G) What relationship, if any, exists between siphons and pumps?
H) Explain your thinking.
Results:
Two groups shared results from the water flow activity. In response to F) one group wrote some
initial directions but did not complete the procedure. The other group produced times for two trials but did
not specify any volumes of water or other parameters.
Comments from participants:
 Problems:
o Size and length of the tubing had an adverse effect on the rate of flow of the water.
o It was difficult to fill the small and long tubing with water.
o It was difficult to measure the accurate time taken for the different tubings.
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Choking H2O
The identification of apparatus
There was variation in timing and identification of apparatus
The method of controlling the various factors affecting the rate of H2O flow in the siphon
Five groups produced and shared results for the water in plants activity. Most of the charts included only
sketches of plants used for the transpiration investigation. During the sessions devoted to activities, Frazier and
Kamanda would circulate from group to group, conducting flexible interviews, providing assistance and additional
instruction, demonstrating aspects of a procedure and use of equipment, and answering questions. Our informal
impressions were that the participants were engaged and remained focused on the various tasks, even when the
directives were unfamiliar or distractions intruded.
All of the activity surrounding the project attracted crowds of children and adults. Construction of the new
classroom block took place during both the math teacher and science teacher workshops. The open design of the
existing classrooms invited observation by curious children. Older students were eager to follow the teacher
participants in their use of apparatus: microscopes, solar panel, hand-cranked dynamos, wonder stove, siphons,
balances, water test strips, magnetic compasses, thermometers, etc.
All eight groups had completed all eight activities by the end of the third day of the workshop. On the
fourth day a field trip to a hydroelectric project was planned. The results of this trip will be discussed subsequently.
As a culminating assignment, groups were directed to develop a plan that they would eventually use with their
11
students and that involved the topic area of one of the workshop activities. A planning format was provided. Groups
were asked to include links between their plan and reasons the participants had offered for teaching science in Sierra
Leone. The plan was also to have connections to the “real world” and to take account of difficulties or barriers
students might experience. Each group presented their plan and provided a written copy.
Plans fell into two large categories. One set resembled an approach like that used in preparation for the
BECE. For example, the group that prepared a plan to investigate electrolysis, asked several questions:
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How do we call the process by which electric current is passed in molten solution?
How do we call the media or the substance through which the electric current is passed?
How do we call the poles? (Identify these poles.)
Draw a diagram showing the processes involved.
The model diagram showed a tank with “acified” water (electrolyte), inverted test tubes over platinum
electrodes connected to “a cell.” Since the majority of participants had mentioned lack of equipment as a significant
challenge, the use of platinum electrodes in the model “answer” indicates a reference to the exam rather than
experience. The electrolysis tank we used was a locally available plastic dish with locally purchased stainless steel
screws inserted through the bottom. Locally purchased waterproof glue was used to seal the holes where the screws
had been inserted.
The other set of plans reproduced quite closely the activities we had organized for the participants. Lesson
objectives in the plan from the water in plants group read:
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Pupils should be able to enclose five different leaves: 1) paw paw, 2) mango, 3) Nauclea latifolia, 4)
acacia, 5) Never die (Bryophyllum pinnatum) in a zipper plastic bag attached to their parent plants.
Pupils should be able to detach, sketch, and describe the above leaves in their exercise books.
Pupils should be able to measure the volume (quantity) of water transpired from 9 am to 1 pm from the
five different leaves enclosed in the zipper plastic bag and tell which plant transpires most and least
respectively.
Pupils should be able to observe, recognize, and identify familiar plant cuttings like cassava or never
die (Bryophyllum pinnatum) that will grow roots if cuttings from the mother plant are placed in water.
With the use of the microscope, pupils should be able to examine mounts of the upper and under
surfaces of a leaf previously selected, and draw structures seen.
Pupils should be able to tell which surface of the leaf has more stomata and describe such structures.
Pupils should be able to give the functions of water in plants.
None of the plans showed strong links to the reasons participants had given (earlier in the week) for
teaching science in Sierra Leone. No modifications for particular students were evident, especially in those plans
that reproduced tasks from the workshop activities. None of the plans mentioned difficulties children might
encounter. None of the plans make particular use of the list of challenges and resources generated by participants
earlier in the week.
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Field Trip to Bumbuna Hydro-electric project
The field trip to the site of the Bumbuna hydroelectric
project presented a unique opportunity for the teachers, workshop instructors, and project supporters. Frazier
composed the Operation Classroom team journal entry describing the trip (see Operation Classroom UMC Makeni
Secondary School project website):
On Thursday we – 30 participants, Saffa, Mr. Sesay, Reverend Kargbo, Daniel and I loaded onto
the school bus for a trip to Bumbuma – to see the chief, the dam and the waterfall. Before we left, Reverend
Kargbo offered a blessing for the journey. The bus started and began to move. Daniel stood up and
exclaimed, “Stop. Listen, everyone. This man has done the most important thing, and he has no proper seat.
(Reverend Kargbo was sitting on one of the small chairs brought in from the parsonage.) The bus is not
moving until someone gives him a place.” One of the teachers complied and we were on our way. After the
turn at Magburaka – new territory for some of us. More diversity in trees. A Guinea fowl in the road. Mr.
Sesay described and continued to respond to questions. Ma – in the place names in Themne land. Wonder if
it is a borrowing from the “Ma” prefix in Arabic. Dramatic igneous knobs and outcrops. Rice farms. The
driver does well, many of the participants anticipate the site – and the tastes. Giggles about “African
beverage.” We meet the young chief in his compound. Interesting tree in front – fruiting – epiphytes
(orchids?) and weaver birds. Saffa introduces the chief as an academician – Daniel and the chief connect as
Albert Academy alumni. The dam site amazes everyone. A guide – Dennis Kargbo gives explanations on a
brief tour. I’m not exactly certain how “real” the function of the dam is for everyone. Hard to imagine --We should have had the teachers sketch their own images of the dam and hydroelectric project.
What a pleasant and jovial crew! The teachers have been a delight – their enthusiasm and general
good will is most hopeful. The trek to the waterfall was a great bonus. Bush path, forging a stream barefoot.
Waterside plants – several teachers note individual plants and bush foods. Wish there were time for more
exploration. On the way – Daniel runs barefoot through a disrupted run of driver ants. I think I got a snap.
A thought – school forests – as a way to make use of the schoolyard – building a living botanical library,
filling the gap with the loss of traditional knowledge. The participants were properly awed at the falls. Not
so high as Bikongo on the Sewa – but wide and roaring. Lots of pictures. Waterside stones collected as
souvenirs. “waterside stone no de fred ren.” While several of us said goodbye to the chief – with pictures,
others enjoyed the “poyo.” The latter makes for an interesting ride back – lots of laughter and oratory –
Many said “a once in a lifetime experience!”
A poignant contrast to the congenial trip is the testimony of a student in Freetown, the capital of Sierra
Leone. Foday Conteh is only one of many quoted in a BBC story about “Living in a city without power” (FajahBarrie, 2005):
I have just been promoted to the Honours year of my degree, but I must confess that it has been through
difficult circumstances that I have reached this level.
Freetown's lack of power and electricity makes learning very hard. Nearly every night of my entire 17 years
of educational life has been spent studying by candlelight. And I know that it will remain so until I
complete my degree course.
The following list includes questions workshop participants had about the dam:
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What is the fall of the river?
What is the source of the river?
What is the name of the river?
Where is the dam?
What people work there?
What is the height of the fall?
What is the effect on the environment?
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What is the timeline for completion?
How much electricity will it make?
What is the history of the project?
How much area will the dam and lake cover?
What is the temperature of the water?
What life is in the water?
What is the lifespan of the water?
What is the economic benefit?
What is the height of dam?
What security measures are taken?
What about cultural beliefs--someone must die before turbine can generate electricity?
What are the hazards and safety measure at the dam and near power lines?
How does water generate electricity?
None of the plans produced by participants made much mention or use of experiences and ideas related to
the Bumbuna field trip. Only the group looking at water in the community includes a reference:
In Bumbuna, we were told a lot of things like the height of the dam, the inlet and outlets of the water, the
spill over that will prevent the overflow of water, etc.
In discussion with various participants at the dam site, it seems that several had questions about how electricity
could be generated from the flow of water. When referring to the workshop activity with electrolysis, some
participants seemed to grapple with potential conflation of the hand-cranked dynamo to produce an electric current
in order to electrolyze water and the flow of water against a turbine-cranked generator to produce electricity.
What comes next?
Our final discussion with participants focused on the question: What comes next? We saw this question as
following naturally from our original one: What are the most effective and desirable ways to support and rebuild
science education and science teacher development in Sierra Leone? Particular ideas from this final discussion
included:
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Annual workshops
Scholarships and materials for teachers and other incentives and encouragements
A timeframe extended to two weeks for the workshop
Computers
Mini laboratory
Lab aid
Five minutes prayer before each session
Change of venue
Clear expectations regarding expenses and support from schools
Policy of commitment from teacher and school
Clear statement of commitment from Operation Classroom
Richards (2005) in an analysis of the recent and related conflicts in Liberia and Sierra Leone points toward
an intractable class system that supplies exploited labor and fuels discontent among those disaffected rural youth
14
who joined the rebels. Without major reform in long-standing social and political institutions, Richards contends, the
causes of the violent conflict remain. The rebuilding and reform of the educational system in Sierra Leone is
particularly complex given the recent history of violent conflict, the devastation arising from the civil war, and the
persistent cycle of poverty that has afflicted the nation. The reasons our workshop participants gave for teaching
science in Sierra Leone contrast with what they perceived as necessary for passing the Basic Education Certificate
Examination. Lesson objectives rarely connect with the reasons listed and plans for the future emphasize logistical
concerns and compensation. While teachers espouse the idea that “with the help of science we can improve,” the
steps toward that improvement remain vague and undefined. Teachers see the challenges of teaching as
characterized primarily by insufficient and absent resources. Two ideas missing from discussion by teachers were
community-based projects where students apply the science they learn in meaningful ways and attention to strategic
formative assessment of individual students’ learning. The first stands in contrast with the evident consciousness in
Sierra Leone of the needs of orphans, amputees, child soldiers, and victims of wartime rape in addition to general
problems of health, nutrition, agriculture, employment, and education. A number of NGOs and self-help projects
and agencies are focused on such innumerable needs. The second may be a result of high stakes testing as the sole
determination of success in school. Teachers rarely told stories of their students and conversations would move
frequently to the challenges of teaching in difficult circumstances.
On the other hand, teachers recognized the potential of using the rich teaching resources of the local
environment (though we saw little in depth reference in the lesson plans). Opportunities to relate to the traditional
cultural world and to the natural world would always bring delight to the teachers. The enthusiasm teachers showed
for books, apparatus, and both new and local technologies made all the more poignant the absence of such resources
from their schools. In spite of the overwhelming difficulties facing teachers in Sierra Leone, we found a depth of
spirit that remained hopeful and a strong determination never to return to the chaos of the war years. In spite of the
challenges and uncertainty, we continue to take seriously the idea that science holds promise for improving lives.
The goal of increasing access to that promise for the very poorest of nations is a great concern for us all.
Prior to our departure from Freetown, UMC Bishop Humper, who chaired the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission for Sierra Leone said, “We failed our children. We must never let that happen again.”
A note on Sierra Leone and the United States Sierra Leone has a long, sometimes hidden, and fascinating
history of connection with the United States. Much of that history involves deep and labyrinthine paths of nature,
science, and society. Several signers of the Declaration of Independence acquired slaves from Sierra Leone who had
expertise in rice cultivation. The wealth of these founding fathers accrued from the exploitation of African
15
indigenous science and labor (Carney, 2001; Littlefield, 1981; Opala, 1987). The curious geology of diamonds in the
country is portentously connected with the funding of terrorist activities by Al Qaeda (Farah, 2004; also recall
Skuce, 2002 mentioned above ). Partnerships that began in the 1960’s, like that between the Educational
Development Center and the African Primary Science Project (DeVries, 2002, for example) and between institutions
like the University of Illinois (Scheven, 1989) and Njala University College (Paraka, 2002), brought African and
American science educators together through the 1980’s and have in turn yielded unmeasured influence today on
science education nationally and internationally.
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Dyasi, H. M. (1980): Some environmental activities in Africa. The Journal of
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Education Development Center, Inc. (1965-76). African Primary Science Program.
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Science in Africa: Africa’s First On-Line Science Magazine. Issue 2. Online at url =
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Noutcha, A.E.M. (2004). Powerless Science. In African Scientists on African Science. TWAS Newsletter,
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Opalla, J. (1987). The Gullah: Rice, Slavery, and the Sierra Leone-American Connection. Online at url =
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Operation Classroom—UMC Makeni Secondary School Project website. Online at url =
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Paraka, D.J. (2002). The Athens of West Africa: International Education at Fourah Bay College, 18142002. Southeastern Regional Seminar in African Studies. Online at url =
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Pryor, J. and Ampiah, J.G. (2003). Understandings of education in an African village: The Impact of
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Sesay, M.L. (2004). The rebuilding of Kamabai Secondary School. School Science Review, 86 (314). P.
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