Chapter 1
Chapter 1
Introduction to Networking
1
Introduction to Networking
Overview
The Internet is a valuable resource, and connection to it is essential for business,
industry, and education. Building a network that will connect to the Internet requires careful
planning. Even for the individual user some planning and decisions are necessary. The
computer itself must be considered, as well as the device itself that makes the connection to
the local-area network (LAN), such as the network interface card or modem. The correct
protocol must be configured so that the computer can connect to the Internet. Proper selection
of a web browser is also important.
Students completing this lesson should be able to:

Understand the physical connection that has to take place for a computer to
connect to the Internet.

Recognize the components that comprise the computer.

Install and troubleshoot network interface cards and/or modems.

Use basic testing procedures to test the Internet connection.

Demonstrate a basic understanding of the use of web browsers and plug-ins.
1.1 Connecting to the Internet
1.1.1 Requirements for Internet connection
The Internet is the largest data network on earth. The Internet consists of a multitude of
interconnected networks both large and small. At the edge of this giant network is the
individual consumer computer. Connection to the Internet can be broken down into the
physical connection, the logical connection, and the application.
A physical connection is made by connecting a specialized expansion card such as a
modem or a network interface card (NIC) from a computer (PC) to a network. The physical
connection is used to transfer signals between PCs within the local network and to remote
devices on the Internet.
The logical connection uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a formal
description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network
communicate. Connections to the Internet may use multiple protocols. The Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the primary protocol used on the Internet.
TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that work together to transmit data.
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The application that interprets the data and displays the information in an
understandable form is the last part of the connection. Applications work with protocols to
send and receive data across the Internet. A web browser displays Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) as a web page. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to download files and
programs from the Internet. Web browsers also use proprietary plug-in applications to display
special data types such as movies or flash animations.
This is an introductory view of the Internet, and it may seem an overly simple process.
As the topic is explored in greater depth, it will become apparent that sending data across the
Internet is a complicated task.
1.1.2 PC basics
Because computers are important building blocks in a network, it is important to be able
to recognize and name the major components of a PC. Many networking devices are
themselves special purpose computers, with many of the same components as normal PCs.
In order to use a computer as a reliable means of obtaining information, such as
accessing Web-based curriculum, it must be in good working order. To keep a PC in good
working order will require occasional troubleshooting of simple problems with the computer
hardware and software. Therefore it is necessary to be able to recognize the names and
purposes of the following PC components:
Small, Discrete Components

Transistor – Device that amplifies a signal or opens and closes a circuit.

Integrated circuit (IC) – Device made of semiconductor material that contains
many transistors and performs a specific task.

Resistor – Device made of material that opposes the flow of electric current.

Capacitor – Electronic component that stores energy in the form of an electrostatic
field that consists of two conducting metal plates separated by an insulating
material.

Connector – The part of a cable that plugs into a port or interface.

Light emitting diode (LED) – Semiconductor device that emits light when a
current passes through it.
Personal Computer Subsystems

Printed circuit board (PCB) – A thin plate on which chips or integrated circuits and
other electronic components are placed.

CD-ROM drive – Compact disk read-only memory drive, which is a device that
can read information from a CD-ROM.
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Central processing unit (CPU) – The brains of the computer where most
calculations take place.

Floppy disk drive – A disk drive that can read and write to floppy disks.

Hard disk drive – The device that reads and writes data on a hard disk.

Microprocessor – A silicon chip that contains a CPU.

Motherboard – The main circuit board of a microcomputer

Bus – A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of a
computer to another.

Random-access memory (RAM) – Also known as Read-Write memory, new data
can be written to it and stored data can be read from it. RAM requires electrical
power to maintain data storage. If the computer is turned off or loses power, all
data stored in RAM is lost.

Read-only memory (ROM) – Computer memory on which data has been
prerecorded. Once data has been written onto a ROM chip, it cannot be removed
and can only be read.

System unit – The main part of a PC, which includes the chassis, microprocessor,
main memory, bus, and ports. The system unit does not include the keyboard,
monitor, or any external devices connected to the computer.

Expansion slot – A socket on the motherboard where a circuit board can be inserted
to add new capabilities to the computer.

Power supply – The component that supplies power to a computer.
Backplane Components

Backplane – The large circuit board that contains sockets for expansion cards.

Network interface card (NIC) – An expansion board inserted into a computer so
that the computer can be connected to a network.

Video card – A board that plugs into a PC to give it display capabilities.

Audio card – An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate and
output sounds.

Parallel port – An interface capable of transferring more than one bit
simultaneously that is used to connect external devices such as printers.

Serial port – An interface that can be used for serial communication, in which only
1 bit is transmitted at a time.

Mouse port – A port designed for connecting a mouse to a PC.

Power cord – A cord used to connect an electrical device to an electrical outlet that
provides power to the device.
Think of the internal components of a PC as a network of devices, which are all attached
to the system bus. In a sense, a PC is a small computer network.
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Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: PC Hardware
This lab introduces the basic peripheral components of a PC computer system and PC
connections including network attachment.
1.1.3 Network interface card
A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board that provides network
communication capabilities to and from a personal computer.
Also called a LAN adapter, it
resides in a slot on the motherboard and provides an interface connection to the network
media. The type of NIC must match the media and protocol used on the local network.
The NIC communicates with the network through a serial connection and with the
computer through a parallel connection. The NIC uses an Interrupt Request (IRQ), an I/O
address, and upper memory space to work with the operating system. An IRQ is a signal
informing the CPU that an event needing attention has occurred. An IRQ is sent over a
hardware line to the microprocessor when a key is pressed on the keyboard. Then the CPU
enables transmission of the character from the keyboard to RAM. An I/O address is a location
in the memory used to enter data or retrieve data from a computer by an auxiliary device.
Upper memory refers to the memory area between the first 640 kilobytes (KB) and 1
megabyte (MB) of RAM.
When selecting a NIC, consider the following factors:

Protocols – Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI

Types of media – Twisted-pair, coaxial, wireless, or fiber-optic

Type of system bus – PCI or ISA
Interactive Media Activity
PhotoZoom: Network Interface Card
In this PhotoZoom, the student will view a network interface card.
1.1.4 NIC and modem installation
Connectivity to the Internet requires an adapter card, which may be a modem or NIC.
A modem, or modulator-demodulator, is a device that provides the computer with
connectivity to a telephone line. The modem converts (modulates) the data from a digital
signal to an analog signal that is compatible with a standard phone line. The modem at the
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receiving end demodulates the signal, which converts it back to digital. Modems may be
installed internally or attached externally to the computer using a serial or USB interface.
The installation of a NIC, which provides the interface for a host to the network, is
required for each device on the network. NICs are available in different types depending on
the individual device configuration. Notebook computers may have a built-in interface or use
a PCMCIA card. Figure shows PCMCIA wired and wireless NICs. Desktop systems may
use an internal or external NIC.
Situations that require NIC installation include the following:

Adding a NIC to a PC that does not already have one

Replacing a bad or damaged NIC

Upgrading from a 10-Mbps NIC to a 10/100-Mbps NIC
To perform the installation of a NIC or modem the following resources may be required:

Knowledge of how the adapter is configured, including jumpers and plug-and-play
software

Availability of diagnostic tools

Ability to resolve hardware resource conflicts
1.1.5 Overview of high-speed and dial-up connectivity
In the early 1960s, modems were introduced to provide connectivity for dumb terminals
to a centrally based computer. Many companies used to rent computer time due to the expense
of owning an on-site system, which was cost prohibitive. The connection rate was very slow,
300 bits per second (bps), translating to about 30 characters per second.
As PCs became more affordable in the 1970s, Bulletin Board Systems (BBS) appeared.
These BBSs allowed users to connect and post or read messages on a discussion board.
Running at 300 bps was acceptable, as this exceeds the speed at which most people can read
or type. In the early 1980s, use of bulletin boards increased exponentially and the 300 bps
speed quickly became too slow for the transfer of large files and graphics. By the 1990s
modems were running at 9600 bps and reached the current standard of 56 kbps (56,000 bps)
by 1998.
Inevitably the high-speed services used in the corporate environment, such as Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL) and cable modem access, moved to the consumer market. These
services no longer required expensive equipment or a second phone line. These are "always
on" services that provide instant access and do not require a connection to be established for
each session. This gives greater reliability and flexibility, and has led to the ease of Internet
connection sharing by small office and home networks.
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1.1.6 TCP/IP description and configuration
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is a set of protocols or rules
developed to allow cooperating computers to share resources across a network. To enable
TCP/IP on the workstation, it must be configured using the operating system tools. The
process is very similar whether using a Windows or Mac operating system.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: PC Network TCP/IP Configuration
In this lab, the student will identify tools used to discover a computer network
configuration with various operating systems.
1.1.7 Testing connectivity with ping
Ping is a utility used to verify Internet connectivity. It is named after the sonar operation
used to locate and determine the distance to an underwater object.
The ping command works by sending multiple IP packets to a specified destination.
Each packet sent is a request for a reply. The output response for a ping contains the success
ratio and round-trip time to the destination. From this information, it is possible to determine
if there is connectivity to a destination. The ping command is used to test the NIC
transmit/receive function, the TCP/IP configuration, and network connectivity. The following
examples describe the types of ping tests that are commonly used in a network:

ping 127.0.0.1 - This ping is unique and is called an internal loopback test. It
verifies the operation of the TCP/IP stack and NIC transmit/receive function.

ping IP address of host computer - A ping to a host PC verifies the TCP/IP address
configuration for the local host and connectivity to the host.

ping default-gateway IP address - A ping to the default gateway verifies whether
the router that connects the local network to other networks can be reached.

ping remote destination IP address - A ping to a remote destination verifies
connectivity to a remote host.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Using ping and tracert from a Workstation
In this lab, the student will learn to use the TCP/IP Packet Internet Grouper (ping)
command and the Trace Route (tracert) command from a workstation.
1.1.8 Web browser and plug-ins
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A web browser performs the following functions:

Contacts a web server

Requests information

Receives information

Displays the results on the screen
A web browser is software that interprets hypertext markup language (HTML), one of
the languages used to code web page content. Other markup languages with more advanced
features are part of the emerging technology. HTML, the most common markup language, can
display graphics, play sound, movies, and other multimedia files. Hyperlinks are embedded in
a web page providing a quick link to another location on the same or an entirely different web
page.
Two of the most popular web browsers are Internet Explorer (IE) and Netscape
Communicator. While identical in the tasks they perform, there are differences between these
two browsers. Some websites may not support the use of one or the other, and it can be
beneficial to have both programs installed on the computer.
Netscape Navigator:

The first popular browser

Takes less disk space

Displays HTML files, performs e-mail and file transfers, and other functions
Internet Explorer (IE):

Powerfully integrated with other Microsoft products

Takes more disk space

Displays HTML files, performs e-mail and file transfers, and other functions
There are also many special, or proprietary, file types that standard web browsers are not
able to display. To view these files the browser must be configured to use the plug-in
applications. These applications work in conjunction with the browser to launch the program
required to view the following special files:

Flash – plays multimedia files, which was created by Macromedia Flash

Quicktime – plays video files, which was created by Apple

Real Player – plays audio files
In order to install the Flash plug-in, do the following:

Go to the Macromedia website.

Download .exe file. (flash32.exe)

Run and install in Netscape or IE
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
Verify installation and proper operation by accessing the Cisco Academy website
Beyond getting the computer configured to view the Cisco Academy curriculum,
computers perform many other useful tasks. In business, employees regularly use a set of
applications that come in the form of an office suite, such as Microsoft Office. Office
applications typically include the following:

Spreadsheet software contains tables consisting of columns and rows, and it is
often used with formulas to process and analyze data.

A word processor is an application used to create and edit text documents. Modern
word processors allow the user to create sophisticated documents, which include
graphics and richly formatted text.

Database management software is used to store, maintain, organize, sort, and filter
records. A record is a collection of information identified by some common theme
such as customer name.

Presentation software is used to design and develop presentations to deliver at
meetings, classes, or sales presentations.

A personal information manager includes an e-mail utility, contact lists, a calendar,
and a to-do list.
Office applications are now a part of every day work, as typewriters were before the
personal computer.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Web Browser Basics
In this lab, the student will learn how to use a web browser to access Internet sites and
become familiar with the concept of a URL.
1.1.9 Troubleshooting Internet connection problems
In this troubleshooting lab, problems exist in the hardware, software, and network
configurations. The goal, in a pre-determined length of time, is to locate and repair the
problems, which will eventually allow access to the curriculum. This lab will demonstrate the
complexity in configuring even the simple process of accessing the web. This includes the
processes and procedures involved with troubleshooting computer hardware, software, and
network systems.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Basic PC/Network Troubleshooting Process
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In this lab, the student will learn the proper sequence for troubleshooting computer and
network problems and become familiar with the more common hardware and software
problems.
1.2 Network Math
1.2.1 Binary presentation of data
Computers work with and store data using electronic switches that are either ON or OFF.
Computers can only understand and use data that is in this two-state or binary format. 1 is
represented by an ON state, and 0 is represented by an OFF state. The ones and zeros are used
to represent the two possible states of an electronic component in a computer. They are
referred to as binary digits or bits.
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is the most
commonly used code for representing alpha-numeric data in a computer. ASCII uses binary
digits to represent the symbols typed on the keyboard. When computers send ON/OFF states
over a network, electrical, light, or radio waves are used to represent the 1s and 0s. Notice that
each character has a unique pattern of eight binary digits assigned to represent the character.
Because computers are designed to work with ON/OFF switches, binary digits and
binary numbers are natural to them. Humans use the decimal number system, which is
relatively simple when compared to the long series of 1s and 0s used by computers. So the
computer binary numbers need to be converted to decimal numbers.
Sometimes binary numbers need to be converted to Hexadecimal (hex) numbers which
reduces a long string of binary digits to a few hexadecimal characters. This makes it easier to
remember and to work with the numbers.
1.2.2 Bits and bytes
A binary 0 might be represented by 0 volts of electricity (0 = 0 volts).
A binary 1 might be represented by +5 volts of electricity (1 = +5 volts).
Computers are designed to use groupings of eight bits. This grouping of eight bits is
referred to as a byte. In a computer, one byte represents a single addressable storage location.
These storage locations represent a value or single character of data, such as an ASCII code.
The total number of combinations of the eight switches being turned on and off is 256. The
value range of a byte is from 0 to 255. So a byte is an important concept to understand when
working with computers and networks.
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1.2.3 Base 10 number system
Numbering systems consist of symbols and rules for using those symbols. The most
commonly used numbering system is the decimal, or Base 10, numbering system. Base 10
uses the ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. These symbols, can be combined to
represent all possible numeric values.
The decimal number system is based on powers of 10. Each column position of a value,
from right to left, is multiplied by the number 10, which is the base number, raised to a power,
which is the exponent. The power that 10 is raised to depends on its position to the left of the
decimal point. When a decimal number is read from right to left, the first or rightmost
position represents 100 (1), the second position represents 101 (10 x 1= 10). The third position
represents 102 (10 x 10 =100). The seventh position to the left represents 106 (10 x 10 x 10 x
10 x 10 x 10 =1,000,000). This is true no matter how many columns the number has.
Example:
2134 = (2x103) + (1x102) + (3x101) + (4x100)
There is a 4 in the ones position, a 3 in the tens position, a 1 in the hundreds position,
and a 2 in the thousands position. This example seems obvious when the decimal number
system is used. Seeing exactly how the decimal system works is important because it is
needed to understand two other numbering systems, Base 2 and hexadecimal Base 16. These
systems use the same methods as the decimal system.
1.2.4 Base 2 number system
Computers recognize and process data using the binary, or Base 2, numbering system.
The binary system uses only two symbols, 0 and 1, instead of the ten symbols used in the
decimal numbering system. The position, or place, of each digit from right to left in a binary
number represents 2, the base number, raised to a power or exponent, starting from 0. These
place values are, from right to left, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27, or 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and
128 respectively.
Example:
101102 = (1 x 24 = 16) + (0 x 23 = 0) + (1 x 22 = 4) + (1 x 21 = 2) + (0 x 20 = 0) = 22 (16
+ 0 + 4 + 2 + 0)
If the binary number (101102) is read left to right, there is a 1 in the 16s position, a 0 in
the 8s position, a 1 in the 4s position, a 1 in the 2s position, and a 0 in the 1s position, which
adds up to decimal number 22.
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1.2.5 Converting decimal numbers to 8-bit binary numbers
There are several ways to convert decimal numbers to binary numbers. The flowchart in
Figure
describes one method. The process is trying to figure out which values of the power
of 2 that add together to get the decimal number being converted to a binary number. This
method is one of several methods that can be used. It is best to select one method and practice
with it until it always produces the correct answer.
Conversion exercise
Use the example below to convert the decimal number 168 to a binary number:

128 fits into 168. So the left most bit in the binary number is a 1. 168 - 128 leaves
40.

64 does not fit into 40. So the second bit in from the left is a 0.

32 fits into 40. So the third bit in from the left is a 1. 40 - 32 leaves 8.

16 does not fit into 8 so the fourth bit in from the left is a 0.

8 fits into 8. So the fifth bit in from the left is a 1. 8 - 8 leaves 0. So, the remaining
bits to the right are all 0.
Result: Decimal 168 = 10101000
For more practice, try converting decimal 255 to binary. The answer should be
11111111.
The number converter activity in Figure
will provide more practice.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Decimal to Binary Conversion
In this lab, the student will learn and practice to convert decimal values to binary values.
1.2.6 Converting 8-bit binary numbers to decimal numbers
There are two basic ways to convert binary numbers to decimal numbers. The flowchart
in Figure shows one example.
Binary numbers can also be converted to decimal numbers by multiplying the binary
digits by the base number of the system, which is Base 2, and raised to the exponent of its
position.
Example:
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Convert the binary number 01110000 to a decimal number.
Note: Work from right to left. Remember that anything raised to the 0 power is 1.
Therefore 20 = 1
0 x 20 = 0
0 x 21 = 0
0 x 22 = 0
0 x 23 = 0
1 x 24 = 16
1 x 25 = 32
1 x 26 = 64
+
0 x 27= 0
–––––––––––
112
Note: The sum of the powers of 2 that have a 1 in their position
The number converter activity will provide more practice.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Binary to Decimal Conversion
In this lab, the student will learn and practice the process of converting binary values to
decimal values.
1.2.7 Four-octet dotted decimal representation of 32-bit binary numbers
Currently, addresses assigned to computers on the Internet are 32-bit binary numbers.
To make it easier to work with these addresses, the 32-bit binary number is broken into a
series of decimal numbers. To do this, split the binary number into four groups of eight binary
digits. Then convert each group of eight bits, also known as an octet into its decimal
equivalent. Do this conversion exactly as was shown in the binary-to-decimal conversion
topic on the previous page.
When written, the complete binary number is represented as four groups of decimal
digits separated by periods. This is referred to as dotted decimal notation and provides a
compact, easy to remember way of referring to the 32 bit addresses. This representation is
used frequently later in this course, so it is necessary to understand it. When converting to
binary from dotted decimal, remember that each group, which consists of one to three decimal
digits represents a group of eight binary digits. If the decimal number that is being converted
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is less than 128, zeros will be needed to be added to the left of the equivalent binary number
until there are a total of eight bits.
Example:
Convert 200.114.6.51 to its 32-bit binary equivalent.
Convert 10000000 01011101 00001111 10101010 to its dotted decimal equivalent.
1.2.8 Hexadecimal
Hexadecimal (hex) is used frequently when working with computers since it can be used
to represent binary numbers in a more readable form. The computer performs computations
in binary, but there are several instances when the binary output of a computer is expressed in
hexadecimal to make it easier to read.
Converting a hexadecimal number to binary, and a binary number to hexadecimal, is a
common task when dealing with the configuration register in Cisco routers. Cisco routers
have a configuration register that is 16 bits long. The 16-bit binary number can be represented
as a four-digit hexadecimal number. For example, 0010000100000010 in binary equals 2102
in hex. The word hexadecimal is often abbreviated 0x when used with a value as shown with
the above number: 0x2102.
Like the binary and decimal systems, the hexadecimal system is based on the use of
symbols, powers, and positions. The symbols that hex uses are 0 - 9, and A, B, C, D, E, and
F.
Notice that all possible combinations of four binary digits have only one hexadecimal
symbol, where it takes two in decimal. The reason why hex is used is that two hexadecimal
digits, as opposed to decimal that would require up to four digits, can efficiently represent any
combination of eight binary digits. In allowing two decimal digits to represent four bits, using
decimal could also cause confusion in reading a value. For example, the eight bit binary
number 01110011 would be 115 if converted to decimal digits. Is that 11-5 or 1-15? If 11-5 is
used, the binary number would be 1011 0101, which is not the number originally converted.
Using hexadecimal, the conversion is 1F, which always converts back to 00011111.
Hexadecimal reduces an eight bit number to just two hex digits. This reduces the
confusion of reading long strings of binary numbers and the amount of space it takes to write
binary numbers. Remember that hexadecimal is sometimes abbreviated 0x so hex 5D might
be written as "0x5D".
To convert from hex to binary, simply expand each hex digit into its four bit binary
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equivalent.
Lab Activity
Hexadecimal Conversions
In this lab, the student will learn the process to convert hexadecimal values to decimal
and binary values.
1.2.9 Boolean or binary logic
Boolean logic is based on digital circuitry that accepts one or two incoming voltages.
Based on the input voltages, output voltage is generated. For the purpose of computers the
voltage difference is associated as two states, on or off. These two states are in turn associated
as a 1 or a 0, which are the two digits in the binary numbering system.
Boolean logic is a binary logic that allows two numbers to be compared and a choice
generated based on the two numbers. These choices are the logical AND, OR and NOT. With
the exception of the NOT, Boolean operations have the same function. They accept two
numbers, which are 1 or 0, and generate a result based on the logic rule.
The NOT operation takes whatever value is presented, 0 or 1, and inverts it. A one
becomes a zero and a zero becomes a one. Remember that the logic gates are electronic
devices built specifically for this purpose. The logic rule that they follow is whatever the input
is, the output is the opposite.
The AND operation takes two input values. If both are 1, the logic gate generates a 1
output. Otherwise it outputs a 0. There are four combinations of input values. Three of these
combinations generate a 0, and one combination generates a 1.
The OR operation also takes two input values. If at least one of the input values is 1,
the output value is 1. Again there are four combinations of input values. This time three
combinations generate a 1 output and the fourth generates a 0 output.
The two networking operations that use Boolean logic are subnetwork and wildcard
masking. The masking operations provide a way of filtering addresses. The addresses identify
the devices on the network and allows the addresses to be grouped together or controlled by
other network operations. These functions will be explained in depth later in the curriculum.
1.2.10 IP addresses and network masks
The 32-bit binary addresses used on the Internet are referred to as Internet Protocol (IP)
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addresses. The relationship between IP addresses and network masks will be addressed in
this section.
When IP addresses are assigned to computers, some of the bits on the left side of the
32-bit IP number represent a network. The number of bits designated depends on the address
class. The bits left over in the 32-bit IP address identify a particular computer on the network.
A computer is referred to as the host. The IP address of a computer consists of a network and
a host part that represents a particular computer on a particular network.
To inform a computer how the 32-bit IP address has been split, a second 32-bit number
called a subnetwork mask is used. This mask is a guide that indicates how the IP address
should be interpreted by identifying how many of the bits are used to identify the network of
the computer. The subnetwork mask sequentially fills in the 1s from the left side of the mask.
A subnet mask will always be all 1s until the network address is identified and then be all 0s
from there to the right most bit of the mask. The bits in the subnet mask that are 0 identify the
computer or host on that network. Some examples of subnet masks are:
11111111000000000000000000000000 written in dotted decimal as 255.0.0.0
or
11111111111111110000000000000000 written in dotted decimal as 255.255.0.0
In the first example, the first eight bits from the left represent the network portion of the
address, and the last 24 bits represent the host portion of the address. In the second example
the first 16 bits represent the network portion of the address, and the last 16 bits represent the
host portion of the address.
Converting the IP address 10.34.23.134 to binary would result in:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
Performing a Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask
255.0.0.0 produces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000
Converting the result to dotted decimal, 10.0.0.0 is the network portion of the IP address,
when using the 255.0.0.0 mask.
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Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
Performing a Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and the subnet mask
255.255.0.0 produces the network address of this host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
00001010.00100010.00000000.00000000
Converting the result to dotted decimal, 10.34.0.0 is the network portion of the IP
address, when using the 255.255.0.0 mask.
This is a brief illustration of the effect that a network mask has on an IP address. The
importance of masking will become much clearer as more work with IP addresses is done. For
right now it is only important that the concept of the mask is understood.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

The physical connection that has to take place for a computer to connect to the
Internet

The primary components of a computer

Installation and troubleshooting network interface cards and/or modems

Basic testing procedures to test the Internet connection

Web browser selection and configuration

The Base 2 number system

Binary number conversion to decimal

The hexadecimal number system

Binary representation of IP addresses and network masks

Decimal representation of IP addresses and network masks
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
17
Networking Fundamentals
Overview
Bandwidth is a crucial component in networking. Bandwidth decisions are among the
most important when a network is designed. This module discusses the importance of
bandwidth, explains how it is calculated, and how it is measured.
Functions of networking are described using layered models. This module covers the
two most important models, which are the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model and the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model. The module also presents
the differences and similarities between the two models.
In addition, this module presents a brief history of networking. It also describes network
devices, as well as cabling, physical, and logical layouts. This module also defines and
compares LANs, MANs, WANs, SANs, and VPNs.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Explain the importance of bandwidth in networking.

Use an analogy from their experience to explain bandwidth.

Identify bps, kbps, Mbps, and Gbps as units of bandwidth.

Explain the difference between bandwidth and throughput.

Calculate data transfer rates.

Explain why layered models are used to describe data communication.

Explain the development of the Open System Interconnection model (OSI).

List the advantages of a layered approach.

Identify each of the seven layers of the OSI model.

Identify the four layers of the TCP/IP model.

Describe the similarities and differences between the two models.

Briefly outline the history of networking.

Identify devices used in networking.

Understand the role of protocols in networking.

Define LAN, WAN, MAN, and SAN.

Explain VPNs and their advantages.

Describe the differences between intranets and extranets.
2.1 Networking Terminology
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Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
2.1.1 Data networks
Data networks developed as a result of business applications that were written for
microcomputers. At that time microcomputers were not connected as mainframe computer
terminals were, so there was no efficient way of sharing data among multiple microcomputers.
It became apparent that sharing data through the use of floppy disks was not an efficient or
cost-effective manner in which to operate businesses. Sneakernet created multiple copies of
the data. Each time a file was modified it would have to be shared again with all other people
who needed that file. If two people modified the file and then tried to share it, one of the sets
of changes would be lost. Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address the
following three problems:

How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources

How to communicate efficiently

How to set up and manage a network
Businesses realized that networking technology could increase productivity while saving
money. Networks were added and expanded almost as rapidly as new network technologies
and products were introduced. In the early 1980s networking saw a tremendous expansion,
even though the early development of networking was disorganized.
In the mid-1980s, the network technologies that had emerged had been created with a
variety of different hardware and software implementations. Each company that created
network hardware and software used its own company standards. These individual standards
were developed because of competition with other companies. Consequently, many of the
new network technologies were incompatible with each other. It became increasingly difficult
for networks that used different specifications to communicate with each other. This often
required the old network equipment to be removed to implement the new equipment.
One early solution was the creation of local-area network (LAN) standards. Because
LAN standards provided an open set of guidelines for creating network hardware and
software, the equipment from different companies could then become compatible. This
allowed for stability in LAN implementation.
In a LAN system, each department of the company is a kind of electronic island. As the
use of computers in businesses grew, it soon became obvious that even LANs were not
sufficient.
What was needed was a way for information to move efficiently and quickly, not only
within a company, but also from one business to another. The solution was the creation of
metropolitan-area networks (MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs). Because WANs could
Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
19
connect user networks over large geographic areas, it was possible for businesses to
communicate with each other across great distances. Figure
summarizes the relative sizes of
LANs and WANs.
2.1.2 Network history
The history of computer networking is complex.
It has involved many people from all
over the world over the past 35 years. Presented here is a simplified view of how the Internet
evolved. The processes of invention and commercialization are far more complicated, but it is
helpful to look at the fundamental development.
In the 1940s computers were large electromechanical devices that were prone to failure.
In 1947 the invention of a semiconductor transistor opened up many possibilities for making
smaller, more reliable computers. In the 1950s mainframe computers, which were run by
punched card programs, began to be used by large institutions. In the late 1950s the integrated
circuit that combined several, then many, and now millions, of transistors on one small piece
of semiconductor was invented. Through the 1960s mainframes with terminals were
commonplace, and integrated circuits were widely used.
In the late 1960s and 1970s, smaller computers, called minicomputers came into
existence. However, these minicomputers were still very large by modern standards. In 1977
the Apple Computer Company introduced the microcomputer, also known as the personal
computer. In 1981 IBM introduced its first personal computer. The user-friendly Mac, the
open-architecture IBM PC, and the further micro-miniaturization of integrated circuits led to
widespread use of personal computers in homes and businesses.
In the mid-1980s users with stand-alone computers started to share files using modems
to connect to other computers. This was referred to as point-to-point, or dial-up
communication. This concept was expanded by the use of computers that were the central
point of communication in a dial-up connection. These computers were called bulletin boards.
Users would connect to the bulletin boards, leave and pick up messages, as well as upload and
download files. The drawback to this type of system was that there was very little direct
communication and then only with those who knew about the bulletin board. Another
limitation was that the bulletin board computer required one modem per connection. If five
people connected simultaneously it would require five modems connected to five separate
phone lines. As the number of people who wanted to use the system grew, the system was not
able to handle the demand. For example, imagine if 500 people wanted to connect at the same
time. Starting in the 1960s and continuing through the 70s, 80s, and 90s, the Department of
Defense (DoD) developed large, reliable, wide-area networks (WANs) for military and
scientific reasons. This technology was different from the point-to-point communication used
20
Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
in bulletin boards. It allowed multiple computers to be connected together using many
different paths. The network itself would determine how to move data from one computer to
another. Instead of only being able to communicate with one other computer at a time, many
computers could be reached using the same connection. The DoDs WAN eventually became
the Internet.
2.1.3 Networking devices
Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a device. These
devices are broken up into two classifications. The first classification is end-user devices.
End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and other devices that provide
services directly to the user. The second classification is network devices. Network devices
include all the devices that connect the end-user devices together to allow them to
communicate.
End-user devices that provide users with a connection to the network are also referred to
as hosts.
These devices allow users to share, create, and obtain information. The host
devices can exist without a network, but without the network the host capabilities are greatly
reduced. Host devices are physically connected to the network media using a network
interface card (NIC). They use this connection to perform the tasks of sending e-mails,
printing reports, scanning pictures, or accessing databases. A NIC is a printed circuit board
that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a computer motherboard, or it can be a peripheral
device. It is also called a network adapter. Laptop or notebook computer NICs are usually the
size of a PCMCIA card. Each individual NIC carries a unique code, called a Media Access
Control (MAC) address. This address is used to control data communication for the host on
the network. More about the MAC address will be covered later. As the name implies, the
NIC controls host access to the medium.
There are no standardized symbols for end-user devices in the networking industry.
They appear similar to the real devices to allow for quick recognition.
Network devices provide transport for the data that needs to be transferred between
end-user devices. Network devices provide extension of cable connections, concentration of
connections, conversion of data formats, and management of data transfers. Examples of
devices that perform these functions are repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, and routers. All of
the network devices mentioned here are covered in depth later in the course. For now, a brief
overview of networking devices will be provided.
A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal. Repeaters regenerate analog
or digital signals distorted by transmission loss due to attenuation. A repeater does not
Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
21
perform intelligent routing like a bridge or router.
Hubs concentrate connections. In other words, they take a group of hosts and allow the
network to see them as a single unit. This is done passively, without any other effect on the
data transmission. Active hubs not only concentrate hosts, but they also regenerate signals.
Bridges convert network transmission data formats as well as perform basic data
transmission management.
Bridges, as the name implies, provide connections between
LANs. Not only do bridges connect LANs, but they also perform a check on the data to
determine whether it should cross the bridge or not. This makes each part of the network more
efficient.
Workgroup switches add more intelligence to data transfer management. Not only can
they determine whether data should remain on a LAN or not, but they can transfer the data
only to the connection that needs that data. Another difference between a bridge and switch is
that a switch does not convert data transmission formats.
Routers have all the capabilities listed above.
Routers can regenerate signals,
concentrate multiple connections, convert data transmission formats, and manage data
transfers. They can also connect to a WAN, which allows them to connect LANs that are
separated by great distances. None of the other devices can provide this type of connection.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Identifying Network Devices
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify different network
devices.
Interactive Media Activity
PhotoZoom: Cisco 1503 Micro Hub
In this PhotoZoom, the student will view a Cisco 1503 hub.
Interactive Media Activity
PhotoZoom: Cisco Catalyst 1924 Switch
In this PhotoZoom, the student will view a Cisco Catalyst 1924 switch.
Interactive Media Activity
22
Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
PhotoZoom: Cisco 2621 Router
In this PhotoZoom, the student will view a Cisco 2621 router.
2.1.4 Network topology
Network topology defines the structure of the network. One part of the topology
definition is the physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or media. The other
part is the logical topology, which defines how the media is accessed by the hosts for sending
data. The physical topologies that are commonly used are as follows:

A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends. All the
hosts connect directly to this backbone.

A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This
creates a physical ring of cable.

A star topology connects all cables to a central point of concentration.

An extended star topology links individual stars together by connecting the hubs
and/or switches. This topology can extend the scope and coverage of the network.

A hierarchical topology is similar to an extended star. However, instead of linking
the hubs and/or switches together, the system is linked to a computer that controls
the traffic on the topology.

A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from
interruption of service. The use of a mesh topology in the networked control
systems of a nuclear power plant would be an excellent example. As seen in the
graphic, each host has its own connections to all other hosts. Although the Internet
has multiple paths to any one location, it does not adopt the full mesh topology.
The logical topology of a network is how the hosts communicate across the medium.
The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token passing.
Broadcast topology simply means that each host sends its data to all other hosts on the
network medium. There is no order that the stations must follow to use the network. It is first
come, first serve. Ethernet works this way as will be explained later in the course.
The second logical topology is token passing. Token passing controls network access by
passing an electronic token sequentially to each host. When a host receives the token, that
host can send data on the network. If the host has no data to send, it passes the token to the
next host and the process repeats itself. Two examples of networks that use token passing are
Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). A variation of Token Ring and
FDDI is Arcnet. Arcnet is token passing on a bus topology.
The diagram in Figure shows many different topologies connected by network devices.
Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
23
It shows a network of moderate complexity that is typical of a school or a small business. It
has many symbols, and it depicts many networking concepts that will take time to learn.
2.1.5 Network protocols
Protocol suites are collections of protocols that enable network communication from one
host through the network to another host. A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules
and conventions that govern a particular aspect of how devices on a network communicate.
Protocols determine the format, timing, sequencing, and error control in data communication.
Without protocols, the computer cannot make or rebuild the stream of incoming bits from
another computer into the original format.
Protocols control all aspects of data communication, which include the following:

How the physical network is built

How computers connect to the network

How the data is formatted for transmission

How that data is sent

How to deal with errors
These network rules are created and maintained by many different organizations and
committees. Included in these groups are the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
(IEEE), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Telecommunications Industry
Association
(TIA),
Electronic
Industries
Alliance
(EIA)
and
the
International
Telecommunications Union (ITU), formerly known as the Comité Consultatif International
Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT).
2.1.6 Local-area networks (LANs)
LANs consist of the following components:

Computers

Network interface cards

Peripheral devices

Networking media

Network devices
LANs make it possible for businesses that use computer technology to locally share files
and printers efficiently, and make internal communications possible. A good example of this
technology is e-mail. They tie data, local communications, and computing equipment
together.
Some common LAN technologies are:
Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
24

Ethernet

Token Ring

FDDI
2.1.7 Wide-area networks (WANs)
WANs interconnect LANs, which then provide access to computers or file servers in
other locations. Because WANs connect user networks over a large geographical area, they
make it possible for businesses to communicate across great distances. Using WANs allows
computers, printers, and other devices on a LAN to share and be shared with distant locations.
WANs provide instant communications across large geographic areas. The ability to send an
instant message (IM) to someone anywhere in the world provides the same communication
capabilities that used to be only possible if people were in the same physical office.
Collaboration software provides access to real-time information and resources that allows
meetings to be held remotely, instead of in person. Wide-area networking has also created a
new class of workers called telecommuters, people who never have to leave their homes to go
to work.
WANs are designed to do the following:

Operate over a large geographically separated areas

Allow users to have real-time communication capabilities with other users

Provide full-time remote resources connected to local services

Provide e-mail, World Wide Web, file transfer, and e-commerce services
Some common WAN technologies are:

Modems

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

Frame Relay

US (T) and Europe (E) Carrier Series – T1, E1, T3, E3

Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
2.1.8 Metropolitan-area networks (MANs)
A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a city or suburban area. A
MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a common geographic area. For example, a
bank with multiple branches may utilize a MAN. Typically, a service provider is used to
connect two or more LAN sites using private communication lines or optical services. A
MAN can also be created using wireless bridge technology by beaming signals across public
areas.
Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
25
2.1.9 Storage-area networks (SANs)
A SAN is a dedicated, high-performance network used to move data between servers
and storage resources. Because it is a separate, dedicated network, it avoids any traffic
conflict between clients and servers.
SAN
technology
allows
high-speed
server-to-storage,
storage-to-storage,
or
server-to-server connectivity. This method uses a separate network infrastructure that relieves
any problems associated with existing network connectivity.
SANs offer the following features:

Performance – SANs enable concurrent access of disk or tape arrays by two or
more servers at high speeds, providing enhanced system performance.

Availability – SANs have disaster tolerance built in, because data can be mirrored
using a SAN up to 10 kilometers (km) or 6.2 miles away.

Scalability – Like a LAN/WAN, it can use a variety of technologies. This allows
easy relocation of backup data, operations, file migration, and data replication
between systems.
2.1.10 Virtual private network (VPN)
A VPN is a private network that is constructed within a public network infrastructure
such as the global Internet. Using VPN, a telecommuter can access the network of the
company headquarters through the Internet by building a secure tunnel between the
telecommuter’s PC and a VPN router in the headquarters.
2.1.11 Benefits of VPNs
Cisco products support the latest in VPN technology. A VPN is a service that offers
secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public network infrastructure such as the Internet.
VPNs maintain the same security and management policies as a private network. They are the
most cost-effective method of establishing a point-to-point connection between remote users
and an enterprise customer's network.
The following are the three main types of VPNs:

Access VPNs – Access VPNs provide remote access to a mobile worker and small
office/home office (SOHO) to the headquarters of the Intranet or Extranet over a
shared infrastructure. Access VPNs use analog, dialup, ISDN, digital subscriber
line (DSL), mobile IP, and cable technologies to securely connect mobile users,
telecommuters, and branch offices.

Intranet VPNs – Intranet VPNs link regional and remote offices to the headquarters
26
Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
of the internal network over a shared infrastructure using dedicated connections.
Intranet VPNs differ from Extranet VPNs in that they allow access only to the
employees of the enterprise.

Extranet VPNs – Extranet VPNs link business partners to the headquarters of the
network over a shared infrastructure using dedicated connections. Extranet VPNs
differ from Intranet VPNs in that they allow access to users outside the enterprise.
2.1.12 Intranets and extranets
One common configuration of a LAN is an Intranet. Intranet Web servers differ from
public Web servers in that the public must have the proper permissions and passwords to
access the Intranet of an organization. Intranets are designed to permit access by users who
have access privileges to the internal LAN of the organization. Within an Intranet, Web
servers are installed in the network. Browser technology is used as the common front end to
access information such as financial data or graphical, text-based data stored on those servers.
Extranets refer to applications and services that are Intranet based, and use extended,
secure access to external users or enterprises. This access is usually accomplished through
passwords, user IDs, and other application-level security. Therefore, an Extranet is the
extension of two or more Intranet strategies with a secure interaction between participant
enterprises and their respective intranets.
2.2 Bandwidth
2.2.1 Importance of bandwidth
Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow through a network
connection in a given period of time. It is essential to understand the concept of bandwidth
when studying networking for the following four reasons:
Bandwidth is finite.
In other words, regardless of the media used to build the network, there are limits on the
capacity of that network to carry information. Bandwidth is limited by the laws of physics and
by the technologies used to place information on the media. For example, the bandwidth of a
conventional modem is limited to about 56 kbps by both the physical properties of
twisted-pair phone wires and by modem technology. However, the technologies employed by
DSL also use the same twisted-pair phone wires, yet DSL provides much greater bandwidth
than is available with conventional modems. So, even the limits imposed by the laws of
physics are sometimes difficult to define. Optical fiber has the physical potential to provide
Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
27
virtually limitless bandwidth. Even so, the bandwidth of optical fiber cannot be fully realized
until technologies are developed to take full advantage of its potential.
Bandwidth is not free.
It is possible to buy equipment for a local-area network (LAN) that will provide nearly
unlimited bandwidth over a long period of time. For wide-area network (WAN) connections,
it is almost always necessary to buy bandwidth from a service provider. In either case, an
understanding of bandwidth and changes in demand for bandwidth over a given time can save
an individual or a business a significant amount of money. A network manager needs to make
the right decisions about the kinds of equipment and services to buy.
Bandwidth is a key factor in analyzing network performance, designing new networks,
and understanding the Internet.
A networking professional must understand the tremendous impact of bandwidth and
throughput on network performance and design. Information flows as a string of bits from
computer to computer throughout the world. These bits represent massive amounts of
information flowing back and forth across the globe in seconds or less. In a sense, it may be
appropriate to say that the Internet is bandwidth.
The demand for bandwidth is ever increasing.
As soon as new network technologies and infrastructures are built to provide greater
bandwidth, new applications are created to take advantage of the greater capacity. The
delivery over the network of rich media content, including streaming video and audio,
requires tremendous amounts of bandwidth. IP telephony systems are now commonly
installed in place of traditional voice systems, which further adds to the need for bandwidth.
The successful networking professional must anticipate the need for increased bandwidth and
act accordingly.
2.2.2 Analogies
Bandwidth has been defined as the amount of information that can flow through a
network in a given time. The idea that information flows suggests two analogies that may
make it easier to visualize bandwidth in a network. Since both water and traffic are said to
flow, consider the following analogies:
Bandwidth is like the width of a pipe.
A network of pipes brings fresh water to homes and businesses and carries waste water
away. This water network is made up of pipes of different diameters. The main water pipes of
28
Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
a city may be two meters in diameter, while the pipe to a kitchen faucet may have a diameter
of only two centimeters. The width of the pipe determines the water-carrying capacity of the
pipe. Therefore, the water is like the data, and the pipe width is like the bandwidth. Many
networking experts say that they need to put in bigger pipes when they wish to add more
information-carrying capacity.
Bandwidth is like the number of lanes on a highway.
A network of roads serves every city or town. Large highways with many traffic lanes
are joined by smaller roads with fewer traffic lanes. These roads lead to even smaller,
narrower roads, which eventually go to the driveways of homes and businesses. When very
few automobiles use the highway system, each vehicle is able to move freely. When more
traffic is added, each vehicle moves more slowly. This is especially true on roads with fewer
lanes for the cars to occupy. Eventually, as even more traffic enters the highway system, even
multi-lane highways become congested and slow. A data network is much like the highway
system. The data packets are comparable to automobiles, and the bandwidth is comparable to
the number of lanes on the highway. When a data network is viewed as a system of highways,
it is easy to see how low bandwidth connections can cause traffic to become congested all
over the network.
2.2.3 Measurement
In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits per second (bps). Bandwidth is the
measure of how much information, or bits, can flow from one place to another in a given
amount of time, or seconds. Although bandwidth can be described in bits per second, usually
some multiple of bits per second is used. In other words, network bandwidth is typically
described as thousands of bits per second (kbps), millions of bits per second (Mbps), and
billions of bits per second (Gbps) and trillions of bits per second (Tbps).
Although the terms bandwidth and speed are often used interchangeably, they are not
exactly the same thing. One may say, for example, that a T3 connection at 45Mbps operates at
a higher speed than a T1 connection at 1.544Mbps. However, if only a small amount of their
data-carrying capacity is being used, each of these connection types will carry data at roughly
the same speed. For example, a small amount of water will flow at the same rate through a
small pipe as through a large pipe. Therefore, it is usually more accurate to say that a T3
connection has greater bandwidth than a T1 connection. This is because the T3 connection is
able to carry more information in the same period of time, not because it has a higher speed.
2.2.4 Limitations
Bandwidth varies depending upon the type of media as well as the LAN and WAN
Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
29
technologies used. The physics of the media account for some of the difference. Signals travel
through twisted-pair copper wire, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and air. The physical differences
in the ways signals travel result in fundamental limitations on the information-carrying
capacity of a given medium. However, the actual bandwidth of a network is determined by a
combination of the physical media and the technologies chosen for signaling and detecting
network signals.
For example, current understanding of the physics of unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
copper cable puts the theoretical bandwidth limit at over one gigabit per second (Gbps).
However, in actual practice, the bandwidth is determined by the use of 10BASE-T,
100BASE-TX, or 1000BASE-TX Ethernet. In other words, the actual bandwidth is
determined by the signaling methods, network interface cards (NICs), and other items of
network equipment that are chosen. Therefore, the bandwidth is not determined solely by the
limitations of the medium.
Figure
shows some common networking media types along with the limits on distance
and bandwidth when using the indicated networking technology.
Figure
summarizes common WAN services and the bandwidth associated with each
service.
2.2.5 Throughput
Bandwidth is the measure of the amount of information that can move through the
network in a given period of time. Therefore, the amount of available bandwidth is a critical
part of the specification of the network. A typical LAN might be built to provide 100 Mbps to
every desktop workstation, but this does not mean that each user is actually able to move one
hundred megabits of data through the network for every second of use. This would be true
only under the most ideal circumstances. The concept of throughput can help explain why this
is so.
Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using specific
Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on the network. Unfortunately,
for many reasons, throughput is often far less than the maximum possible digital bandwidth of
the medium that is being used.
The following are some of the factors that determine
throughput:

Internetworking devices

Type of data being transferred

Network topology

Number of users on the network
30
Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1

User computer

Server computer

Power conditions
The theoretical bandwidth of a network is an important consideration in network design,
because the network bandwidth will never be greater than the limits imposed by the chosen
media and networking technologies. However, it is just as important for a network designer
and administrator to consider the factors that may affect actual throughput. By measuring
throughput on a regular basis, a network administrator will be aware of changes in network
performance and changes in the needs of network users. The network can then be adjusted
accordingly.
2.2.6 Data transfer calculation
Network designers and administrators are often called upon to make decisions regarding
bandwidth. One decision might be whether to increase the size of the WAN connection to
accommodate a new database. Another decision might be whether the current LAN backbone
is of sufficient bandwidth for a streaming-video training program. The answers to problems
like these are not always easy to find, but one place to start is with a simple data transfer
calculation.
Using the formula transfer time = size of file / bandwidth (T=S/BW) allows a network
administrator to estimate several of the important components of network performance. If the
typical file size for a given application is known, dividing the file size by the network
bandwidth yields an estimate of the fastest time that the file can be transferred.
Two important points should be considered when doing this calculation.

The result is an estimate only, because the file size does not include any overhead
added by encapsulation.

The result is likely to be a best-case transfer time, because available bandwidth is
almost never at the theoretical maximum for the network type. A more accurate
estimate can be attained if throughput is substituted for bandwidth in the equation.
Although the data transfer calculation is quite simple, one must be careful to use the
same units throughout the equation. In other words, if the bandwidth is measured in megabits
per second (Mbps), the file size must be in megabits (Mb), not megabytes (MB). Since file
sizes are typically given in megabytes, it may be necessary to multiply the number of
megabytes by eight to convert to megabits.
Try to answer the following question, using the formula T=S/BW. Be sure to convert
units of measurement as necessary.
Chapter 2
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31
Would it take less time to send the contents of a floppy disk full of data (1.44 MB) over
an ISDN line, or to send the contents of a ten GB hard drive full of data over an OC-48 line?
2.2.7 Digital versus analog
Radio, television, and telephone transmissions have, until recently, been sent through the
air and over wires using electromagnetic waves. These waves are called analog because they
have the same shapes as the light and sound waves produced by the transmitters. As light and
sound waves change size and shape, the electrical signal that carries the transmission changes
proportionately. In other words, the electromagnetic waves are analogous to the light and
sound waves.
Analog bandwidth is measured by how much of the electromagnetic spectrum is
occupied by each signal. The basic unit of analog bandwidth is hertz (Hz), or cycles per
second. Typically, multiples of this basic unit of analog bandwidth are used, just as with
digital bandwidth. Units of measurement that are commonly seen are kilohertz (KHz),
megahertz (MHz), and gigahertz (GHz). These are the units used to describe the bandwidths
of cordless telephones, which usually operate at either 900 MHz or 2.4 GHz. These are also
the units used to describe the bandwidths of 802.11a and 802.11b wireless networks, which
operate at 5 GHz and 2.4 GHz.
While analog signals are capable of carrying a variety of information, they have some
significant disadvantages in comparison to digital transmissions. The analog video signal that
requires a wide frequency range for transmission cannot be squeezed into a smaller band.
Therefore, if the necessary analog bandwidth is not available, the signal cannot be sent.
In digital signaling all information is sent as bits, regardless of the kind of information it
is. Voice, video, and data all become streams of bits when they are prepared for transmission
over digital media. This type of transmission gives digital bandwidth an important advantage
over analog bandwidth. Unlimited amounts of information can be sent over the smallest or
lowest bandwidth digital channel. Regardless of how long it takes for the digital information
to arrive at its destination and be reassembled, it can be viewed, listened to, read, or processed
in its original form.
It is important to understand the differences and similarities between digital and analog
bandwidth. Both types of bandwidth are regularly encountered in the field of information
technology. However, because this course is concerned primarily with digital networking, the
term ‘bandwidth’ will refer to digital bandwidth.
2.3 Networking Models
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2.3.1 Using layers to analyze problems in a flow of materials
The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer to another.
Figure
shows a set of questions that are related to flow, which is defined as the motion
through a system of either physical or logical objects. These questions show how the concept
of layers helps describe the details of the flow process. This process could be any kind of flow,
from the flow of traffic on a highway system to the flow of data through a network. Figure
shows several examples of flow and ways that the flow process can be broken down into
details or layers.
A conversation between two people provides a good opportunity to use a layered
approach to analyze information flow. In a conversation, each person wishing to communicate
begins by creating an idea. Then a decision is made on how to properly communicate the idea.
For example, a person could decide to speak, sing or shout, and what language to use. Finally
the idea is delivered. For example, the person creates the sound which carries the message.
This process can be broken into separate layers that may be applied to all conversations.
The top layer is the idea that will be communicated. The middle layer is the decision on how
the idea is to be communicated. The bottom layer is the creation of sound to carry the
communication.
The same method of layering explains how a computer network distributes information
from a source to a destination. When computers send information through a network, all
communications originate at a source then travel to a destination.
The information that travels on a network is generally referred to as data or a packet. A
packet is a logically grouped unit of information that moves between computer systems. As
the data passes between layers, each layer adds additional information that enables effective
communication with the corresponding layer on the other computer.
The OSI and TCP/IP models have layers that explain how data is communicated from
one computer to another. The models differ in the number and function of the layers. However,
each model can be used to help describe and provide details about the flow of information
from a source to a destination.
2.3.2 Using layers to describe data communication
In order for data packets to travel from a source to a destination on a network, it is
important that all the devices on the network speak the same language or protocol. A protocol
is a set of rules that make communication on a network more efficient. For example, while
flying an airplane, pilots obey very specific rules for communication with other airplanes and
Chapter 2
Networking Fundamentals
33
with air traffic control.
A data communications protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that determines the
format and transmission of data.
Layer 4 on the source computer communicates with Layer 4 on the destination computer.
The rules and conventions used for this layer are known as Layer 4 protocols. It is important
to remember that protocols prepare data in a linear fashion. A protocol in one layer performs a
certain set of operations on data as it prepares the data to be sent over the network. The data is
then passed to the next layer where another protocol performs a different set of operations.
Once the packet has been sent to the destination, the protocols undo the construction of
the packet that was done on the source side. This is done in reverse order. The protocols for
each layer on the destination return the information to its original form, so the application can
properly read the data.
2.3.3 OSI model
The early development of networks was disorganized in many ways. The early 1980s
saw tremendous increases in the number and size of networks. As companies realized the
advantages of using networking technology, networks were added or expanded almost as
rapidly as new network technologies were introduced.
By the mid-1980s, these companies began to experience problems from the rapid
expansion. Just as people who do not speak the same language have difficulty communicating
with each other, it was difficult for networks that used different specifications and
implementations to exchange information. The same problem occurred with the companies
that developed private or proprietary networking technologies. Proprietary means that one or
a small group of companies controls all usage of the technology. Networking technologies
strictly following proprietary rules could not communicate with technologies that followed
different proprietary rules.
To address the problem of network incompatibility, the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) researched networking models like Digital Equipment Corporation net
(DECnet), Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and TCP/IP in order to find a generally
applicable set of rules for all networks. Using this research, the ISO created a network model
that helps vendors create networks that are compatible with other networks.
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model released in 1984 was the
descriptive network model that the ISO created. It provided vendors with a set of standards
that ensured greater compatibility and interoperability among various network technologies
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Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
produced by companies around the world.
The OSI reference model has become the primary model for network communications.
Although there are other models in existence, most network vendors relate their products to
the OSI reference model. This is especially true when they want to educate users on the use of
their products. It is considered the best tool available for teaching people about sending and
receiving data on a network.
Interactive Media Activity
Checkbox: Benefits of the OSI Model
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the benefits of the OSI
Model.
2.3.4 OSI layers
The OSI reference model is a framework that is used to understand how information
travels throughout a network. The OSI reference model explains how packets travel through
the various layers to another device on a network, even if the sender and destination have
different types of network media.
In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each of which illustrates a
particular network function.
-
Dividing the network into seven layers provides the
following advantages:

It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts.

It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and
support.

It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with
each other.

It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.

It divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to
understand.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: The Seven Layers of the OSI Model
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify some of the functions
of the seven OSI layers.
2.3.5 Peer-to-peer communications
Chapter 2
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35
In order for data to travel from the source to the destination, each layer of the OSI model
at the source must communicate with its peer layer at the destination. This form of
communication is referred to as peer-to-peer. During this process, the protocols of each layer
exchange information, called protocol data units (PDUs). Each layer of communication on the
source computer communicates with a layer-specific PDU, and with its peer layer on the
destination computer as illustrated in Figure .
Data packets on a network originate at a source and then travel to a destination. Each
layer depends on the service function of the OSI layer below it. To provide this service, the
lower layer uses encapsulation to put the PDU from the upper layer into its data field; then it
adds whatever headers and trailers the layer needs to perform its function. Next, as the data
moves down through the layers of the OSI model, additional headers and trailers are added.
After Layers 7, 6, and 5 have added their information, Layer 4 adds more information. This
grouping of data, the Layer 4 PDU, is called a segment.
The network layer provides a service to the transport layer, and the transport layer
presents data to the internetwork subsystem. The network layer has the task of moving the
data through the internetwork. It accomplishes this task by encapsulating the data and
attaching a header creating a packet (the Layer 3 PDU). The header contains information
required to complete the transfer, such as source and destination logical addresses.
The data link layer provides a service to the network layer. It encapsulates the network
layer information in a frame (the Layer 2 PDU). The frame header contains information (for
example, physical addresses) required to complete the data link functions. The data link layer
provides a service to the network layer by encapsulating the network layer information in a
frame.
The physical layer also provides a service to the data link layer. The physical layer
encodes the data link frame into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmission on the medium
(usually a wire) at Layer 1.
2.3.6 TCP/IP model
The historical and technical standard of the Internet is the TCP/IP model. The U.S.
Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model, because it wanted to
design a network that could survive any conditions, including a nuclear war. In a world
connected by different types of communication media such as copper wires, microwaves,
optical fibers and satellite links, the DoD wanted transmission of packets every time and
under any conditions. This very difficult design problem brought about the creation of the
TCP/IP model.
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Unlike the proprietary networking technologies mentioned earlier, TCP/IP was
developed as an open standard. This meant that anyone was free to use TCP/IP. This helped
speed up the development of TCP/IP as a standard.
The TCP/IP model has the following four layers:

Application layer

Transport layer

Internet layer

Network access layer
Although some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the
OSI model, the layers of the two models do not correspond exactly. Most notably, the
application layer has different functions in each model.
The designers of TCP/IP felt that the application layer should include the OSI session
and presentation layer details. They created an application layer that handles issues of
representation, encoding, and dialog control.
The transport layer deals with the quality of service issues of reliability, flow control,
and error correction. One of its protocols, the transmission control protocol (TCP), provides
excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-flowing, low-error network
communications.
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. It maintains a dialogue between source and
destination while packaging application layer information into units called segments.
Connection-oriented does not mean that a circuit exists between the communicating
computers. It does mean that Layer 4 segments travel back and forth between two hosts to
acknowledge the connection exists logically for some period.
The purpose of the Internet layer is to divide TCP segments into packets and send them
from any network. The packets arrive at the destination network independent of the path they
took to get there. The specific protocol that governs this layer is called the Internet Protocol
(IP). Best path determination and packet switching occur at this layer.
The relationship between IP and TCP is an important one. IP can be thought to point the
way for the packets, while TCP provides a reliable transport.
The name of the network access layer is very broad and somewhat confusing. It is also
known as the host-to-network layer. This layer is concerned with all of the components, both
physical and logical, that are required to make a physical link. It includes the networking
technology details, including all the details in the OSI physical and data link layers.
Chapter 2
Figure
Networking Fundamentals
37
illustrates some of the common protocols specified by the TCP/IP reference
model layers. Some of the most commonly used application layer protocols include the
following:

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Domain Name System (DNS)

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
The common transport layer protocols include:

Transport Control Protocol (TCP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The primary protocol of the Internet layer is:

Internet Protocol (IP)
The network access layer refers to any particular technology used on a specific network.
Regardless of which network application services are provided and which transport
protocol is used, there is only one Internet protocol, IP. This is a deliberate design decision. IP
serves as a universal protocol that allows any computer anywhere to communicate at any
time.
A comparison of the OSI model and the TCP/IP models will point out some similarities
and differences.
Similarities include:

Both have layers.

Both have application layers, though they include very different services.

Both have comparable transport and network layers.

Both models need to be known by networking professionals.

Both assume packets are switched. This means that individual packets may take
different paths to reach the same destination. This is contrasted with
circuit-switched networks where all the packets take the same path.
Differences include:

TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application
layer.

TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access
layer.

TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers.
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Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1

TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the
TCP/IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, networks
are not usually built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is used as a
guide.
Although TCP/IP protocols are the standards with which the Internet has grown, this
curriculum will use the OSI model for the following reasons:

It is a generic, protocol-independent standard.

It has more details, which make it more helpful for teaching and learning.

It has more details, which can be helpful when troubleshooting.
Networking professionals differ in their opinions on which model to use. Due to the
nature of the industry it is necessary to become familiar with both. Both the OSI and TCP/IP
models will be referred to throughout the curriculum. The focus will be on the following:

TCP as an OSI Layer 4 protocol

IP as an OSI Layer 3 protocol

Ethernet as a Layer 2 and Layer 1 technology
Remember that there is a difference between a model and an actual protocol that is used
in networking. The OSI model will be used to describe TCP/IP protocols.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
In this lab, the student will learn the four layers of the TCP/IP model and the seven
layers of the OSI model to the four layers of the TCP/IP model.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: DoD TCP/IP Model
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the layers of the
TCP/IP model.
2.3.7 Detailed encapsulation process
All communications on a network originate at a source, and are sent to a destination.
The information sent on a network is referred to as data or data packets. If one computer (host
A) wants to send data to another computer (host B), the data must first be packaged through a
process called encapsulation.
Chapter 2
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39
Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary protocol information before network transit.
Therefore, as the data packet moves down through the layers of the OSI model, it receives
headers, trailers, and other information.
To see how encapsulation occurs, examine the manner in which data travels through the
layers as illustrated in Figure . Once the data is sent from the source, it travels through the
application layer down through the other layers. The packaging and flow of the data that is
exchanged goes through changes as the layers perform their services for end users. As
illustrated in Figure , networks must perform the following five conversion steps in order to
encapsulate data:

Build the data.
As a user sends an e-mail message, its alphanumeric characters are converted to
data that can travel across the internetwork.

Package the data for end-to-end transport.
The data is packaged for internetwork transport. By using segments, the transport
function ensures that the message hosts at both ends of the e-mail system can
reliably communicate.

Add the network IP address to the header.
The data is put into a packet or datagram that contains a packet header with source
and destination logical addresses. These addresses help network devices send the
packets across the network along a chosen path.

Add the data link layer header and trailer.
Each network device must put the packet into a frame. The frame allows
connection to the next directly-connected network device on the link. Each device
in the chosen network path requires framing in order for it to connect to the next
device.

Convert to bits for transmission.
The frame must be converted into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmission on
the medium. A clocking function enables the devices to distinguish these bits as
they travel across the medium. The medium on the physical internetwork can vary
along the path used. For example, the e-mail message can originate on a LAN,
cross a campus backbone, and go out a WAN link until it reaches its destination on
another remote LAN.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: OSI Model Characteristics and Devices
In this lab, the student will learn the seven layers of the OSI model and the
characteristics, functions and keywords relating to each layer.
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Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Encapsulation Process Flowchart
In this lab, the student will complete encapsulation process flowchart.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

Understanding bandwidth is essential when studying networking

Bandwidth is finite, costs money, and the demand for it increases daily

Using analogies like the flow of water and flow of traffic can help explain
bandwidth

Bandwidth is measured in bits per second, bps, kpbs, Mbps, or Gbps

Limitations on bandwidth include type of media used, LAN and WAN
technologies, and network equipment

Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, which is affected by factors that
include number of users on network, networking devices, type of data, user’s
computer and the server

The formula T=S/BW (transfer time = size of file / bandwidth) can be used to
calculate data transfer time

Comparison of analog and digital bandwidth

A layered approach is effective in analyzing problems

Network communication is described by layered models

The OSI and TCP/IP are the two most important models of network
communication

The International Organization for Standardization developed the OSI model to
address the problems of network incompatibility

The seven layers of the OSI are application, presentation, session, transport,
network, data link, and physical

The four layers of the TCP/IP are application, transport, internet, and network
access

The TCP/IP application layer is equivalent to the OSI application, presentation,
and session layers

LANs and WANs developed in response to business and government computing
needs

Fundamental networking devices are hubs, bridges, switches, and routers

The physical topology layouts include the bus, ring, star, extended star, hierarchical,
and mesh
Chapter 2
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41

A WAN consists of two or more LANs spanning a common geographic area

A SAN provides enhanced system performance, is scalable, and has disaster
tolerance built in

A VPN is a private network that is constructed within a public network
infrastructure

Three main types of VPNs are access, Intranet, and Extranet VPNs

Intranets are designed to be available to users who have access privileges to the
internal network of an organization

Extranets are designed to deliver applications and services that are Intranet based,
using extended, secured access to external users or enterprises
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Chapter 3
Networking Media
Overview
Copper cable is used in almost every LAN. Many different types of copper cable are
available, with each type having advantages and disadvantages. Proper selection of cabling is
key to efficient network operation. Because copper carries information using electrical current,
it is important to understand some basics of electricity when planning and installing a
network.
Optical fiber is the most frequently used medium for the longer, high bandwidth,
point-to-point transmissions required on LAN backbones and on WANs. Using optical media,
light is used to transmit data through thin glass or plastic fiber. Electrical signals cause a
fiber-optic transmitter to generate the light signals sent down the fiber. The receiving host
receives the light signals and converts them to electrical signals at the far end of the fiber.
However, there is no electricity in the fiber-optic cable itself. In fact, the glass used in
fiber-optic cable is a very good electrical insulator.
Physical connectivity allowed an increase in productivity by allowing the sharing of
printers, servers, and software. Traditional networked systems require that the workstation
remains stationary permitting moves only within the limits of the media and office area.
The introduction of wireless technology removes these restraints and brings true
portability to the computing world. Currently, wireless technology does not provide the
high-speed transfers, security, or uptime reliability of cabled networks. However, flexibility of
wireless has justified the trade off.
Administrators often consider wireless when installing a new network or when
upgrading an existing network. A simple wireless network could be working just a few
minutes after the workstations are turned on. Connectivity to the Internet is provided through
a wired connection, router, cable or DSL modem and a wireless access point that acts as a hub
for the wireless nodes. In a residential or small office environment these devices may be
combined into a single unit.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Discuss the electrical properties of matter.

Define voltage, resistance, impedance, current, and circuits.

Describe the specifications and performances of different types of cable.

Describe coaxial cable and its advantages and disadvantages over other types of
Chapter 3
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43
cable.

Describe shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable and its uses.

Describe unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) and its uses.

Discuss the characteristics of straight-through, crossover, and rollover cables and
where each is used.

Explain the basics of fiber-optic cable.

Describe how fibers can guide light for long distances.

Describe multimode and single-mode fiber.

Describe how fiber is installed.

Describe the type of connectors and equipment used with fiber-optic cable.

Explain how fiber is tested to ensure that it will function properly.

Discuss safety issues dealing with fiber-optics.
3.1 Copper Media
3.1.1 Atoms and electrons
All matter is composed of atoms. The Periodic Table of Elements lists all known types
of atoms and their properties. The atom is comprised of:

Electrons – Particles with a negative charge that orbit the nucleus

Nucleus – The center part of the atom, composed of protons and neutrons

Protons – Particles with a positive charge

Neutrons – Particles with no charge (neutral)
To help explain the electrical properties of elements/materials, locate helium (He) on the
periodic table. Helium has an atomic number of 2, which means that helium has 2 protons
and 2 electrons. It has an atomic weight of 4. By subtracting the atomic number (2) from the
atomic weight (4), it is learned that helium also has 2 neutrons.
The Danish physicist, Niels Bohr, developed a simplified model to illustrate the atom.
This illustration shows the model for a helium atom. If the protons and neutrons of an atom
were the size of an adult (#5) soccer ball in the middle of a soccer field, the only thing smaller
than the ball would be the electrons. The electrons would be the size of cherries and would be
orbiting near the outer-most seats of the stadium. In other words, the overall volume of this
atom, including the electron path, would be about the size of the stadium. The nucleus of the
atom where the protons and neutrons exist would be the size of the soccer ball.
One of the laws of nature, called Coulomb's Electric Force Law, states that opposite
charges react to each other with a force that causes them to be attracted to each other. Like
charges react to each other with a force that causes them to repel each other. In the case of
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Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1
opposite and like charges, the force increases as the charges move closer to each other. The
force is inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance. When particles get
extremely close together, nuclear force overrides the repulsive electrical force and keeps the
nucleus together. That is why a nucleus does not fly apart.
Examine Bohr's model of the helium atom. If Coulomb's law is true, and if Bohr's model
describes helium atoms as stable, then there must be other laws of nature at work. How can
they both be true?

Coulomb's Law – Opposite charges attract and like charges repel.

Bohr’s model – Protons are positive charges and electrons are negative charges.
There is more than 1 proton in the nucleus.
Electrons stay in orbit, even though the protons attract the electrons. The electrons have
just enough velocity to keep orbiting and not be pulled into the nucleus, just like the moon
around the Earth.
Protons do not fly apart from each other because of a nuclear force that is associated
with neutrons. The nuclear force is an incredibly strong force that acts as a kind of glue to
hold the protons together.
The protons and neutrons are bound together by a very powerful force. However, the
electrons are bound to their orbit around the nucleus by a weaker force. Electrons in certain
atoms, such as metals, can be pulled free from the atom and made to flow. This sea of
electrons, loosely bound to the atoms, is what makes electricity possible. Electricity is a free
flow of electrons.
Loosened electrons that stay in one place, without moving, and with a negative charge,
are called static electricity.
If these static electrons have an opportunity to jump to a
conductor, this can lead to electrostatic discharge (ESD). A discussion on conductors follows
later in this chapter.
ESD, though usually harmless to people, can create serious problems for sensitive
electronic equipment. A static discharge can randomly damage computer chips, data, or both.
The logical circuitry of computer chips is extremely sensitive to electrostatic discharge. Use
caution when working inside a computer, router, and so on.
Atoms, or groups of atoms called molecules, can be referred to as materials. Materials
are classified as belonging to one of three groups depending on how easily electricity, or free
electrons, flows through them.
The basis for all electronic devices is the knowledge of how insulators, conductors and
Chapter 3
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45
semiconductors control the flow of electrons and work together in various combinations.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Safe handling and Use of a Multimeter
In this lab, the student will learn how to use and handle a multimeter correctly.
3.1.2 Voltage
Voltage is sometimes referred to as electromotive force (EMF). EMF is related to an
electrical force, or pressure, that occurs when electrons and protons are separated. The force
that is created pushes toward the opposite charge and away from the like charge. This process
occurs in a battery, where chemical action causes electrons to be freed from the negative
terminal of the battery. The electrons then travel to the opposite, or positive, terminal through
an EXTERNAL circuit. The electrons do not travel through the battery itself. Remember that
the flow of electricity is really the flow of electrons. Voltage can also be created in three other
ways. The first is by friction, or static electricity. The second way is by magnetism, or electric
generator. The last way that voltage can be created is by light, or solar cell.
Voltage is related to the electrical fields emanating from the charges associated with
particles such as protons, electrons, etc. Voltage is represented by the letter V, and sometimes
by the letter E, for electromotive force. The unit of measurement for voltage is volt (V). Volt
is defined as the amount of work, per unit charge, needed to separate the charges.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Voltage Measurement
This lab will demonstrate the ability to measure voltage with the multimeter safely.
3.1.3 Resistance and impedance
The materials through which current flows offer varying amounts of opposition, or
resistance to the movement of the electrons. The materials that offer very little, or no,
resistance, are called conductors. Those materials that do not allow the current to flow, or
severely restrict its flow, are called insulators. The amount of resistance depends on the
chemical composition of the materials.
All materials that conduct electricity have a measure of resistance to the flow of
electrons through them. These materials also have other effects called capacitance and
inductance associated with the flow of electrons. The three characteristics comprise
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impedance, which is similar to and includes resistance.
The term attenuation is important when learning about networks. Attenuation refers to
the resistance to the flow of electrons and why a signal becomes degraded as it travels along
the conduit.
The letter R represents resistance. The unit of measurement for resistance is the ohm ().
The symbol comes from the Greek letter , omega.
Electrical insulators, or insulators, are materials that allow electrons to flow through
them with great difficulty, or not at all. Examples of electrical insulators include plastic, glass,
air, dry wood, paper, rubber, and helium gas. These materials have very stable chemical
structures, with orbiting electrons tightly bound within the atoms.
Electrical conductors, usually just called conductors, are materials that allow electrons to
flow through them with great ease. They flow easily because the outermost electrons are
bound very loosely to the nucleus, and are easily freed. At room temperature, these materials
have a large number of free electrons that can provide conduction. The introduction of voltage
causes the free electrons to move, resulting in a current flow.
The periodic table categorizes some groups of atoms by listing them in the form of
columns. The atoms in each column belong to particular chemical families. Although they
may have different numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons, their outermost electrons
have similar orbits and behave similarly when interacting with other atoms and molecules.
The best conductors are metals, such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au), because they
have electrons that are easily freed. Other conductors include solder, a mixture of lead (Pb)
and tin (Sn), and water with ions. An ion is an atom that has more electrons, or fewer
electrons, than the number of protons in the nucleus of the atom. The human body is made of
approximately 70% water with ions, which means that the human body is a conductor.
Semiconductors are materials where the amount of electricity they conduct can be
precisely controlled. These materials are listed together in one column of the periodic chart.
Examples include carbon (C), germanium (Ge), and the alloy, gallium arsenide (GaAs). The
most important semiconductor which makes the best microscopic-sized electronic circuits is
silicon (Si).
Silicon is very common and can be found in sand, glass, and many types of rocks. The
region around San Jose, California is known as Silicon Valley because the computer industry,
which depends on silicon microchips, started in that area.
Lab Activity
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Lab Exercise: Resistance Measurement
This lab will demonstrate the ability to measure resistance and continuity with the
multimeter.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors
When the user has completed this activity, the student will be able to identify the
resistance and impedance characteristics of different types of material.
3.1.4 Current
Electrical current is the flow of charges created when electrons move. In electrical
circuits, the current is caused by a flow of free electrons. When voltage, or electrical pressure,
is applied and there is a path for the current, electrons move from the negative terminal along
the path to the positive terminal. The negative terminal repels the electrons and the positive
terminal attracts the electrons. The letter “I” represents current. The unit of measurement for
current is Ampere (Amp). Amp is defined as the number of charges per second that pass by a
point along a path.
If amperage or current can be thought of as the amount or volume of electron traffic that
is flowing, then voltage can be thought of as the speed of the electron traffic. The combination
of amperage and voltage equals wattage. Electrical devices such as light bulbs, motors and
computer power supplies are rated in terms of watts. A watt is how much power a device
consumes or produces.
It is the current or amperage in an electrical circuit that really does the work. As an
example, static electricity has very high voltage, so much that it can jump a gap of an inch or
more. However, it has very low amperage and as a result can create a shock but not permanent
injury. The starter motor in an automobile operates at a relatively low 12 volts but requires
very high amperage to generate enough energy to turn over the engine. Lightning has very
high voltage and high amperage and can do severe damage or injury.
3.1.5 Circuits
Current flows in closed loops called circuits. These circuits must be composed of
conducting materials, and must have sources of voltage. Voltage causes current to flow, while
resistance and impedance oppose it. Current consists of electrons flowing away from negative
terminals and towards positive terminals. Knowing these facts allows people to control a flow
of current.
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Electricity will naturally flow to the earth if there is a path. Current also flows along the
path of least resistance. If a human body provides the path of least resistance, the current will
flow through it. When an electric appliance has a plug with three prongs, one of the three
prongs serves as the ground, or zero volts. The ground provides a conducting path for the
electrons to flow to the earth because the resistance traveling through the body would be
greater than the resistance flowing directly to the ground.
Ground typically means the zero volts level, when making electrical measurements.
Voltage is created by the separation of charges, which means that voltage measurements must
be made between two points.
A water analogy helps to explain concepts of electricity. The higher the water and the
greater the pressure, the more the water will flow. The water current also depends on the size
of the space it must flow through. Similarly, the higher the voltage and the greater the
electrical pressure, the more current will be produced. The electric current then encounters
resistance that, like the water tap, reduces the flow. If the electric current is in an AC circuit,
then the amount of current will depend on how much impedance is present. If the electric
current is in a DC circuit, then the amount of current will depend on how much resistance is
present. The pump is like a battery. It provides pressure to keep the flow moving.
The relationship among voltage, resistance, and current is voltage (V) = current (I)
multiplied by resistance (R). In other words, V=I*R. This is Ohm’s law, named after the
scientist who explored these issues.
Two ways in which current flows are Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC).
Alternating current (AC) and voltages vary over time by changing their polarity, or direction.
AC flows in one direction, then reverses its direction and flows in the other direction, and
then repeats the process. AC voltage is positive at one terminal, and negative at the other.
Then the AC voltage reverses its polarity, so that the positive terminal becomes negative, and
the negative terminal becomes positive. This process repeats itself continuously.
DC always flows in the same direction, and DC voltages always have the same polarity.
One terminal is always positive, and the other is always negative. They do not change or
reverse.
An oscilloscope is an electronic device used to measure electrical signals relative to time.
An oscilloscope graphs the electrical waves, pulses, and patterns. An oscilloscope has an
x-axis that represents time, and a y-axis that represents voltage. There are usually two y-axis
voltage inputs so that two waves can be observed and measured at the same time.
Power lines carry electricity in the form of AC because it can be delivered efficiently
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over large distances. DC can be found in flashlight batteries, car batteries, and as power for
the microchips on the motherboard of a computer, where it only needs to go a short distance.
Electrons flow in closed circuits, or complete loops. Figure shows a simple circuit.
The chemical processes in the battery cause charges to build up. This provides a voltage, or
electrical pressure, that enables electrons to flow through various devices. The lines represent
a conductor, which is usually copper wire. Think of a switch as two ends of a single wire that
can be opened or broken to prevent electrons from flowing. When the two ends are closed,
fixed, or shorted, electrons are allowed to flow. Finally, a light bulb provides resistance to the
flow of electrons, causing the electrons to release energy in the form of light. The circuits
involved in networking use a much more complex version of this very simple circuit.
For AC and DC electrical systems, the flow of electrons is always from a negatively
charged source to a positively charged source. However, for the controlled flow of electrons
to occur, a complete circuit is required. Remember, electrical current follows the path of least
resistance. Figure shows part of the electrical circuit that brings power to a home or office.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Series Circuits
In this lab, the student will build and explore the basic properties of series circuits.
3.1.6 Cable specifications
Cables have different specifications and expectations pertaining to performance:

What speeds for data transmission can be achieved using a particular type of cable?
The speed of bit transmission through the cable is extremely important. The speed
of transmission is affected by the kind of conduit used.

What kind of transmission is being considered? Will the transmissions be digital or
will they be analog-based? Digital or baseband transmission and analog-based or
broadband transmission are the two choices.

How far can a signal travel through a particular type of cable before attenuation of
that signal becomes a concern? In other words, will the signal become so degraded
that the recipient device might not be able to accurately receive and interpret the
signal by the time the signal reaches that device? The distance the signal travels
through the cable directly affects attenuation of the signal. Degradation of the
signal is directly related to the distance the signal travels and the type of cable
used.
Some examples of Ethernet specifications which relate to cable type include:
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
10BASE-T

10BASE5

10BASE2
10BASE-T refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of transmission is
baseband, or digitally interpreted. The T stands for twisted pair.
10BASE5 refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of transmission is
baseband, or digitally interpreted. The 5 represents the capability of the cable to allow the
signal to travel for approximately 500 meters before attenuation could disrupt the ability of
the receiver to appropriately interpret the signal being received. 10BASE5 is often referred to
as Thicknet. Thicknet is actually a type of network, while 10BASE5 is the cabling used in that
network.
10BASE2 refers to the speed of transmission at 10 Mbps. The type of transmission is
baseband, or digitally interpreted. The 2, in 10BASE2, represents the capability of the cable to
allow the signal to travel for approximately 200 meters, before attenuation could disrupt the
ability of the receiver to appropriately interpret the signal being received. 10BASE2 is often
referred to as Thinnet. Thinnet is actually a type of network, while 10BASE2 is the cabling
used in that network.
3.1.7 Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single
inner wire made of two conducting elements. One of these elements, located in the center of
the cable, is a copper conductor. Surrounding the copper conductor is a layer of flexible
insulation. Over this insulating material is a woven copper braid or metallic foil that acts as
the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second layer, or
shield reduces the amount of outside electro-magnetic interference. Covering this shield is the
cable jacket.
For LANs, coaxial cable offers several advantages. It can be run longer distances than
shielded twisted pair, STP, and unshielded twisted pair, UTP, cable without the need for
repeaters. Repeaters regenerate the signals in a network so that they can cover greater
distances. Coaxial cable is less expensive than fiber-optic cable, and the technology is well
known. It has been used for many years for many types of data communication, including
cable television.
When working with cable, it is important to consider its size. As the thickness of the
cable increases, so does the difficulty in working with it. Remember that cable must be pulled
through existing conduits and troughs that are limited in size. Coaxial cable comes in a variety
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of sizes. The largest diameter was specified for use as Ethernet backbone cable, because it has
a greater transmission length and noise rejection characteristics. This type of coaxial cable is
frequently referred to as thicknet. As its nickname suggests, this type of cable can be too rigid
to install easily in some situations. Generally, the more difficult the network media is to install,
the more expensive it is to install. Coaxial cable is more expensive to install than twisted-pair
cable. Thicknet cable is almost never used anymore, except for special purpose installations.
In the past, ‘thinnet’ coaxial cable with an outside diameter of only 0.35 cm was used in
Ethernet networks. It was especially useful for cable installations that required the cable to
make many twists and turns. Since thinnet was easier to install, it was also cheaper to install.
This led some people to refer to it as cheapernet. The outer copper or metallic braid in coaxial
cable comprises half the electric circuit and special care must be taken to ensure a solid
electrical connection at both ends resulting in proper grounding. Poor shield connection is one
of the biggest sources of connection problems in the installation of coaxial cable. Connection
problems result in electrical noise that interferes with signal transmittal on the networking
media. For this reason thinnet is no longer commonly used nor supported by latest standards
(100 Mbps and higher) for Ethernet networks.
3.1.8 STP cable
Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation,
and twisting of wires.
Each pair of wires is wrapped in metallic foil. The four pairs of wires
are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil. It is usually 150-Ohm cable. As specified for
use in Ethernet network installations, STP reduces electrical noise within the cable such as
pair to pair coupling and crosstalk. STP also reduces electronic noise from outside the cable,
for example electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
Shielded twisted-pair cable shares many of the advantages and disadvantages of unshielded
twisted-pair cable (UTP). STP affords greater protection from all types of external
interference, but is more expensive and difficult to install than UTP.
A new hybrid of UTP with traditional STP is Screened UTP (ScTP), also known as Foil
Twisted Pair (FTP). ScTP is essentially UTP wrapped in a metallic foil shield, or screen. It
is usually 100-Ohm or 120-Ohm cable.
The metallic shielding materials in STP and ScTP need to be grounded at both ends. If
improperly grounded or if there are any discontinuities in the entire length of the shielding
material, STP and ScTP become susceptible to major noise problems. They are susceptible
because they allow the shield to act like an antenna picking up unwanted signals. However,
this effect works both ways. Not only does the shield prevent incoming electromagnetic
waves from causing noise on data wires, but it also minimizes the outgoing radiated
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electromagnetic waves. These waves could cause noise in other devices. STP and ScTP cable
cannot be run as far as other networking media, such as coaxial cable or optical fiber, without
the signal being repeated. More insulation and shielding combine to considerably increase the
size, weight, and cost of the cable. The shielding materials make terminations more difficult
and susceptible to poor workmanship. However, STP and ScTP still have a role, especially in
Europe.
3.1.9 UTP cable
Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of
networks. Each of the 8 individual copper wires in the UTP cable is covered by insulating
material. In addition, each pair of wires is twisted around each other. This type of cable relies
solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs, to limit signal degradation
caused by EMI and RFI. To further reduce crosstalk between the pairs in UTP cable, the
number of twists in the wire pairs varies. Like STP cable, UTP cable must follow precise
specifications as to how many twists or braids are permitted per foot of cable.
TIA/EIA-568-A contains specifications governing cable performance. It calls for
running two cables, one for voice and one for data, to each outlet. Of the two cables, the one
for voice must be four-pair UTP. CAT 5 is the one most frequently recommended and
implemented in installations today.
Unshielded twisted-pair cable has many advantages. It is easy to install and is less
expensive than other types of networking media. In fact, UTP costs less per meter than any
other type of LAN cabling. However, the real advantage is the size. Since it has such a small
external diameter, UTP does not fill up wiring ducts as rapidly as other types of cable. This
can be an extremely important factor to consider, particularly when installing a network in an
older building. In addition, when UTP cable is installed using an RJ-45 connector, potential
sources of network noise are greatly reduced and a good solid connection is practically
guaranteed. There are disadvantages in using twisted-pair cabling. UTP cable is more prone to
electrical noise and interference than other types of networking media, and the distance
between signal boosts is shorter for UTP than it is for coaxial and fiber optic cables.
UTP was once considered slower at transmitting data than other types of cable. This is
no longer true. In fact, today, UTP is considered the fastest copper-based media.
When communication occurs, the signal that is transmitted by the source needs to be
understood by the destination. This is true from both a software and physical perspective. The
transmitted signal needs to be properly received by the circuit connection designed to receive
signals. The transmit pin of the source needs to ultimately connect to the receiving pin of the
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destination. The following are the types of cable connections used between internetwork
devices.
In Figure , a LAN switch is connected to a computer. The cable that connects from the
switch port to the computer NIC port is called a straight-through cable.
In Figure , two switches are connected together. The cable that connects from one switch
port to another switch port is called a crossover cable.
In Figure , the cable that connects the RJ-45 adapter on the com port of the computer to
the console port of the router or switch is called a rollover cable.
The cables are defined by the type of connections, or pinouts, from one end to the other
end of the cable. See images two, four, and six. A technician can compare both ends of the
same cable by placing them next to each other, provided the cable has not yet been placed in a
wall. The technician observes the colors of the two RJ-45 connections by placing both ends
with the clip placed into the hand and the top of both ends of the cable pointing away from the
technician. A straight through cable should have both ends with identical color patterns. While
comparing the ends of a cross-over cable, the color of pins #1 and #2 will appear on the other
end at pins #3 and #6, and vice-versa. This occurs because the transmit and receive pins are in
different locations. On a rollover cable, the color combination from left to right on one end
should be exactly opposite to the color combination on the other end.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Communications Circuits
In this lab, the student will design, build, and test a simple communication system.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Fluke 620 Basic Cable Testing
In this lab, the student will use a simple cable tester to verify whether a straight-through
or crossover cable is good or bad.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Straight-Through Cable Construction
In this lab, the student will build a Category 5 or Category 5e (CAT 5 or 5e) unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) Ethernet network patch cable or patch cord and test the cable for
continuity and correct pinouts, the correct color of wire on the right pin.
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Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Rollover Cable Construction
In this lab, the student will build a Category 5 or Category 5e (CAT 5 or 5e) unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) console rollover cable and test the cable for continuity and correct pin-outs,
the correct wire on the right pin.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Crossover Cable Construction
In this lab, the student will build a Category 5 or Category 5e (CAT 5 or 5e) unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) Ethernet crossover cable to T568-B and T-568-A standards and test the
cable for continuity and correct pin-outs, correct wire on the right pin.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: UTP Cable Purchase
This lab will introduce the variety and prices of network cabling and components in the
market. The student will gather pricing information for UTP patch cables and bulk cable.
3.2 Optical Media
3.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum
The light used in optical fiber networks is one type of electromagnetic energy. When an
electric charge moves back and forth, or accelerates, a type of energy called electromagnetic
energy is produced. This energy in the form of waves can travel through a vacuum, the air,
and through some materials like glass. An important property of any energy wave is the
wavelength.
Radio, microwaves, radar, visible light, x-rays, and gamma rays seem to be very
different things. However, they are all types of electromagnetic energy. If all the types of
electromagnetic waves are arranged in order from the longest wavelength down to the shortest
wavelength, a continuum called the electromagnetic spectrum is created.
The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is determined by how frequently the
electric charge that generates the wave moves back and forth. If the charge moves back and
forth slowly, the wavelength it generates is a long wavelength. Visualize the movement of the
electric charge as like that of a stick in a pool of water. If the stick is moved back and forth
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slowly, it will generate ripples in the water with a long wavelength between the tops of the
ripples. If the stick is moved back and forth more rapidly, the ripples will have a shorter
wavelength.
Because electromagnetic waves are all generated in the same way, they share many of
the same properties. They all travel at a rate of 300,000 kilometers per second (186,283 miles
per second) through a vacuum.
Human eyes were designed to only sense electromagnetic energy with wavelengths
between 700 nanometers and 400 nanometers (nm). A nanometer is one billionth of a meter
(0.000000001 meter) in length. Electromagnetic energy with wavelengths between 700 and
400 nm is called visible light. The longer wavelengths of light that are around 700 nm are
seen as the color red. The shortest wavelengths that are around 400 nm appear as the color
violet. This part of the electromagnetic spectrum is seen as the colors in a rainbow.
Wavelengths that are not visible to the human eye are used to transmit data over optical
fiber. These wavelengths are slightly longer than red light and are called infrared light.
Infrared light is used in TV remote controls. The wavelength of the light in optical fiber is
either 850 nm, 1310 nm, or 1550 nm. These wavelengths were selected because they travel
through optical fiber better than other wavelengths.
3.2.2 Ray model of light
When electromagnetic waves travel out from a source, they travel in straight lines.
These straight lines pointing out from the source are called rays.
Think of light rays as narrow beams of light like those produced by lasers. In the
vacuum of empty space, light travels continuously in a straight line at 300,000 kilometers per
second. However, light travels at different, slower speeds through other materials like air,
water, and glass. When a light ray called the incident ray, crosses the boundary from one
material to another, some of the light energy in the ray will be reflected back. That is why you
can see yourself in window glass. The light that is reflected back is called the reflected ray.
The light energy in the incident ray that is not reflected will enter the glass. The entering
ray will be bent at an angle from its original path. This ray is called the refracted ray. How
much the incident light ray is bent depends on the angle at which the incident ray strikes the
surface of the glass and the different rates of speed at which light travels through the two
substances.
The bending of light rays at the boundary of two substances is the reason why light rays
are able to travel through an optical fiber even if the fiber curves in a circle.
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The optical density of the glass determines how much the rays of light in the glass bends.
Optical density refers to how much a light ray slows down when it passes through a substance.
The greater the optical density of a material, the more it slows light down from its speed in a
vacuum. The ratio of the speed of light in a material to the speed of light in a vacuum is called
the Index of Refraction. Therefore, the measure of the optical density of a material is the
index of refraction of that material. A material with a large index of refraction is more
optically dense and slows down more light than a material with a smaller index of refraction.
For a substance like glass, the Index of Refraction, or the optical density, can be made
larger by adding chemicals to the glass. Making the glass very pure can make the index of
refraction smaller. The next lessons will provide further information about reflection and
refraction, and their relation to the design and function of optical fiber.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Propagation of Light in Matter
This activity demonstrates how light slows down through different materials.
3.2.3 Reflection
When a ray of light (the incident ray) strikes the shiny surface of a flat piece of glass,
some of the light energy in the ray is reflected. The angle between the incident ray and a
line perpendicular to the surface of the glass at the point where the incident ray strikes the
glass is called the angle of incidence. The perpendicular line is called the normal. It is not a
light ray but a tool to allow the measurement of angles. The angle between the reflected ray
and the normal is called the angle of reflection. The Law of Reflection states that the angle of
reflection of a light ray is equal to the angle of incidence. In other words, the angle at which a
light ray strikes a reflective surface determines the angle that the ray will reflect off the
surface.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Law of Reflection
This activity animates how angles affect reflection.
3.2.4 Refraction
When a light strikes the interface between two transparent materials, the light divides
into two parts. Part of the light ray is reflected back into the first substance, with the angle of
reflection equaling the angle of incidence. The remaining energy in the light ray crosses the
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interface and enters into the second substance.
If the incident ray strikes the glass surface at an exact 90-degree angle, the ray goes
straight into the glass. The ray is not bent. However, if the incident ray is not at an exact
90-degree angle to the surface, then the transmitted ray that enters the glass is bent. The
bending of the entering ray is called refraction. How much the ray is refracted depends on the
index of refraction of the two transparent materials. If the light ray travels from a substance
whose index of refraction is smaller, into a substance where the index of refraction is larger,
the refracted ray is bent towards the normal. If the light ray travels from a substance where the
index of refraction is larger into a substance where the index of refraction is smaller, the
refracted ray is bent away from the normal.
Consider a light ray moving at an angle other than 90 degrees through the boundary
between glass and a diamond. The glass has an index of refraction of about 1.523. The
diamond has an index of refraction of about 2.419. Therefore, the ray that continues into the
diamond will be bent towards the normal. When that light ray crosses the boundary between
the diamond and the air at some angle other than 90 degrees, it will be bent away from the
normal. The reason for this is that air has a lower index of refraction, about 1.000 than the
index of refraction of the diamond.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Optical Refraction
This activity shows how refraction works in different materials (starting from a
vacuum).
3.2.5 Total internal reflection
A light ray that is being turned on and off to send data (1s and 0s) into an optical fiber
must stay inside the fiber until it reaches the far end. The ray must not refract into the material
wrapped around the outside of the fiber. The refraction would cause the loss of part of the
light energy of the ray. A design must be achieved for the fiber that will make the outside
surface of the fiber act like a mirror to the light ray moving through the fiber. If any light ray
that tries to move out through the side of the fiber were reflected back into the fiber at an
angle that sends it towards the far end of the fiber, this would be a good “pipe” or “wave
guide” for the light waves.
The laws of reflection and refraction illustrate how to design a fiber that guides the light
waves through the fiber with a minimum energy loss. The following two conditions must be
met for the light rays in a fiber to be reflected back into the fiber without any loss due to
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refraction:

The core of the optical fiber has to have a larger index of refraction (n) than the
material that surrounds it. The material that surrounds the core of the fiber is called
the cladding.

The angle of incidence of the light ray is greater than the critical angle for the core
and its cladding.
When both of these conditions are met, the entire incident light in the fiber is reflected
back inside the fiber. This is called total internal reflection, which is the foundation upon
which optical fiber is constructed. Total internal reflection causes the light rays in the fiber to
bounce off the core-cladding boundary and continue its journey towards the far end of the
fiber. The light will follow a zigzag path through the core of the fiber.
A fiber that meets the first condition can be easily created. In addition, the angle of
incidence of the light rays that enter the core can be controlled. Restricting the following two
factors controls the angle of incidence:

The numerical aperture of the fiber – The numerical aperture of a core is the range
of angles of incident light rays entering the fiber that will be completely reflected.

Modes – The paths which a light ray can follow when traveling down a fiber.
By controlling both conditions, the fiber run will have total internal reflection. This
gives a light wave guide that can be used for data communications.
3.2.6 Multimode fiber
The part of an optical fiber through which light rays travel is called the core of the fiber.
Light rays can only enter the core if their angle is inside the numerical aperture of the fiber.
Likewise, once the rays have entered the core of the fiber, there are a limited number of
optical paths that a light ray can follow through the fiber. These optical paths are called modes.
If the diameter of the core of the fiber is large enough so that there are many paths that light
can take through the fiber, the fiber is called “multimode” fiber. Single-mode fiber has a much
smaller core that only allows light rays to travel along one mode inside the fiber.
Every fiber-optic cable used for networking consists of two glass fibers encased in
separate sheaths. One fiber carries transmitted data from device A to device B. The second
fiber carries data from device B to device A. The fibers are similar to two one-way streets
going in opposite directions. This provides a full-duplex communication link. Just as copper
twisted-pair uses separate wire pairs to transmit and receive, fiber-optic circuits use one fiber
strand to transmit and one to receive. Typically, these two fiber cables will be in a single outer
jacket until they reach the point at which connectors are attached.
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Until the connectors are attached, there is no need for twisting or shielding, because no
light escapes when it is inside a fiber. This means there are no crosstalk issues with fiber. It is
very common to see multiple fiber pairs encased in the same cable. This allows a single cable
to be run between data closets, floors, or buildings. One cable can contain 2 to 48 or more
separate fibers. With copper, one UTP cable would have to be pulled for each circuit. Fiber
can carry many more bits per second and carry them farther than copper can.
Usually, five parts make up each fiber-optic cable. The parts are the core, the cladding, a
buffer, a strength material, and an outer jacket.
The core is the light transmission element at the center of the optical fiber. All the light
signals travel through the core. A core is typically glass made from a combination of silicon
dioxide (silica) and other elements. Multimode uses a type of glass, called graded index glass
for its core. This glass has a lower index of refraction towards the outer edge of the core.
Therefore, the outer area of the core is less optically dense than the center and light can go
faster in the outer part of the core. This design is used because a light ray following a mode
that goes straight down the center of the core does not have as far to travel as a ray following
a mode that bounces around in the fiber. All rays should arrive at the end of the fiber together.
Then the receiver at the end of the fiber receives a strong flash of light rather than a long, dim
pulse.
Surrounding the core is the cladding. Cladding is also made of silica but with a lower
index of refraction than the core. Light rays traveling through the fiber core reflect off this
core-to-cladding interface as they move through the fiber by total internal reflection. Standard
multimode fiber-optic cable is the most common type of fiber-optic cable used in LANs. A
standard multimode fiber-optic cable uses an optical fiber with either a 62.5 or a 50-micron
core and a 125-micron diameter cladding. This is commonly designated as 62.5/125 or 50/125
micron optical fiber. A micron is one millionth of a meter (1µ).
Surrounding the cladding is a buffer material that is usually plastic. The buffer material
helps shield the core and cladding from damage. There are two basic cable designs. They are
the loose-tube and the tight-buffered cable designs. Most of the fiber used in LANs is
tight-buffered multimode cable. Tight-buffered cables have the buffering material that
surrounds the cladding in direct contact with the cladding. The most practical difference
between the two designs is the applications for which they are used. Loose-tube cable is
primarily used for outside-building installations, while tight-buffered cable is used inside
buildings.
The strength material surrounds the buffer, preventing the fiber cable from being
stretched when installers pull it. The material used is often Kevlar, the same material used to
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produce bulletproof vests.
The final element is the outer jacket. The outer jacket surrounds the cable to protect the
fiber against abrasion, solvents, and other contaminants. The color of the outer jacket of
multimode fiber is usually orange, but occasionally another color.
Infrared Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) or Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers
(VCSELs) are two types of light source usually used with multimode fiber. Use one or the
other. LEDs are a little cheaper to build and require somewhat less safety concerns than lasers.
However, LEDs cannot transmit light over cable as far as the lasers. Multimode fiber
(62.5/125) can carry data distances of up to 2000 meters (6,560 ft).
3.2.7 Single-mode fiber
Single-mode fiber consists of the same parts as multimode. The outer jacket of
single-mode fiber is usually yellow. The major difference between multimode and
single-mode fiber is that single-mode allows only one mode of light to propagate through the
smaller, fiber-optic core. The single-mode core is eight to ten microns in diameter.
Nine-micron cores are the most common. A 9/125 marking on the jacket of the single-mode
fiber indicates that the core fiber has a diameter of 9 microns and the surrounding cladding is
125 microns in diameter.
An infrared laser is used as the light source in single-mode fiber. The ray of light it
generates enters the core at a 90-degree angle. As a result, the data carrying light ray pulses in
single-mode fiber are essentially transmitted in a straight line right down the middle of the
core. This greatly increases both the speed and the distance that data can be transmitted.
Because of its design, single-mode fiber is capable of higher rates of data transmission
(bandwidth) and greater cable run distances than multimode fiber. Single-mode fiber can
carry LAN data up to 3000 meters. Multimode is only capable of carrying up to 2000 meters.
Lasers and single-mode fibers are more expensive than LEDs and multimode fiber. Because
of these characteristics, single-mode fiber is often used for inter-building connectivity.
Warning: The laser light used with single-mode has a longer wavelength than can be
seen. The laser is so strong that it can seriously damage eyes. Never look at the near end of a
fiber that is connected to a device at the far end. Never look into the transmit port on a NIC,
switch, or router. Remember to keep protective covers over the ends of fiber and inserted into
the fiber-optic ports of switches and routers. Be very careful.
Figure
compares the relative sizes of the core and cladding for both types of fiber optic
in different sectional views. The much smaller and more refined fiber core in single-mode
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fiber is the reason single-mode has a higher bandwidth and cable run distance than multimode
fiber. However, it entails more manufacturing costs.
3.2.8 Other optical components
Most of the data sent over a LAN is in the form of electrical signals. However, optical
fiber links use light to send data. Something is needed to convert the electricity to light and at
the other end of the fiber convert the light back to electricity. This means that a transmitter
and a receiver are required.
The transmitter receives data to be transmitted from switches and routers. This data is in
the form of electrical signals. The transmitter converts the electronic signals into their
equivalent light pulses. There are two types of light sources used to encode and transmit the
data through the cable:

A light emitting diode (LED) producing infrared light with wavelengths of either
850nm or 1310 nm. These are used with multimode fiber in LANs. Lenses are used
to focus the infrared light on the end of the fiber

Light amplification by stimulated emission radiation (LASER) a light source
producing a thin beam of intense infrared light usually with wavelengths of
1310nm or 1550 nm. Lasers are used with single-mode fiber over the longer
distances involved in WANs or campus backbones. Extra care should be exercised
to prevent eye injury
Each of these light sources can be lighted and darkened very quickly to send data (1s
and 0s) at a high number of bits per second.
At the other end of the optical fiber from the transmitter is the receiver. The receiver
functions something like the photoelectric cell in a solar powered calculator. When light
strikes the receiver, it produces electricity. The first job of the receiver is to detect a light
pulse that arrives from the fiber. Then the receiver converts the light pulse back into the
original electrical signal that first entered the transmitter at the far end of the fiber. Now the
signal is again in the form of voltage changes. The signal is ready to be sent over copper wire
into any receiving electronic device such as a computer, switch, or router. The semiconductor
devices that are usually used as receivers with fiber-optic links are called p-intrinsic-n diodes
(PIN photodiodes).
PIN photodiodes are manufactured to be sensitive to 850, 1310, or 1550 nm of light that
are generated by the transmitter at the far end of the fiber. When struck by a pulse of light at
the proper wavelength, the PIN photodiode quickly produces an electric current of the proper
voltage for the network. It instantly stops producing the voltage when no light strikes the PIN
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photodiode. This generates the voltage changes that represent the data 1s and 0s on a copper
cable.
Connectors are attached to the fiber ends so that the fibers can be connected to the ports
on the transmitter and receiver. The type of connector most commonly used with multimode
fiber is the Subscriber Connector (SC connector). On single-mode fiber, the Straight Tip (ST)
connector is frequently used.
In addition to the transmitters, receivers, connectors, and fibers that are always required
on an optical network, repeaters and fiber patch panels are often seen.
Repeaters are optical amplifiers that receive attenuating light pulses traveling long
distances and restore them to their original shapes, strengths, and timings. The restored
signals can then be sent on along the journey to the receiver at the far end of the fiber.
Fiber patch panels similar to the patch panels used with copper cable. These panels
increase the flexibility of an optical network by allowing quick changes to the connection of
devices like switches or routers with various available fiber runs, or cable links.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Fiber-Optic Cable Purchase
This lab will introduce the variety and prices of network cabling and components in the
market. The student will gather pricing information for fiber patch cables and fiber bulk cable.
3.2.9 Signals and noise in optical fibers
Fiber-optic cable is not affected by the sources of external noise that cause problems on
copper media because external light cannot enter the fiber except at the transmitter end. A
buffer and an outer jacket that stops light from entering or leaving the cable cover the
cladding.
Furthermore, the transmission of light on one fiber in a cable does not generate
interference that disturbs transmission on any other fiber. This means that fiber does not have
the problem with crosstalk that copper media does. In fact, the quality of fiber-optic links is so
good that the recent standards for gigabit and ten gigabit Ethernet specify transmission
distances that far exceed the traditional two-kilometer reach of the original Ethernet.
Fiber-optic transmission allows the Ethernet protocol to be used on Metropolitan Area
Networks (MANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs).
Although fiber is the best of all the transmission media at carrying large amounts of data
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over long distances, fiber is not without problems. When light travels through fiber, some of
the light energy is lost. The farther a light signal travels through a fiber, the more the signal
loses strength. This attenuation of the signal is due to several factors involving the nature of
fiber itself. The most important factor is scattering. The scattering of light in a fiber is caused
by microscopic non-uniformity (distortions) in the fiber that reflects and scatters some of the
light energy.
Absorption is another cause of light energy loss. When a light ray strikes some types of
chemical impurities in a fiber, the impurities absorb part of the energy. This light energy is
converted to a small amount of heat energy. Absorption makes the light signal a little dimmer.
Another factor that causes attenuation of the light signal is manufacturing irregularities
or roughness in the core-to-cladding boundary. Power is lost from the light signal because of
the less than perfect total internal reflection in that rough area of the fiber. Any microscopic
imperfections in the thickness or symmetry of the fiber will cut down on total internal
reflection and the cladding will absorb some light energy.
Dispersion of a light flash also limits transmission distances on a fiber. Dispersion is the
technical term for the spreading of pulses of light as they travel down the fiber.
Graded index multimode fiber is designed to compensate for the different distances the
various modes of light have to travel in the large diameter core. Single-mode fiber does not
have the problem of multiple paths that the light signal can follow. However, chromatic
dispersion is a characteristic of both multimode and single-mode fiber. When wavelengths of
light travel at slightly different speeds through glass than do other wavelengths, chromatic
dispersion is caused. That is why a prism separates the wavelengths of light. Ideally, an LED
or Laser light source would emit light of just one frequency. Then chromatic dispersion would
not be a problem.
Unfortunately, lasers, and especially LEDs generate a range of wavelengths so
chromatic dispersion limits the distance that can be transmitted on a fiber. If a signal is
transmitted too far, what started as a bright pulse of light energy will be spread out, separated,
and dim when it reaches the receiver. The receiver will not be able to distinguish a one from a
zero.
3.2.10 Installation, care, and testing of optical fiber
A major cause of too much attenuation in fiber-optic cable is improper installation. If the
fiber is stretched or curved too tightly, it can cause tiny cracks in the core that will scatter the
light rays. Bending the fiber in too tight a curve can change the incident angle of light rays
striking the core-to-cladding boundary. Then the incident angle of the ray will become less
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than the critical angle for total internal reflection. Instead of reflecting around the bend, some
light rays will refract into the cladding and be lost.
To prevent fiber bends that are too sharp, fiber is usually pulled through a type of
installed pipe called interducting. The interducting is much stiffer than fiber and can not be
bent so sharply that the fiber inside the interducting has too tight a curve. The interducting
protects the fiber, makes it easier to pull the fiber, and ensures that the bending radius (curve
limit) of the fiber is not exceeded.
When the fiber has been pulled, the ends of the fiber must be cleaved (cut) and properly
polished to ensure that the ends are smooth. A microscope or test instrument with a built in
magnifier is used to examine the end of the fiber and verify that it is properly polished and
shaped. Then the connector is carefully attached to the fiber end. Improperly installed
connectors, improper splices, or the splicing of two cables with different core sizes will
dramatically reduce the strength of a light signal.
Once the fiber-optic cable and connectors have been installed, the connectors and the
ends of the fibers must be kept spotlessly clean. The ends of the fibers should be covered with
protective covers to prevent damage to the fiber ends. When these covers are removed prior to
connecting the fiber to a port on a switch or a router, the fiber ends must be cleaned. Clean the
fiber ends with lint free lens tissue moistened with pure isopropyl alcohol. The fiber ports on
a switch or router should also be kept covered when not in use and cleaned with lens tissue
and isopropyl alcohol before a connection is made. Dirty ends on a fiber will cause a big drop
in the amount of light that reaches the receiver.
Scattering, absorption, dispersion, improper installation, and dirty fiber ends diminish
the strength of the light signal and are referred to as fiber noise. Before using a fiber-optic
cable, it must be tested to ensure that enough light actually reaches the receiver for it to detect
the zeros and ones in the signal.
When a fiber-optic link is being planned, the amount of signal power loss that can be
tolerated must be calculated. This is referred to as the optical link loss budget. Imagine a
monthly financial budget. After all of the expenses are subtracted from initial income, enough
money must be left to get through the month.
The decibel (dB) is the unit used to measure the amount of power loss. It tells what
percent of the power that leaves the transmitter actually enters the receiver.
Testing fiber links is extremely important and records of the results of these tests must
be kept. Several types of fiber-optic test equipment are used. Two of the most important
instruments are Optical Loss Meters and Optical Time Domain Reflectometers (OTDRs).
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These meters both test optical cable to ensure that the cable meets the TIA standards for
fiber. They also test to verify that the link power loss does not fall below the optical link loss
budget. OTDRs can provide much additional detailed diagnostic information about a fiber
link. They can be used to trouble shoot a link when problems occur.
3.3 Wireless Media
3.3.1 Wireless LAN organizations and standards
An understanding of the regulations and standards that apply to wireless technology will
ensure that deployed networks will be interoperable and in compliance. Just as in cabled
networks, IEEE is the prime issuer of standards for wireless networks. The standards have
been created within the framework of the regulations created by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC).
A key technology contained within the 802.11 standard is Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS). DSSS applies to wireless devices operating within a 1 to 2 Mbps range. A
DSSS system may operate at up to 11 Mbps but will not be considered compliant above 2
Mbps. The next standard approved was 802.11b, which increased transmission capabilities to
11 Mbps. Even though DSSS WLANs were able to interoperate with the Frequency Hopping
Spread Spectrum (FHSS) WLANs, problems developed prompting design changes by the
manufacturers. In this case, IEEE’s task was simply to create a standard that matched the
manufacturer’s solution.
802.11b may also be called Wi-Fi™ or high-speed wireless and refers to DSSS systems
that operate at 1, 2, 5.5 and 11 Mbps. All 802.11b systems are backward compliant in that
they also support 802.11 for 1 and 2 Mbps data rates for DSSS only. This backward
compatibility is extremely important as it allows upgrading of the wireless network without
replacing the NICs or access points.
802.11b devices achieve the higher data throughput rate by using a different coding
technique from 802.11, allowing for a greater amount of data to be transferred in the same
time frame. The majority of 802.11b devices still fail to match the 11 Mbps throughput and
generally function in the 2 to 4 Mbps range.
802.11a covers WLAN devices operating in the 5 GHZ transmission band. Using the 5
GHZ range disallows interoperability of 802.11b devices as they operate within 2.4 GHZ.
802.11a is capable of supplying data throughput of 54 Mbps and with proprietary technology
known as "rate doubling" has achieved 108 Mbps. In production networks, a more standard
rating is 20-26 Mbps.
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802.11g provides the same throughout as 802.11a but with backwards compatibility for
802.11b devices using Othogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) modulation
technology. Cisco has developed an access point that permits 802.11b and 802.11a devices to
coexist on the same WLAN. The access point supplies ‘gateway’ services allowing these
otherwise incompatible devices to communicate.
3.3.2 Wireless devices and topologies
A wireless network may consist of as few as two devices.
- The nodes could simply
be desktop workstations or notebook computers. Equipped with wireless NICs, an ‘ad hoc’
network could be established which compares to a peer-to-peer wired network. Both devices
act as servers and clients in this environment. Although it does provide connectivity, security
is at a minimum along with throughput. Another problem with this type of network is
compatibility. Many times NICs from different manufacturers are not compatible.
To solve the problem of compatibility, an access point (AP) is commonly installed to act
as a central hub for the WLAN "infrastructure mode". The AP is hard wired to the cabled
LAN to provide Internet access and connectivity to the wired network. APs are equipped with
antennae and provide wireless connectivity over a specified area referred to as a cell.
Depending on the structural composition of the location in which the AP is installed and the
size and gain of the antennae, the size of the cell could greatly vary. Most commonly, the
range will be from 91.44 to 152.4 meters (300 to 500 feet). To service larger areas, multiple
access points may be installed with a degree of overlap. The overlap permits "roaming"
between cells. This is very similar to the services provided by cellular phone companies.
Overlap, on multiple AP networks, is critical to allow for movement of devices within the
WLAN. Although not addressed in the IEEE standards, a 20-30% overlap is desirable. This
rate of overlap will permit roaming between cells, allowing for the disconnect and reconnect
activity to occur seamlessly without service interruption.
When a client is activated within the WLAN, it will start "listening" for a compatible
device with which to "associate". This is referred to as "scanning" and may be active or
passive.
Active scanning causes a probe request to be sent from the wireless node seeking to join
the network. The probe request will contain the Service Set Identifier (SSID) of the network it
wishes to join. When an AP with the same SSID is found, the AP will issue a probe response.
The authentication and association steps are completed.
Passive scanning nodes listen for beacon management frames (beacons), which are
transmitted by the AP (infrastructure mode) or peer nodes (ad hoc). When a node receives a
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beacon that contains the SSID of the network it is trying to join, an attempt is made to join the
network. Passive scanning is a continuous process and nodes may associate or disassociate
with APs as signal strength changes.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: OSI Layer Devices
This animation classifies networking devices by the OSI layer upon which they operate.
Interactive Media Activity
Point and Click: From LAN to WLAN
This activity shows a regular wired LAN.
3.3.3 How wireless LANs communicate
After establishing connectivity to the WLAN, a node will pass frames in the same
manner as on any other 802.x network. WLANs do not use a standard 802.3 frame. Therefore,
using the term wireless Ethernet is misleading. There are three types of frames: control,
management, and data.
Only the data frame type is similar to 802.3 frames. The payload of
wireless and 802.3 frames is 1500 bytes; however, an Ether frame may not exceed 1518 bytes
whereas a wireless frame could be as large as 2346 bytes. Usually the WLAN frame size will
be limited to 1518 bytes as it is most commonly connected to a wired Ethernet network.
Since radio frequency (RF) is a shared medium, collisions can occur just as they do on
wired shared medium. The major difference is that there is no method by which the source
node is able to detect that a collision occurred. For that reason WLANs use Carrier Sense
Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). This is somewhat like Ethernet
CSMA/CD.
When a source node sends a frame, the receiving node returns a positive
acknowledgment (ACK). This can cause consumption of 50% of the available bandwidth.
This overhead when combined with the collision avoidance protocol overhead reduces the
actual data throughput to a maximum of 5.0 to 5.5 Mbps on an 802.11b wireless LAN rated at
11 Mbps.
Performance of the network will also be affected by signal strength and degradation in
signal quality due to distance or interference. As the signal becomes weaker, Adaptive Rate
Selection (ARS) may be invoked. The transmitting unit will drop the data rate from 11 Mbps
to 5.5 Mbps, from 5.5 Mbps to 2 Mbps or 2 Mbps to 1 Mbps.
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3.3.4 Authentication and association
WLAN authentication occurs at Layer 2. It is the process of authenticating the device
not the user. This is a critical point to remember when considering WLAN security,
troubleshooting and overall management.
Authentication may be a null process, as in the case of a new AP and NIC with default
configurations in place. The client will send an authentication request frame to the AP and the
frame will be accepted or rejected by the AP. The client is notified of the response via an
authentication response frame. The AP may also be configured to hand off the authentication
task to an authentication server, which would perform a more thorough credentialing process.
Association, performed after authentication, is the state that permits a client to use the
services of the AP to transfer data.
Authentication and Association types

Unauthenticated and unassociated
The node is disconnected from the network and not associated to an access point.

Authenticated and unassociated
The node has been authenticated on the network but has not yet associated with the
access point.

Authenticated and associated
The node is connected to the network and able to transmit and receive data through
the access point.
Methods of authentication
IEEE 802.11 lists two types of authentication processes.
The first authentication process is the open system. This is an open connectivity standard
in which only the SSID must match. This may be used in a secure or non-secure environment
although the ability of low level network ‘sniffers’ to discover the SSID of the WLAN is high.
The second process is the shared key. This process requires the use of Wireless
Equivalency Protocol (WEP) encryption. WEP is a fairly simple algorithm using 64 and 128
bit keys. The AP is configured with an encrypted key and nodes attempting to access the
network through the AP must have a matching key. Statically assigned WEP keys provide a
higher level of security than the open system but are definitely not hack proof.
The problem of unauthorized entry into WLANs is being addressed by a number of new
security solution technologies.
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3.3.5 The radio wave and microwave spectrums
Computers send data signals electronically. Radio transmitters convert these electrical
signals to radio waves. Changing electric currents in the antenna of a transmitter generates the
radio waves. These radio waves radiate out in straight lines from the antenna. However,
radio waves attenuate as they move out from the transmitting antenna. In a WLAN, a radio
signal measured at a distance of just 10 meters (30 feet) from the transmitting antenna would
be only 1/100th of its original strength. Like light, radio waves can be absorbed by some
materials and reflected by others. When passing from one material, like air, into another
material, like a plaster wall, radio waves are refracted. Radio waves are also scattered and
absorbed by water droplets in the air.
These qualities of radio waves are important to remember when a WLAN is being
planned for a building or for a campus. The process of evaluating a location for the
installation of a WLAN is called making a Site Survey.
Because radio signals weaken as they travel away from the transmitter, the receiver must
also be equipped with an antenna. When radio waves hit the antenna of a receiver, weak
electric currents are generated in that antenna. These electric currents, caused by the received
radio waves, are equal to the currents that originally generated the radio waves in the antenna
of the transmitter. The receiver amplifies the strength of these weak electrical signals.
In a transmitter, the electrical (data) signals from a computer or a LAN are not sent
directly into the antenna of the transmitter. Rather, these data signals are used to alter a second,
strong signal called the carrier signal.
The process of altering the carrier signal that will enter the antenna of the transmitter is
called modulation. There are three basic ways in which a radio carrier signal can be
modulated. For example, Amplitude Modulated (AM) radio stations modulate the height
(amplitude) of the carrier signal. Frequency Modulated (FM) radio stations modulate the
frequency of the carrier signal as determined by the electrical signal from the microphone. In
WLANs, a third type of modulation called phase modulation is used to superimpose the data
signal onto the carrier signal that is broadcast by the transmitter.
In this type of modulation, the data bits in the electrical signal change the phase of the
carrier signal.
A receiver demodulates the carrier signal that arrives from its antenna. The receiver
interprets the phase changes of the carrier signal and reconstructs from it the original
electrical data signal.
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Interactive Media Activity
Point and Click: Electromagnetic Fields and Polarization
This activity includes a series of animated, graphical explanations of EM fields and
polarization.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Electromagnetic Spectrum
This activity allows you to scroll through the EM spectrum by moving your mouse to
the left or right over the graphic.
3.3.6 Signals and noise on a WLAN
On a wired Ethernet network, it is usually a simple process to diagnose the cause of
interference. When using RF technology many kinds of interference must be taken into
consideration.
Narrowband is the opposite of spread spectrum technology. As the name implies
narrowband does not affect the entire frequency spectrum of the wireless signal. One solution
to a narrowband interference problem could be simply changing the channel that the AP is
using. Actually diagnosing the cause of narrowband interference can be a costly and
time-consuming experience. To identify the source requires a spectrum analyzer and even a
low cost model is relatively expensive.
All band interference affects the entire spectrum range. Bluetooth™ technologies hops
across the entire 2.4 GHz many times per second and can cause significant interference on an
802.11b network. It is not uncommon to see signs in facilities that use wireless networks
requesting that all Bluetooth™ devices be shut down before entering. In homes and offices, a
device that is often overlooked as causing interference is the standard microwave oven.
Leakage from a microwave of as little as one watt into the RF spectrum can cause major
network disruption. Wireless phones operating in the 2.4GHZ spectrum can also cause
network disorder.
Generally the RF signal will not be affected by even the most extreme weather
conditions. However, fog or very high moisture conditions can and do affect wireless
networks. Lightning can also charge the atmosphere and alter the path of a transmitted signal.
The first and most obvious source of a signal problem is the transmitting station and
antenna type. A higher output station will transmit the signal further and a parabolic dish
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antenna that concentrates the signal will increase the transmission range.
In a SOHO environment most access points will utilize twin omnidirectional antennae
that transmit the signal in all directions thereby reducing the range of communication.
3.3.7 Wireless security
As previously discussed in this chapter, wireless security can be difficult to achieve.
Where wireless networks exist there is little security. This has been a problem from the
earliest days of WLANs. Currently, many administrators are weak in implementing effective
security practices.
A number of new security solutions and protocols, such as Virtual Private Networking
(VPN) and Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) are emerging. With EAP, the access
point does not provide authentication to the client, but passes the duties to a more
sophisticated device, possibly a dedicated server, designed for that purpose. Using an
integrated server VPN technology creates a tunnel on top of an existing protocol such as IP.
This is a Layer 3 connection as opposed to the Layer 2 connection between the AP and the
sending node.

EAP-MD5 Challenge – Extensible Authentication Protocol is the earliest
authentication type, which is very similar to CHAP password protection on a wired
network.

LEAP (Cisco) – Lightweight Extensible Authentication Protocol is the type
primarily used on Cisco WLAN access points. LEAP provides security during
credential exchange, encrypts using dynamic WEP keys, and supports mutual
authentication.

User authentication – Allows only authorized users to connect, send and receive
data over the wireless network.

Encryption – Provides encryption services further protecting the data from
intruders.

Data authentication – Ensures the integrity of the data, authenticating source and
destination devices.
VPN technology effectively closes the wireless network since an unrestricted WLAN
will automatically forward traffic between nodes that appear to be on the same wireless
network. WLANs often extend outside the perimeter of the home or office in which they are
installed and without security intruders may infiltrate the network with little effort.
Conversely it takes minimal effort on the part of the network administrator to provide
low-level security to the WLAN.
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Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

All matter is composed of atoms, and the three main parts of an atom are: protons,
neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the center part of
the atom (nucleus)

Electrostatic discharge (ESD) can create serious problems for sensitive electronic
equipment

Attenuation refers to the resistance to the flow of electrons and why a signal
becomes degraded as it travels

Currents flow in closed loops called circuits, which must be composed of
conducting materials and must have sources of voltage

A multimeter is used to measure voltage, current, resistance, and other electrical
quantities expressed in numeric form

Three types of copper cables used in networking are: straight-through, crossover,
and rollover

Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a
single inner wire conductor

UTP cable is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of networks

STP cable combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and twisting of wires

Optical fiber is a very good transmission medium when it is properly installed,
tested, and maintained

Light energy, a type of electromagnetic energy wave, is used to transmit large
amounts of data securely over relatively long distances

The light signal carried by a fiber is produced by a transmitter that converts an
electrical signal into a light signal

The light that arrives at the far end of the cable is converted back to the original
electrical signal by the receiver

Fibers are used in pairs to provide full duplex communications

Light rays obey the laws of reflection and refraction as they travel through a glass
fiber, which allows fibers with the property of total internal reflection to be
manufactured

Total internal reflection makes light signals stay inside the fiber, even if the fiber is
not straight

Attenuation of a light signal becomes a problem over long cables especially if
sections of cable are connected at patch panels or spliced

Cable and connectors must be properly installed and thoroughly tested with high
quality optical test equipment before their use

Cable links must be tested periodically with high quality optical test instruments to
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check whether the link has deteriorated in any way

Care must always be taken to protect eyes when intense light sources like lasers are
used

Understanding the regulations and standards that apply to wireless technology will
ensure that deployed networks will be interoperable and in compliance

Compatibility problems with NICs are solved by installing an access point (AP) to
act as a central hub for the WLAN

Three types of frames are used in wireless communication: control, management,
and data

WLANs use Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)

WLAN authentication is a process that authenticates the device, not the user
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Chapter 4
Cable Testing
Overview
Networking media is literally and physically the backbone of a network. Inferior quality
of network cabling results in network failures and unreliable performance. Copper, optical
fiber, and wireless networking media all require testing to determine the quality. These tests
involve certain electrical and mathematical concepts and terms, such as signal, wave,
frequency, and noise. Understanding this vocabulary is helpful when learning about
networking, cabling, and cable testing.
The goal of the first lesson in this module is to provide some basic definitions so that the
cable testing concepts presented in the second lesson will be better understood.
The second lesson of this module describes the issues relating to the testing of media
used for physical layer connectivity in local-area networks (LANs). In order for the LAN to
function properly, the physical layer medium must meet the industry standard specifications.
Attenuation (signal deterioration) and noise (signal interference) cause problems in
networks because the data is not recognizable when it is received. Proper attachment of cable
connectors and proper cable installation are important. If standards are followed in these areas,
attenuation and noise levels are minimized.
After cable has been installed, it must be tested with quality cable testers to verify that
the specifications of the TIA/EIA standards are met. This module also describes the various
important tests that are performed.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Differentiate between sine waves and square waves.

Define and calculate exponents and logarithms.

Define and calculate decibels.

Define basic terminology related to time, frequency, and noise.

Differentiate between digital bandwidth and analog bandwidth.

Compare and contrast noise levels on various types of cabling.

Define and describe the affects of attenuation and impedance mismatch.

Define crosstalk, near-end crosstalk, far-end crosstalk, and power sum near-end
crosstalk.

Describe how crosstalk and twisted pairs help reduce noise.

Describe the ten copper cable tests defined in TIA/EIA-568-B.
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Describe the difference between Category 5 and Category 6 cable.
4.1 Background for Studying Frequency-Based Cable Testing
4.1.1 Waves
A wave is energy traveling from one place to another. There are many types of waves,
but all can be described with similar vocabulary.
It is helpful to think of waves as disturbances. A bucket of water that is completely still
does not have waves, because there are no disturbances. Conversely, the ocean always has
some sort of detectable waves due to disturbances such as wind and tide.
Ocean waves can be described in terms of their height, or amplitude, which could be
measured in meters. They can also be described in terms of how frequently the waves reach
the shore, using period and frequency. The period of the waves is the amount of time between
each wave, measured in seconds. The frequency is the number of waves that reach the shore
each second, measured in Hertz. One Hertz is equal to one wave per second, or one cycle per
second. Experiment with these concepts by adjusting the amplitude and frequency in Figure .
Networking professionals are specifically interested in voltage waves on copper media,
light waves in optical fiber, and alternating electric and magnetic fields called electromagnetic
waves. The amplitude of an electrical signal still represents height, but it is measured in volts
instead of meters. The period is the amount of time to complete one cycle, measured in
seconds. The frequency is the number of complete cycles per second, measured in Hertz.
If a disturbance is deliberately caused, and involves a fixed, predictable duration, it is
called a pulse. Pulses are important in electrical signals because they determine the value of
the data being transmitted.
4.1.2 Sine waves and square waves
Sine waves, or sinusoids, are graphs of mathematical functions.
Sine waves have
certain characteristics. Sine waves are periodic, which means that they repeat the same pattern
at regular intervals. Sine waves are continuously varying, which means that no two adjacent
points on the graph have the same value.
Sine waves are graphical representations of many natural occurrences that change
regularly over time. Some examples of these occurrences are the distance from the earth to the
sun, the distance from the ground while riding a Ferris wheel, and the time of day that the sun
rises. Since sine waves are continuously varying, they are examples of analog waves.
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Square waves, like sine waves, are periodic.
However, square wave graphs do not
continuously vary with time. The wave holds one value for some time, and then suddenly
changes to a different value. This value is held for some time, and then quickly changes back
to the original value. Square waves represent digital signals, or pulses. Like all waves, square
waves can be described in terms of amplitude, period, and frequency.
4.1.3 Exponents and logarithms
In networking, there are three important number systems:

Base 2 – binary

Base 10 – decimal

Base 16 – hexadecimal
Recall that the base of a number system refers to the number of different symbols that
can occupy one position. For example, binary numbers have only two different placeholders,
0 and 1. Decimal numbers have 10 different placeholders, the numbers 0-9. Hexadecimal
numbers have 16 different placeholders, the numbers 0-9 and the letters A-F.
Remember that 10x10 can be written as 102. 102 means ten squared or ten raised to the
second power. When written this way, it is said that 10 is the base of the number and 2 is the
exponent of the number. 10x10x10 can be written as 103. 103 means ten cubed or ten raised to
the third power. The base is still 10, but the exponent is now 3. Use the Media Activity below
to practice calculating exponents. Enter x, and y is calculated, or enter y, and x is calculated.
The base of a number system also refers to the value of each digit. The least significant
digit has a value of base0, or one. The next digit has a value of base1. This is equal to 2 for
binary numbers, 10 for decimal numbers, and 16 for hexadecimal numbers.
Numbers with exponents are used to easily represent very large or very small numbers.
It is much easier and less error-prone to represent one billion numerically as 109 than as
1000000000. Many calculations involved in cable testing involve numbers that are very large,
so exponents are the preferred format. Exponents can be explored in the flash activity.
One way to work with the very large and very small numbers that occur in networking is
to transform the numbers according to the rule, or mathematical function, known as the
logarithm. Logarithms are referenced to the base of the number system being used. For
example, base 10 logarithms are often abbreviated log.
To take the “log” of a number use a calculator or the flash activity. For example, log (109)
equals 9, log (10-3) = -3. You can also take the logarithm of numbers that are not powers of 10,
but you cannot take the logarithm of a negative number. While the study of logarithms is
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beyond the scope of this course, the terminology is used commonly in calculating decibels, a
way of measuring signals on copper, optical, and wireless media.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Logarithms
This activity calculates log base 10 according to values entered for x and y.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Powers of Ten
This activity calculates the powers of ten.
4.1.4 Decibels
The decibel (dB) is a measurement unit important in describing networking signals. The
decibel is related to the exponents and logarithms described in prior sections. There are two
formulas for calculating decibels:

dB = 10 log10 (Pfinal / Pref)

dB = 20 log10 (Vfinal / Vreference)
The variables represent the following values:

dB measures the loss or gain of the power of a wave. Decibels are usually negative
numbers representing a loss in power as the wave travels, but can also be positive
values representing a gain in power if the signal is amplified

log10 implies that the number in parenthesis will be transformed using the base 10
logarithm rule

Pfinal is the delivered power measured in Watts

Pref is the original power measured in Watts

Vfinal is the delivered voltage measured in Volts

Vreference is the original voltage measured in Volts
The first formula describes decibels in terms of power (P), and the second in terms of
voltage (V). Typically, light waves on optical fiber and radio waves in the air are measured
using the power formula. Electromagnetic waves on copper cables are measured using the
voltage formula. These formulas have several things in common.
Enter values for dB and Pref to discover the correct power. This formula could be used to
see how much power is left in a radio wave after it has traveled over a distance through
different materials, and through various stages of electronic systems such as a radio. To
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explore decibels further, try the following examples using the flash activities:

If Pfinal is one microWatt (1 x 10-6 Watts) and Pref is one milliWatt (1 x 10-3 Watts),
what is the gain or loss in decibels? Is this value positive or negative? Does the
value represent a gain or a loss in power?

If the total loss of a fiber link is -84 dB, and the source power of the original laser
(Pref) is one milliWatt (1 x 10-3 Watts), how much power is delivered?

If two microVolts (2 x 10-6 Volts) are measured at the end of a cable and the source
voltage was one volt, what is the gain or loss in decibels? Is this value positive or
negative? Does the value represent a gain or a loss in voltage?
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Calculating Gain
This activity allows the user
to enter the final voltage and the reference voltage to get
gain in decibels.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Using Decibels
This activity allows the user to enter a value for the decibels and a value for the
reference power resulting in the final power.
4.1.5 Viewing signals in time and frequency
One of the most important facts of the information age is that data symbolizing
characters, words, pictures, video, or music can be represented electrically by voltage patterns
on wires and in electronic devices. The data represented by these voltage patterns can be
converted to light waves or radio waves, and then back to voltage waves. Consider the
example of an analog telephone. The sound waves of the caller’s voice enter a microphone in
the telephone. The microphone converts the patterns of sound energy into voltage patterns of
electrical energy that represent the voice.
If the voltage patterns were graphed over time, the distinct patterns representing the
voice would be displayed. An oscilloscope is an important electronic device used to view
electrical signals such as voltage waves and pulses. The x-axis on the display represents time,
and the y-axis represents voltage or current. There are usually two y-axis inputs, so two waves
can be observed and measured at the same time.
Analyzing signals using an oscilloscope is called time-domain analysis, because the
x-axis or domain of the mathematical function represents time. Engineers also use
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frequency-domain analysis to study signals. In frequency-domain analysis, the x-axis
represents frequency. An electronic device called a spectrum analyzer creates graphs for
frequency-domain analysis. Experiment with this graphic by adding several signals, and try to
predict what the output will look like on both the oscilloscope and the spectrum analyzer.
Electromagnetic signals use different frequencies for transmission so that different
signals do not interfere with each other. Frequency modulation (FM) radio signals use
frequencies that are different from television or satellite signals. When listeners change the
station on a radio, they are changing the frequency that the radio is receiving.
4.1.6 Analog and digital signals in time and frequency
To understand the complexities of networking signals and cable testing, examine how
analog signals vary with time and with frequency. First, consider a single-frequency electrical
sine wave, whose frequency can be detected by the human ear. If this signal is transmitted to a
speaker, a tone can be heard. How would a spectrum analyzer display this pure tone?
Next, imagine the combination of several sine waves. The resulting wave is more
complex than a pure sine wave. Several tones would be heard. How would a spectrum
analyzer display this? The graph of several tones shows several individual lines corresponding
to the frequency of each tone. Finally, imagine a complex signal, like a voice or a musical
instrument. What would its spectrum analyzer graph look like? If many different tones are
present, a continuous spectrum of individual tones would be represented.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Fourier Synthesis
In this activity, the user will draw sine waves by selecting the amplitude, frequency, and
phase of each.
4.1.7 Noise in time and frequency
Noise is an important concept in communications systems, including LANS.
While
noise usually refers to undesirable sounds, noise related to communications refers to
undesirable signals. Noise can originate from natural and technological sources, and is added
to the data signals in communications systems.
All communications systems have some amount of noise. Even though noise cannot be
eliminated, its effects can be minimized if the sources of the noise are understood. There are
many possible sources of noise:
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
Nearby cables which carry data signals

Radio frequency interference (RFI), which is noise from other signals being
transmitted nearby

Electromagnetic interference (EMI), which is noise from nearby sources such as
motors and lights

Laser noise at the transmitter or receiver of an optical signal
Noise that affects all transmission frequencies equally is called white noise. Noise that
only affects small ranges of frequencies is called narrowband interference. When detected on
a radio receiver, white noise would interfere with all radio stations. Narrowband interference
would affect only a few stations whose frequencies are close together. When detected on a
LAN, white noise would affect all data transmissions, but narrowband interference might
disrupt only certain signals. If the band of frequencies affected by the narrowband
interference included all frequencies transmitted on the LAN, then the performance of the
entire LAN would be compromised.
Interactive Media Activity
Interactivity: Noise - White and Narrowband
This activity allows the user to enter a value for amplitude and a value for frequency and
then generate the white noise and narrowband noise.
4.1.8 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is an extremely important concept in communications systems. Two ways of
considering bandwidth that are important for the study of LANs are analog bandwidth and
digital bandwidth.
Analog bandwidth typically refers to the frequency range of an analog electronic system.
Analog bandwidth could be used to describe the range of frequencies transmitted by a radio
station or an electronic amplifier. The units of measurement for analog bandwidth is Hertz,
the same as the unit of frequency. Examples of analog bandwidth values are 3 kHz for
telephony, 20 kHz for audible signals, 5 kHz for AM radio stations, and 200 MHz for FM
radio stations.
Digital bandwidth measures how much information can flow from one place to another
in a given amount of time.
The fundamental unit of measurement for digital bandwidth is
bits per second (bps). Since LANs are capable of speeds of millions of bits per second,
measurement is expressed in kilobits per second (Kbps) or megabits per second (Mbps).
Physical media, current technologies, and the laws of physics limit bandwidth.
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During cable testing, analog bandwidth is used to determine the digital bandwidth of a
copper cable. Analog frequencies are transmitted from one end and received on the opposite
end. The two signals are then compared, and the amount of attenuation of the signal is
calculated. In general, media that will support higher analog bandwidths without high degrees
of attenuation will also support higher digital bandwidths.
4.2 Signals and Noise
4.2.1 Signaling over copper and fiber optic cabling
On copper cable, data signals are represented by voltage levels that represent binary
ones and zeros. The voltage levels are measured with respect to a reference level of zero volts
at both the transmitter and the receiver. This reference level is called the signal ground. It is
important that both transmitting and receiving devices refer to the same zero volt reference
point. When they do, they are said to be properly grounded.
In order for the LAN to operate properly, the receiving device must be able to accurately
interpret the binary ones and zeros transmitted as voltage levels. Since current Ethernet
technology supports data rates of billions of bits per second, each bit must be recognized,
even though duration of the bit is very small. The voltage level cannot be amplified at the
receiver, nor can the bit duration be extended in order to recognize the data. This means that
as much of the original signal strength must be retained, as the signal moves through the cable
and passes through the connectors. In anticipation of ever-faster Ethernet protocols, new cable
installations should be made with the best available cable, connectors, and interconnect
devices such as punch-down blocks and patch panels.
There are two basic types of copper cable: shielded and unshielded. In shielded cable,
shielding material protects the data signal from external sources of noise and from noise
generated by electrical signals within the cable.
Coaxial cable is a type of shielded cable.
It consists of a solid copper conductor
surrounded by insulating material, and then braided conductive shielding. In LAN
applications, the braided shielding is electrically grounded to protect the inner conductor from
external electrical noise. The shielding also helps eliminate signal loss by keeping the
transmitted signal confined to the cable. This helps make coaxial cable less noisy than other
types of copper cabling, but also makes it more expensive. The need to ground the shielding
and the bulky size of coaxial cable make it more difficult to install than other copper cabling.
There are two types of twisted-pair cable: shielded twisted-pair (STP) and unshielded
twisted pair (UTP).
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STP cable contains an outer conductive shield that is electrically grounded to insulate
the signals from external electrical noise. STP also uses inner foil shields to protect each wire
pair from noise generated by the other pairs. STP cable is sometimes called screened twisted
pair (ScTP). STP cable is more expensive, more difficult to install, and less frequently used
than UTP. UTP contains no shielding and is more susceptible to external noise but is the most
frequently used because it is inexpensive and easier to install.
Fiber optic cable is used to transmit data signals by increasing and decreasing the
intensity of light to represent binary ones and zeros. The strength of a light signal does not
diminish like the strength of an electrical signal does over an identical run length. Optical
signals are not affected by electrical noise, and optical fiber does not need to be grounded.
Therefore, optical fiber is often used between buildings and between floors within the
building. As costs decrease and demand for speed increases, optical fiber may become a more
commonly used LAN media.
4.2.2 Attenuation and insertion loss on copper media
Attenuation is the decrease in signal amplitude over the length of a link. Long cable
lengths and high signal frequencies contribute to greater signal attenuation. For this reason,
attenuation on a cable is measured by a cable tester using the highest frequencies that the
cable is rated to support. Attenuation is expressed in decibels (dB) using negative numbers.
Smaller negative dB values are an indication of better link performance.
There are several factors that contribute to attenuation. The resistance of the copper
cable converts some of the electrical energy of the signal to heat. Signal energy is also lost
when it leaks through the insulation of the cable and by impedance caused by defective
connectors.
Impedance is a measurement of the resistance of the cable to alternating current (AC)
and is measured in ohms. The normal, or characteristic, impedance of a Cat5 cable is 100
ohms. If a connector is improperly installed on Cat5, it will have a different impedance value
than the cable. This is called an impedance discontinuity or an impedance mismatch.
Impedance discontinuities cause attenuation because a portion of a transmitted signal
will be reflected back to the transmitting device rather than continuing to the receiver, much
like an echo. This effect is compounded if there are multiple discontinuities causing additional
portions of the remaining signal to be reflected back to the transmitter. When this returning
reflection strikes the first discontinuity, some of the signal rebounds in the direction of the
original signal, creating multiple echo effects. The echoes strike the receiver at different
intervals making it difficult for the receiver to accurately detect data values on the signal. This
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is called jitter and results in data errors.
The combination of the effects of signal attenuation and impedance discontinuities on a
communications link is called insertion loss. Proper network operation depends on constant
characteristic impedance in all cables and connectors, with no impedance discontinuities in
the entire cable system.
4.2.3 Sources of noise on copper media
Noise is any electrical energy on the transmission cable that makes it difficult for a
receiver to interpret the data sent from the transmitter. TIA/EIA-568-B certification of a cable
now requires testing for a variety of types of noise.
Crosstalk involves the transmission of signals from one wire to a nearby wire. When
voltages change on a wire, electromagnetic energy is generated. This energy radiates outward
from the transmitting wire like a radio signal from a transmitter. Adjacent wires in the cable
act like antennas, receiving the transmitted energy, which interferes with data on those wires.
Crosstalk can also be caused by signals on separate, nearby cables. When crosstalk is caused
by a signal on another cable, it is called alien crosstalk. Crosstalk is more destructive at higher
transmission frequencies.
Cable testing instruments measure crosstalk by applying a test signal to one wire pair.
The cable tester then measures the amplitude of the unwanted crosstalk signals induced on the
other wire pairs in the cable.
Twisted-pair cable is designed to take advantage of the effects of crosstalk in order to
minimize noise. In twisted-pair cable, a pair of wires is used to transmit one signal. The wire
pair is twisted so that each wire experiences similar crosstalk. Because a noise signal on one
wire will appear identically on the other wire, this noise be easily detected and filtered at the
receiver.
Twisting one pair of wires in a cable also helps to reduce crosstalk of data or noise
signals from an adjacent wire pair. Higher categories of UTP require more twists on each wire
pair in the cable to minimize crosstalk at high transmission frequencies. When attaching
connectors to the ends of UTP cable, untwisting of wire pairs must be kept to an absolute
minimum to ensure reliable LAN communications.
4.2.4 Types of crosstalk
There are three distinct types of crosstalk:

Near-end Crosstalk (NEXT)
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
Far-end Crosstalk (FEXT)

Power Sum Near-end Crosstalk (PSNEXT)
Near-end crosstalk (NEXT) is computed as the ratio of voltage amplitude between the
test signal and the crosstalk signal when measured from the same end of the link. This
difference is expressed in a negative value of decibels (dB). Low negative numbers indicate
more noise, just as low negative temperatures indicate more heat. By tradition, cable testers
do not show the minus sign indicating the negative NEXT values. A NEXT reading of 30 dB
(which actually indicates -30 dB) indicates less NEXT noise and a better cable than does a
NEXT reading of 10 dB.
NEXT needs to be measured from each pair to each other pair in a UTP link, and from
both ends of the link. To shorten test times, some cable test instruments allow the user to test
the NEXT performance of a link by using larger frequency step sizes than specified by the
TIA/EIA standard. The resulting measurements may not comply with TIA/EIA-568-B, and
may overlook link faults. To verify proper link performance, NEXT should be measured from
both ends of the link with a high-quality test instrument. This is also a requirement for
complete compliance with high-speed cable specifications.
Due to attenuation, crosstalk occurring further away from the transmitter creates less
noise on a cable than NEXT. This is called far-end crosstalk, or FEXT. The noise caused by
FEXT still travels back to the source, but it is attenuated as it returns. Thus, FEXT is not as
significant a problem as NEXT.
Power Sum NEXT (PSNEXT) measures the cumulative effect of NEXT from all wire
pairs in the cable.
PSNEXT is computed for each wire pair based on the NEXT effects of
the other three pairs. The combined effect of crosstalk from multiple simultaneous
transmission sources can be very detrimental to the signal. TIA/EIA-568-B certification now
requires this PSNEXT test.
Some Ethernet standards such as 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX receive data from only
one wire pair in each direction. However, for newer technologies such as 1000BASE-T that
receive data simultaneously from multiple pairs in the same direction, power sum
measurements are very important tests.
4.2.5 Cable testing standards
The TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies ten tests that a copper cable must pass if it will
be used for modern, high-speed Ethernet LANs. All cable links should be tested to the
maximum rating that applies for the category of cable being installed.
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The ten primary test parameters that must be verified for a cable link to meet TIA/EIA
standards are:

Wire map

Insertion loss

Near-end crosstalk (NEXT)

Power sum near-end crosstalk (PSNEXT)

Equal-level far-end crosstalk (ELFEXT)

Power sum equal-level far-end crosstalk (PSELFEXT)

Return loss

Propagation delay

Cable length

Delay skew
The Ethernet standard specifies that each of the pins on an RJ-45 connector have a
particular purpose. A NIC transmits signals on pins 1 and 2, and it receives signals on pins 3
and 6. The wires in UTP cable must be connected to the proper pins at each end of a cable.
The wire map test insures that no open or short circuits exist on the cable. An open circuit
occurs if the wire does not attach properly at the connector. A short circuit occurs if two wires
are connected to each other.
The wire map test also verifies that all eight wires are connected to the correct pins on
both ends of the cable. There are several different wiring faults that the wire map test can
detect.
The reversed-pair fault occurs when a wire pair is correctly installed on one
connector, but reversed on the other connector. If the orange striped wire is on pin 1 and the
orange wire on pin 2 at one end, but reversed at the other end, then the cable has a
reversed-pair fault. This example is shown in the graphic.
A split-pair wiring fault occurs when two wires from different wire pairs are connected
to the wrong pins on both ends of the cable. Look carefully at the pin numbers in the graphic
to detect the wiring fault. A split pair creates two transmit or receive pairs each with two wires
that are not twisted together.
Transposed-pair wiring faults occur when a wire pair is connected to completely
different pins at both ends. Contrast this with a reversed-pair, where the same pair of pins is
used at both ends. Transposed pairs also occur when two different color codes on punchdown
blocks, representing T568-A and T568-B, are used at different locations on the same link.
4.2.6 Other test parameters
The combination of the effects of signal attenuation and impedance discontinuities on a
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communications link is called insertion loss. Insertion loss is measured in decibels at the far
end of the cable. The TIA/EIA standard requires that a cable and its connectors pass an
insertion loss test before the cable can be used as a communications link in a LAN.
Crosstalk is measured in four separate tests. A cable tester measures NEXT by applying
a test signal to one cable pair and measuring the amplitude of the crosstalk signals received by
the other cable pairs. The NEXT value, expressed in decibels, is computed as the difference in
amplitude between the test signal and the crosstalk signal measured at the same end of the
cable. Remember, because the number of decibels that the tester displays is a negative number,
the larger the number, the lower the NEXT on the wire pair. As previously mentioned, the
PSNEXT test is actually a calculation based on combined NEXT effects.
The equal-level far-end crosstalk (ELFEXT) test measures FEXT. Pair-to-pair ELFEXT
is expressed in dB as the difference between the measured FEXT and the insertion loss of the
wire pair whose signal is disturbed by the FEXT. ELFEXT is an important measurement in
Ethernet networks using 1000BASE-T technologies. Power sum equal-level far-end crosstalk
(PSELFEXT) is the combined effect of ELFEXT from all wire pairs.
Return loss is a measure in decibels of reflections that are caused by the impedance
discontinuities at all locations along the link. Recall that the main impact of return loss is not
on loss of signal strength. The significant problem is that signal echoes caused by the
reflections from the impedance discontinuities will strike the receiver at different intervals
causing signal jitter.
4.2.7 Time-based parameters
Propagation delay is a simple measurement of how long it takes for a signal to travel
along the cable being tested. The delay in a wire pair depends on its length, twist rate, and
electrical properties. Delays are measured in hundredths of nanoseconds. One nanosecond is
one-billionth of a second, or 0.000000001 second. The TIA/EIA-568-B standard sets a limit
for propagation delay for the various categories of UTP.
Propagation delay measurements are the basis of the cable length measurement.
TIA/EIA-568-B-1 specifies that the physical length of the link shall be calculated using the
wire pair with the shortest electrical delay. Testers measure the length of the wire based on the
electrical delay as measured by a Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) test, not by the physical
length of the cable jacket. Since the wires inside the cable are twisted, signals actually travel
farther than the physical length of the cable. When a cable tester makes a TDR measurement,
it sends a pulse signal down a wire pair and measures the amount of time required for the
pulse to return on the same wire pair.
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The TDR test is used not only to determine length, but also to identify the distance to
wiring faults such as shorts and opens. When the pulse encounters an open, short, or poor
connection, all or part of the pulse energy is reflected back to the tester. This can calculate the
approximate distance to the wiring fault. The approximate distance can be helpful in locating
a faulty connection point along a cable run, such as a wall jack.
The propagation delays of different wire pairs in a single cable can differ slightly
because of differences in the number of twists and electrical properties of each wire pair. The
delay difference between pairs is called delay skew. Delay skew is a critical parameter for
high-speed networks in which data is simultaneously transmitted over multiple wire pairs,
such as 1000BASE-T Ethernet. If the delay skew between the pairs is too great, the bits arrive
at different times and the data cannot be properly reassembled. Even though a cable link may
not be intended for this type of data transmission, testing for delay skew helps ensure that the
link will support future upgrades to high-speed networks.
All cable links in a LAN must pass all of the tests previously mentioned as specified in
the TIA/EIA-568-B standard. These tests ensure that the cable links will function reliably at
high speeds and frequencies. Cable tests should be performed when the cable is installed and
afterward on a regular basis to ensure that LAN cabling meets industry standards. High
quality cable test instruments should be correctly used to ensure that the tests are accurate.
Test results should also be carefully documented.
4.2.8 Testing optical fiber
A fiber link consists of two separate glass fibers functioning as independent data
pathways. One fiber carries transmitted signals in one direction, while the second carries
signals in the opposite direction. Each glass fiber is surrounded by a sheath that light cannot
pass through, so there are no crosstalk problems on fiber optic cable. External electromagnetic
interference or noise has no affect on fiber cabling. Attenuation does occur on fiber links, but
to a lesser extent than on copper cabling.
Fiber links are subject to the optical equivalent of UTP impedance discontinuities.
When light encounters an optical discontinuity, some of the light signal is reflected back in
the opposite direction with only a fraction of the original light signal continuing down the
fiber towards the receiver. This results in a reduced amount of light energy arriving at the
receiver, making signal recognition difficult. Just as with UTP cable, improperly installed
connectors are the main cause of light reflection and signal strength loss in optical fiber.
Because noise is not an issue when transmitting on optical fiber, the main concern with a
fiber link is the strength of the light signal that arrives at the receiver. If attenuation weakens
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the light signal at the receiver, then data errors will result. Testing fiber optic cable primarily
involves shining a light down the fiber and measuring whether a sufficient amount of light
reaches the receiver.
On a fiber optic link, the acceptable amount of signal power loss that can occur without
dropping below the requirements of the receiver must be calculated. This calculation is
referred to as the optical link loss budget. A fiber test instrument checks whether the optical
link loss budget has been exceeded.
If the fiber fails the test, the cable test instrument
should indicate where the optical discontinuities occur along the length of the cable link.
Usually, the problem is one or more improperly attached connectors. The cable test instrument
will indicate the location of the faulty connections that must be replaced. When the faults are
corrected, the cable must be retested.
4.2.9 A new standard
On June 20, 2002, the Category 6 (or Cat 6) addition to the TIA-568 standard was
published. The official title of the standard is ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B.2-1. This new standard
specifies the original set of performance parameters that need to be tested for Ethernet cabling
as well as the passing scores for each of these tests. Cables certified as Cat 6 cable must pass
all ten tests.
Although the Cat 6 tests are essentially the same as those specified by the Cat 5 standard,
Cat 6 cable must pass the tests with higher scores to be certified. Cat6 cable must be capable
of carrying frequencies up to 250 MHz and must have lower levels of crosstalk and return
loss.
A quality cable tester similar to the Fluke DSP-4000 series or Fluke OMNIScanner2 can
perform all the test measurements required for Cat 5, Cat 5e, and Cat 6 cable certifications of
both permanent links and channel links. Figure
shows the Fluke DSP-LIA013
Channel/Traffic Adapter for Cat 5e.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Fluke 620 Cable Tester – Wire Map
In this lab, the student will learn the wire mapping feature of the Fluke 620 LAN
CableMeter or its equivalent.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Fluke 620 Cable Tester – Faults
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89
In this lab, the student will learn the Cable Test-Pass / Fail features of the Fluke 620
LAN CableMeter or an equivalent tester.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Fluke 620 Cable Tester – Length
In this lab, the student will learn the Cable Length feature of the Fluke 620 LAN
CableMeter or its equivalent.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Fluke LinkRunner – LAN Tests
In this lab, the student will become familiar with the capabilities of the Fluke
LinkRunner and determine whether a cable drop is active.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Fluke LinkRunner – Cable and NIC Tests
In this lab, the student will become familiar with the capabilities of the Fluke
LinkRunner and verify cable length and integrity.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

Waves are energy traveling from one place to another, and are created by
disturbances. All waves have similar attributes such as amplitude, period, and
frequency.

Sine waves are periodic, continuously varying functions. Analog signals look like
sine waves.

Square waves are periodic functions whose values remain constant for a period of
time and then change abruptly. Digital signals look like square waves.

Exponents are used to represent very large or very small numbers. The base of a
number raised to a positive exponent is equal to the base multiplied by itself
exponent times. For example, 103 = 10x10x10 = 1000.

Logarithms are similar to exponents. A logarithm to the base of 10 of a number
equals the exponent to which 10 would have to be raised in order to equal the
number. For example, log10 1000 = 3 because 103 = 1000.

Decibels are measurements of a gain or loss in the power of a signal. Negative
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values represent losses and positive values represent gains.

Time-domain analysis is the graphing of voltage or current with respect to time
using an oscilloscope. Frequency-domain analysis is the graphing of voltage or
power with respect to frequency using a spectrum analyzer.

Undesirable signals in a communications system are called noise. Noise originates
from other cables, RFI, and EMI. White noise affects all frequencies, while
narrowband interference affects only a certain subset of frequencies.

Analog bandwidth is the frequency range that is associated with certain analog
transmission, such as television or FM radio.

Digital bandwidth measures how much information can flow from one place to
another in a given amount of time. Its units are in various multiples of bits per
second.

Most LAN problems occur at the physical layer. The only way to prevent or
troubleshoot many of these problems is through the use of cable testers.

Proper cable installation according to standards increases LAN reliability and
performance.

Copper media is available in shielded and unshielded forms. Unshielded cable is
more susceptible to noise.

Signal degradation is due to various factors such as noise, attenuation, impedance
mismatch, and several types of crosstalk. These factors cause decreased network
performance.

The TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies ten tests that a copper cable must pass if it
will be used for modern, high-speed Ethernet LANs.

Optical fiber must also be tested according to networking standards.

Category 6 cable must meet more rigorous frequency testing standards than
Category 5 cable.
Chapter 5
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Cabling LANs and WANs
Overview
Even though each local-area network is unique, there are many design aspects that are
common to all LANs. For example, most LANs follow the same standards and the same
components. This module presents information on elements of Ethernet LANs and common
LAN devices.
There are several wide-area network (WAN) connections available today. They range
from dial-up to broadband access, and differ in bandwidth, cost, and required equipment. This
module presents information on the various types of WAN connections.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Identify characteristics of Ethernet networks.

Identify straight-through, crossover, and rollover cables.

Describe the function, advantages, and disadvantages of repeaters, hubs, bridges,
switches, and wireless network components.

Describe the function of peer-to-peer networks.

Describe the function, advantages, and disadvantages of client-server networks.

Describe and differentiate between serial, Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), digital subscriber line (DSL), and cable modem WAN connections.

Identify router serial ports, cables, and connectors.

Identify and describe the placement of equipment used in various WAN
configurations.
5.1 Cabling the LAN
5.1.1 LAN physical layer
Various symbols are used to represent media types. Token Ring is represented by a circle.
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is represented by two concentric circles and the
Ethernet symbol is represented by a straight line. Serial connections are represented by a
lightning bolt.
Each computer network can be built with many different media types. The function of
media is to carry a flow of information through a LAN. Wireless LANs use the atmosphere, or
space, as the medium. Other networking media confine network signals to a wire, cable, or
fiber. Networking media are considered Layer 1, or physical layer, components of LANs.
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Each media has advantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantage or disadvantage
comparisons concern:

Cable length

Cost

Ease of installation

Susceptibility to interference
Coaxial cable, optical fiber, and even free space can carry network signals. However, the
principal medium that will be studied is Category 5 unshielded twisted-pair cable (Cat 5 UTP)
which includes the Cat 5e family of cables.
Many topologies support LANs, as well as many different physical media. Figure
shows a subset of physical layer implementations that can be deployed to support Ethernet.
5.1.2 Ethernet in the campus
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology. Ethernet was first implemented by
the Digital, Intel, and Xerox group, referred to as DIX. DIX created and implemented the first
Ethernet LAN specification, which was used as the basis for the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.3 specification, released in 1980. Later, the IEEE extended
802.3 to three new committees known as 802.3u (Fast Ethernet), 802.3z (Gigabit Ethernet
over Fiber), and 802.3ab (Gigabit Ethernet over UTP).
Network requirements might dictate that an upgrade to one of the faster Ethernet
topologies be used. Most Ethernet networks support speeds of 10 Mbps and 100 Mbps.
The new generation of multimedia, imaging, and database products, can easily
overwhelm a network running at traditional Ethernet speeds of 10 and 100 Mbps. Network
administrators may consider providing Gigabit Ethernet from the backbone to the end user.
Costs for installing new cabling and adapters can make this prohibitive. Gigabit Ethernet to
the desktop is not a standard installation at this time.
In general, Ethernet technologies can be used in a campus network in several different
ways:

An Ethernet speed of 10 Mbps can be used at the user level to provide good
performance. Clients or servers that require more bandwidth can use 100-Mbps
Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet is used as the link between user and network devices. It can support
the combination of all traffic from each Ethernet segment.

To enhance client-server performance across the campus network and avoid
bottlenecks, Fast Ethernet can be used to connect enterprise servers.
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
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93
Fast Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet, as affordable, should be implemented between
backbone devices.
5.1.3 Ethernet media and connector requirements
Before selecting an Ethernet implementation, consider the media and connector
requirements for each implementation. Also, consider the level of performance needed by the
network.
The cables and connector specifications used to support Ethernet implementations are
derived from the Electronic Industries Association and the Telecommunications Industry
Association (EIA/TIA) standards body. The categories of cabling defined for Ethernet are
derived from the EIA/TIA-568 (SP-2840) Commercial Building Telecommunications Wiring
Standards.
Figure
compares the cable and connector specifications for the most popular Ethernet
implementations. It is important to note the difference in the media used for 10-Mbps
Ethernet versus 100-Mbps Ethernet. Networks with a combination of 10- and 100-Mbps
traffic use UTP Category 5 to support Fast Ethernet.
5.1.4 Connection media
Figure
illustrates the different connection types used by each physical layer
implementation. The registered jack (RJ-45) connector and jack are the most common. RJ-45
connectors are discussed in more detail in the next section.
In some cases the type of connector on a network interface card (NIC) does not match
the media that it needs to connect to. As shown in Figure , an interface may exist for the
15-pin attachment unit interface (AUI) connector. The AUI connector allows different media
to connect when used with the appropriate transceiver. A transceiver is an adapter that
converts one type of connection to another. Typically, a transceiver converts an AUI to RJ-45,
coax, or fiber optic connector. On 10BASE5 Ethernet, or Thicknet, a short cable is used to
connect the AUI with a transceiver on the main cable.
5.1.5 UTP implementation
EIA/TIA specifies an RJ-45 connector for UTP cable. The letters RJ stand for registered
jack, and the number 45 refers to a specific wiring sequence. The RJ-45 transparent end
connector shows eight colored wires. Four of the wires carry the voltage and are considered
“tip” (T1 through T4). The other four wires are grounded and are called “ring” (R1 through
R4). Tip and ring are terms that originated in the early days of the telephone. Today, these
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terms refer to the positive and the negative wire in a pair. The wires in the first pair in a cable
or a connector are designated as T1 and R1. The second pair is T2 and R2, and so on.
The RJ-45 connector is the male component, crimped on the end of the cable. When
looking at the male connector from the front, the pin locations are numbered 8 on the left
down to 1 on the right as seen in Figure .
The jack is the female component in a network device, wall outlet, or patch panel as
seen in Figure . Figure shows the punch-down connections at the back of the jack where the
Ethernet UTP cable connects.
For electricity to run between the connector and the jack, the order of the wires must
follow EIA/TIA-T568-A or T568-B standards, as shown in Figure . Identify the correct
EIA/TIA category of cable to use for a connecting device by determining what standard is
being used by the jack on the network device. In addition to identifying the correct EIA/TIA
category of cable, determine whether to use a straight-through cable or a crossover cable.
If the two RJ-45 connectors of a cable are held side by side in the same orientation, the
colored wires will be seen in each. If the order of the colored wires is the same at each end,
then the cable is straight-through as seen in Figure .
With crossover, the RJ-45 connectors on both ends show that some of the wires on one
side of the cable are crossed to a different pin on the other side of the cable. Figure shows
that pins 1 and 2 on one connector connect respectively to pins 3 and 6 on the other.
Figure
shows the guidelines for what type of cable to use when interconnecting Cisco
devices.
Use straight-through cables for the following cabling:

Switch to router

Switch to PC or server

Hub to PC or server
Use crossover cables for the following cabling:

Switch to switch

Switch to hub

Hub to hub

Router to router

PC to PC

Router to PC
Chapter 5
Figure
Cabling LANs and WANs
95
illustrates how a variety of cable types may be required in a given network. The
category of UTP cable required is based on the type of Ethernet that is chosen.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: RJ-45 Jack Punch Down
This lab is to learn the correct process for terminating or punching down an RJ-45 jack
and
to learn the correct procedure for installing the jack in a wall plate
Interactive Media Activity
PhotoZoom: Straight-Through Cable
In this PhotoZoom, the student will view a straight-through cable.
Interactive Media Activity
PhotoZoom: Crossover Cable
In this PhotoZoom, the student will view a crossover cable.
5.1.6 Repeaters
The term repeater comes from the early days of long distance communication. The term
describes the situation when a person on one hill would repeat the signal that was just
received from the person on the previous hill. The process would repeat until the message
arrived at its destination. Telegraph, telephone, microwave, and optical communications use
repeaters to strengthen signals sent over long distances.
A repeater receives a signal, regenerates it, and passes it on. It can regenerate and retime
network signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the media. The
Four Repeater Rule for 10-Mbps Ethernet should be used as a standard when extending LAN
segments. This rule states that no more than four repeaters can be used between hosts on a
LAN. This rule is used to limit latency added to frame travel by each repeater. Too much
latency on the LAN increases the number of late collisions and makes the LAN less efficient.
5.1.7 Hubs
Hubs are actually multiport repeaters. In many cases, the difference between the two
devices is the number of ports that each provides. While a typical repeater has just two ports,
a hub generally has from four to twenty-four ports. Hubs are most commonly used in
Ethernet 10BASE-T or 100BASE-T networks, although there are other network architectures
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that use them as well.
Using a hub changes the network topology from a linear bus, where each device plugs
directly into the wire, to a star. With hubs, data arriving over the cables to a hub port is
electrically repeated on all the other ports connected to the same network segment, except for
the port on which the data was sent.
Hubs come in three basic types:

Passive – A passive hub serves as a physical connection point only. It does not
manipulate or view the traffic that crosses it. It does not boost or clean the signal. A
passive hub is used only to share the physical media. As such, the passive hub does
not need electrical power.

Active – An active hub must be plugged into an electrical outlet because it needs
power to amplify the incoming signal before passing it out to the other ports.

Intelligent – Intelligent hubs are sometimes called smart hubs. These devices
basically function as active hubs, but also include a microprocessor chip and
diagnostic capabilities. Intelligent hubs are more expensive than active hubs, but
are useful in troubleshooting situations.
Devices attached to a hub receive all traffic traveling through the hub. The more devices
there are attached to the hub, the more likely there will be collisions. A collision occurs when
two or more workstations send data over the network wire at the same time. All data is
corrupted when that occurs. Every device connected to the same network segment is said to
be a member of a collision domain.
Sometimes hubs are called concentrators, because hubs serve as a central connection
point for an Ethernet LAN.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Hub and NIC Purchase
This lab is to introduce the variety and prices of network components in the market
5.1.8 Wireless
A wireless network can be created with much less cabling than other networks. Wireless
signals are electromagnetic waves that travel through the air. Wireless networks use Radio
Frequency (RF), laser, infrared (IR), or satellite/microwaves to carry signals from one
computer to another without a permanent cable connection. The only permanent cabling can
be to the access points for the network. Workstations within the range of the wireless network
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97
can be moved easily without connecting and reconnecting network cabling.
A common application of wireless data communication is for mobile use. Some
examples of mobile use include commuters, airplanes, satellites, remote space probes, space
shuttles, and space stations.
At the core of wireless communication are devices called transmitters and receivers. The
transmitter converts source data to electromagnetic (EM) waves that are passed to the receiver.
The receiver then converts these electromagnetic waves back into data for the destination. For
two-way communication, each device requires a transmitter and a receiver. Many networking
device manufacturers build the transmitter and receiver into a single unit called a transceiver
or wireless network card. All devices in wireless LANs (WLANs) must have the appropriate
wireless network card installed.
The two most common wireless technologies used for networking are IR and RF. IR
technology has its weaknesses. Workstations and digital devices must be in the line of sight of
the transmitter in order to operate. An infrared-based network suits environments where all
the digital devices that require network connectivity are in one room. IR networking
technology can be installed quickly, but the data signals can be weakened or obstructed by
people walking across the room or by moisture in the air. There are, however, new IR
technologies being developed that can work out of sight.
Radio Frequency technology allows devices to be in different rooms or even buildings.
The limited range of radio signals restricts the use of this kind of network. RF technology can
be on single or multiple frequencies. A single radio frequency is subject to outside
interference and geographic obstructions. Furthermore, a single frequency is easily monitored
by others, which makes the transmissions of data insecure. Spread spectrum avoids the
problem of insecure data transmission by using multiple frequencies to increase the immunity
to noise and to make it difficult for outsiders to intercept data transmissions.
Two approaches currently being used to implement spread spectrum for WLAN
transmissions are Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS). The technical details of how these technologies work are beyond the scope
of this course.
5.1.9 Bridges
There are times when it is necessary to break up a large LAN into smaller, more easily
managed segments.
This decreases the amount of traffic on a single LAN and can extend
the geographical area past what a single LAN can support. The devices that are used to
connect network segments together include bridges, switches, routers, and gateways. Switches
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and bridges operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model. The function of the bridge is to
make intelligent decisions about whether or not to pass signals on to the next segment of a
network.
When a bridge receives a frame on the network, the destination MAC address is looked
up in the bridge table to determine whether to filter, flood, or copy the frame onto another
segment. This decision process occurs as follows:

If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the bridge blocks the
frame from going on to other segments. This process is known as filtering.

If the destination device is on a different segment, the bridge forwards the frame to
the appropriate segment.

If the destination address is unknown to the bridge, the bridge forwards the frame
to all segments except the one on which it was received. This process is known as
flooding.
If placed strategically, a bridge can greatly improve network performance.
5.1.10 Switches
A switch is sometimes described as a multiport bridge.
While a typical bridge may
have just two ports linking two network segments, the switch can have multiple ports
depending on how many network segments are to be linked. Like bridges, switches learn
certain information about the data packets that are received from various computers on the
network. Switches use this information to build forwarding tables to determine the destination
of data being sent by one computer to another computer on the network.
Although there are some similarities between the two, a switch is a more sophisticated
device than a bridge. A bridge determines whether the frame should be forwarded to the other
network segment based on the destination MAC address. A switch has many ports with many
network segments connected to them. A switch chooses the port to which the destination
device or workstation is connected. Ethernet switches are becoming popular connectivity
solutions because, like bridges, switches improve network performance by improving speed
and bandwidth.
Switching is a technology that alleviates congestion in Ethernet LANs by reducing the
traffic and increasing the bandwidth. Switches can easily replace hubs because switches work
with existing cable infrastructures. This improves performance with a minimum of intrusion
into an existing network.
In data communications today, all switching equipment performs two basic operations.
The first operation is called switching data frames. Switching data frames is the process by
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99
which a frame is received on an input medium and then transmitted to an output medium. The
second is the maintenance of switching operations where switches build and maintain
switching tables and search for loops.
Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges and can support new functionality,
such as virtual LANs.
An Ethernet switch has many benefits. One benefit is that an Ethernet switch allows
many users to communicate in parallel through the use of virtual circuits and dedicated
network segments in a virtually collision-free environment. This maximizes the bandwidth
available on the shared medium. Another benefit is that moving to a switched LAN
environment is very cost effective because existing hardware and cabling can be reused.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Purchasing LAN Switches
This lab is to introduce the variety and prices of network components in the market.
5.1.11 Host connectivity
The function of a NIC
is to connect a host device to the network medium. A NIC is a
printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot on the motherboard or peripheral device
of a computer. The NIC is also referred to as a network adapter. On laptop or notebook
computers a NIC is the size of a credit card.
NICs are considered Layer 2 devices because each NIC carries a unique code called a
MAC address. This address is used to control data communication for the host on the network.
More will be learned about the MAC address later. As the name implies, the network interface
card controls host access to the medium.
In some cases the type of connector on the NIC does not match the type of media that
needs to be connected to it. A good example is a Cisco 2500 router. On the router an AUI
connector is seen. That AUI connector needs to connect to a UTP Cat 5 Ethernet cable. To do
this a transmitter/receiver, also known as a transceiver, is used. A transceiver converts one
type of signal or connector to another. For example, a transceiver can connect a 15-pin AUI
interface to an RJ-45 jack. It is considered a Layer 1 device because it only works with bits,
and not with any address information or higher-level protocols.
In diagrams, NICs have no standardized symbol. It is implied that, when networking
devices are attached to network media, there is a NIC or NIC-like device present. Wherever a
dot is seen on a topology map, it represents either a NIC interface or port, which acts like a
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NIC.
5.1.12 Peer-to-peer
By using LAN and WAN technologies, many computers are interconnected to provide
services to their users. To accomplish this, networked computers take on different roles or
functions in relation to each other. Some types of applications require computers to function
as equal partners. Other types of applications distribute their work so that one computer
functions to serve a number of others in an unequal relationship. In either case, two computers
typically communicate with each other by using request/response protocols. One computer
issues a request for a service, and a second computer receives and responds to that request.
The requestor takes on the role of a client, and the responder takes on the role of a server.
In a peer-to-peer network, networked computers act as equal partners, or peers. As peers,
each computer can take on the client function or the server function. At one time, computer
A may make a request for a file from computer B, which responds by serving the file to
computer A. Computer A functions as client, while B functions as the server. At a later time,
computers A and B can reverse roles.
In a peer-to-peer network, individual users control their own resources. The users may
decide to share certain files with other users.
The users may also require passwords before
allowing others to access their resources. Since individual users make these decisions, there is
no central point of control or administration in the network. In addition, individual users must
back up their own systems to be able to recover from data loss in case of failures. When a
computer acts as a server, the user of that machine may experience reduced performance as
the machine serves the requests made by other systems.
Peer-to-peer networks are relatively easy to install and operate. No additional equipment
is necessary beyond a suitable operating system installed on each computer. Since users
control their own resources, no dedicated administrators are needed.
As networks grow, peer-to-peer relationships become increasingly difficult to coordinate.
A peer-to-peer network works well with 10 or fewer computers. Since peer-to-peer networks
do not scale well, their efficiency decreases rapidly as the number of computers on the
network increases. Also, individual users control access to the resources on their computers,
which means security may be difficult to maintain. The client/server model of networking can
be used to overcome the limitations of the peer-to-peer network.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Building a Peer-to-Peer Network
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101
This lab is to create a simple peer-to-peer network between two PCs, identify the proper
cable to connect the two PCs, configure workstation IP address information, and test
connectivity using the ping command.
5.1.13 Client/server
In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on a dedicated computer
called a server. The server responds to the requests of clients. The server is a central
computer that is continuously available to respond to requests from clients for file, print,
application, and other services. Most network operating systems adopt the form of a
client/server relationship. Typically, desktop computers function as clients and one or more
computers with additional processing power, memory, and specialized software function as
servers.
Servers are designed to handle requests from many clients simultaneously. Before a
client can access the server resources, the client must be identified and be authorized to use
the resource. This is done by assigning each client an account name and password that is
verified by an authentication service. The authentication service acts as a sentry to guard
access to the network. With the centralization of user accounts, security, and access control,
server-based networks simplify the administration of large networks.
The concentration of network resources such as files, printers, and applications on
servers also makes the data generated easier to back-up and maintain. Rather than having
these resources spread around individual machines, resources can be located on specialized,
dedicated servers for easier access. Most client/server systems also include facilities for
enhancing the network by adding new services that extend the usefulness of the network.
The distribution of functions in the client/server networks brings substantial advantages,
but it also incurs some costs. Although the aggregation of resources on server systems brings
greater security, simpler access and coordinated control, the server introduces a single point of
failure into the network. Without an operational server, the network cannot function at all.
Servers require a trained, expert staff to administer and maintain. This increases the expense
of running the network. Server systems also require additional hardware and specialized
software that add to the cost.
Figures
and
summarize the advantages and disadvantages of peer-to-peer vs.
client-server.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Building a Hub-based Network
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This lab is to create a simple network with two PCs using a hub, identify the proper
cable to connect the PCs to the hub, configure workstation IP address information, and test
connectivity using the ping command.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Building a Switch-based Network
This lab is to create a simple network with two PCs using a switch, identify the proper
cable to connect the PCs to the switch, configure workstation IP address information, and test
connectivity using the ping command.
5.2 Cabling the WANs
5.2.1 WAN physical layer
The physical layer implementations vary depending on the distance of the equipment
from the services, the speed, and the type of service itself. Serial connections are used to
support WAN services such as dedicated leased lines that run Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or
Frame Relay. The speed of these connections ranges from 2400 bits per second (bps) to T1
service at 1.544 megabits per second (Mbps) and E1 service at 2.048 megabits per seconds
(Mbps).
ISDN offers dial-on-demand connections or dial backup services. An ISDN Basic Rate
Interface (BRI) is composed of two 64 kbps bearer channels (B channels) for data, and one
delta channel (D channel) at 16 kbps used for signaling and other link-management tasks. PPP
is typically used to carry data over the B channels.
With the increasing demand for residential broadband high-speed services, DSL and
cable modem connections are becoming more popular. For example, typical residential DSL
service can achieve T1/E1 speeds over the existing telephone line. Cable services use the
existing coaxial cable TV line. A coaxial cable line provides high-speed connectivity
matching or exceeding that of DSL. DSL and cable modem service will be covered in more
detail in a later module.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: WAN Physical Layer Implementation
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the components in the
WAN physical layer.
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5.2.2 WAN serial connections
For long distance communication, WANs use serial transmission. This is a process by
which bits of data are sent over a single channel. This process provides more reliable long
distance communication and the use of a specific electromagnetic or optical frequency range.
Frequencies are measured in terms of cycles per second and expressed in Hertz (Hz).
Signals transmitted over voice grade telephone lines use 4 kilohertz (kHz). The size of the
frequency range is referred to as bandwidth. In networking, bandwidth is a measure of the bits
per second that are transmitted.
For a Cisco router, physical connectivity at the customer site is provided by one of two
types of serial connections. The first type of serial connections is a 60-pin connector. The
second is a more compact ‘smart serial’ connector. The provider connector will vary
depending on the type of service equipment.
If the connection is made directly to a service provider, or a device that provides signal
clocking such as a channel/data service unit (CSU/DSU), the router will be a data terminal
equipment (DTE) and use a DTE serial cable. Typically this is the case. However, there are
occasions where the local router is required to provide the clocking rate and therefore will use
a data communications equipment (DCE) cable. In the curriculum router labs one of the
connected routers will need to provide the clocking function. Therefore, the connection will
consist of a DCE and a DTE cable.
5.2.3 Routers and serial connections
Routers are responsible for routing data packets from source to destination within the
LAN, and for providing connectivity to the WAN. Within a LAN environment the router
contains broadcasts, provides local address resolution services, such as ARP and RARP, and
may segment the network using a subnetwork structure. In order to provide these services the
router must be connected to the LAN and WAN.
In addition to determining the cable type, it is necessary to determine whether DTE or
DCE connectors are required. The DTE is the endpoint of the user’s device on the WAN link.
The DCE is typically the point where responsibility for delivering data passes into the hands
of the service provider.
When connecting directly to a service provider, or to a device such as a CSU/DSU that
will perform signal clocking, the router is a DTE and needs a DTE serial cable. This is
typically the case for routers. However, there are cases when the router will need to be the
DCE. When performing a back-to-back router scenario in a test environment, one of the
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routers will be a DTE and the other will be a DCE.
When cabling routers for serial connectivity, the routers will either have fixed or
modular ports. The type of port being used will affect the syntax used later to configure each
interface.
Interfaces on routers with fixed serial ports are labeled for port type and port number.
Interfaces on routers with modular serial ports are labeled for port type, slot, and port
number. The slot is the location of the module. To configure a port on a modular card, it is
necessary to specify the interface using the syntax “port type slot number/port number.” Use
the label “serial 1/0,” when the interface is serial, the slot number where the module is
installed is slot 1, and the port that is being referenced is port 0.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Connecting Router LAN Interfaces
This lab is to identify the Ethernet or Fast Ethernet interfaces on the router.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Building a Basic Routed WAN
This lab is to create a simple routed WAN with two PCs, two switches or hubs, and two
routers.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Troubleshooting Interconnected Devices
This lab is to create a simple routed WAN with two PCs, two switches or hubs, and two
routers.
5.2.4 Routers and ISDN BRI connections
With ISDN BRI, two types of interfaces may be used, BRI S/T and BRI U. Determine
who is providing the Network Termination 1 (NT1) device in order to determine which
interface type is needed.
An NT1 is an intermediate device located between the router and the service provider
ISDN switch. The NT1 is used to connect four-wire subscriber wiring to the conventional
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two-wire local loop. In North America, the customer typically provides the NT1, while in the
rest of the world the service provider provides the NT1 device.
It may be necessary to provide an external NT1 if the device is not already integrated
into the router. Reviewing the labeling on the router interfaces is usually the easiest way to
determine if the router has an integrated NT1. A BRI interface with an integrated NT1 is
labeled BRI U. A BRI interface without an integrated NT1 is labeled BRI S/T. Because
routers can have multiple ISDN interface types, determine which interface is needed when the
router is purchased. The type of BRI interface may be determined by looking at the port label.
To interconnect the ISDN BRI port to the service-provider device, use a UTP Category 5
straight-through cable.
Caution: It is important to insert the cable running from an ISDN BRI port only to an
ISDN jack or an ISDN switch. ISDN BRI uses voltages that can seriously damage non-ISDN
devices.
5.2.5 Routers and DSL connections
The Cisco 827 ADSL router has one asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL)
interface. To connect an ADSL line to the ADSL port on a router, do the following:

Connect the phone cable to the ADSL port on the router.

Connect the other end of the phone cable to the phone jack.
To connect a router for DSL service, use a phone cable with RJ-11 connectors. DSL
works over standard telephone lines using pins 3 and 4 on a standard RJ-11 connector.
5.2.6 Routers and cable connections
The Cisco uBR905 cable access router provides high-speed network access on the cable
television system to residential and small office, home office (SOHO) subscribers. The
uBR905 router has a coaxial cable, or F-connector, interface that connects directly to the
cable system. Coaxial cable and a BNC connector are used to connect the router and cable
system.
Use the following steps to connect the Cisco uBR905 cable access router to the cable
system:

Verify that the router is not connected to power.

Locate the RF coaxial cable coming from the coaxial cable (TV) wall outlet.

Install a cable splitter/directional coupler, if needed, to separate signals for TV and
computer use. If necessary, also install a high-pass filter to prevent interference
between the TV and computer signals.
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
Connect the coaxial cable to the F connector of the router. Hand-tighten the
connector, making sure that it is finger-tight, and then give it a 1/6 turn with a
wrench.

Make sure that all other coaxial cable connectors, all intermediate splitters,
couplers, or ground blocks, are securely tightened from the distribution tap to the
Cisco uBR905 router.
Caution: Do not over tighten the connector. Over tightening may break off the
connector. Do not use a torque wrench because of the danger of tightening the connector more
than the recommended 1/6 turns after it is finger-tight.
5.2.7 Setting up console connections
To initially configure the Cisco device, a management connection must be directly
connected to the device. For Cisco equipment this management attachment is called a console
port. The console port allows monitoring and configuration of a Cisco hub, switch, or router.
The cable used between a terminal and a console port is a rollover cable, with RJ-45
connectors. The rollover cable, also known as a console cable, has a different pinout than
the straight-through or crossover RJ-45 cables used with Ethernet or the ISDN BRI. The
pinout for a rollover is as follows:
1 to 8
2 to 7
3 to 6
4 to 5
5 to 4
6 to 3
7 to 2
8 to 1
To set up a connection between the terminal and the Cisco console port, perform two
steps. First, connect the devices using a rollover cable from the router console port to the
workstation serial port. An RJ-45-to-DB-9 or an RJ-45-to-DB-25 adapter may be required for
the PC or terminal. Next, configure the terminal emulation application with the following
common equipment (COM) port settings: 9600 bps, 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit, and no
flow control.
The AUX port is used to provide out-of-band management through a modem. The AUX
port must be configured by way of the console port before it can be used. The AUX port also
uses the settings of 9600 bps, 8 data bits, no parity, 1 stop bit, and no flow control.
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Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Establishing a Console Connection to a Router or Switch
This lab is to create a console connection from a PC to a router and switch using the
proper cable.
Interactive Media Activity
PhotoZoom: Console Cable
In this PhotoZoom, the student will view a console cable.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

A network interface card (NIC) provides network communication capabilities to
and from a PC.

Use a crossover cable to connect between two similar devices, such as switches,
routers, PCs, and hubs.

Use a straight-through cable to connect between different devices, such as
connections between a switch and a router, a switch and a PC, or a hub and a
router.

There are two major types of LANs, peer-to-peer and client/server.

WANs use serial data transmission. WAN connection types include ISDN, DSL,
and cable modems.

A router is usually the DTE and needs a serial cable to connect to a DCE device
like a CSU/DSU.

The ISDN BRI has two types of interfaces, S/T and U interfaces. To interconnect
the ISDN BRI port to the service-provider device, a UTP Category 5
straight-through cable with RJ-45 connectors, is used.

A phone cable and an RJ-11 connector are used to connect a router for DSL
service.

Coaxial cable and a BNC connector are used to connect a router for cable service.

Rollover cable is used to connect a terminal and the console port of an
internetworking device.
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Chapter 6
Ethernet Fundamentals
Overview
Ethernet is now the dominant LAN technology in the world. Ethernet is not one
technology but a family of LAN technologies and may be best understood by using the OSI
reference model. All LANs must deal with the basic issue of how individual stations (nodes)
are named, and Ethernet is no exception. Ethernet specifications support different media,
bandwidths, and other Layer 1 and 2 variations. However, the basic frame format and
addressing scheme is the same for all varieties of Ethernet.
For multiple stations to access physical media and other networking devices, various
media access control strategies have been invented. Understanding how network devices gain
access to the network media is essential for understanding and troubleshooting the operation
of the entire network.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Describe the basics of Ethernet technology.

Explain naming rules of Ethernet technology.

Define how Ethernet and the OSI model interact.

Describe the Ethernet framing process and frame structure.

List Ethernet frame field names and purposes.

Identify the characteristics of CSMA/CD.

Describe the key aspects of Ethernet timing, interframe spacing and backoff time
after a collision.

Define Ethernet errors and collisions.

Explain the concept of auto-negotiation in relation to speed and duplex.
6.1 Ethernet Fundamentals
6.1.1 Introduction to Ethernet
Most of the traffic on the Internet originates and ends with Ethernet connections. From
its beginning in the 1970s, Ethernet has evolved to meet the increasing demand for high speed
LANs. When a new media was produced, such as optical fiber, Ethernet adapted to take
advantage of the superior bandwidth and low error rate that fiber offers. Now, the same
protocol that transported data at 3 Mbps in 1973 is carrying data at 10 Gbps.
The success of Ethernet is due to the following factors:
Chapter 6

Simplicity and ease of maintenance

Ability to incorporate new technologies

Reliability

Low cost of installation and upgrade
Ethernet Fundamentals
109
With the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet, what started as a LAN technology now
extends out to distances that make Ethernet a metropolitan-area network (MAN) and
wide-area network (WAN) standard.
The original idea for Ethernet grew out of the problem of allowing two or more hosts to
use the same medium and prevent the signals from interfering with each other. This problem
of multiple user access to a shared medium was studied in the early 1970s at the University of
Hawaii. A system called Alohanet was developed to allow various stations on the Hawaiian
Islands structured access to the shared radio frequency band in the atmosphere. This work
later formed the basis for the Ethernet access method known as CSMA/CD.
The first LAN in the world was the original version of Ethernet. Robert Metcalfe and his
coworkers at Xerox designed it more than thirty years ago. The first Ethernet standard was
published in 1980 by a consortium of Digital Equipment Company, Intel, and Xerox (DIX).
Metcalfe wanted Ethernet to be a shared standard from which everyone could benefit, so it
was released as an open standard. The first products developed using the Ethernet standard
were sold during the early 1980s. Ethernet transmitted at up to 10 Mbps over thick coaxial
cable up to a distance of two kilometers. This type of coaxial cable was referred to as thicknet
and was about the width of a small finger.
In 1985, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standards
committee for Local and Metropolitan Networks published standards for LANs. These
standards start with the number 802. The standard for Ethernet is 802.3. The IEEE wanted to
make sure that its standards were compatible with the International Standards Organization
(ISO)/OSI model. To do this, the IEEE 802.3 standard had to address the needs of Layer 1 and
the lower portion of Layer 2 of the OSI model. As a result, some small modifications to the
original Ethernet standard were made in 802.3.
The differences between the two standards were so minor that any Ethernet network
interface card (NIC) can transmit and receive both Ethernet and 802.3 frames. Essentially,
Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 are the same standards.
The 10-Mbps bandwidth of Ethernet was more than enough for the slow personal
computers (PCs) of the 1980s. By the early 1990s PCs became much faster, file sizes
increased, and data flow bottlenecks were occurring. Most were caused by the low availability
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of bandwidth. In 1995, IEEE announced a standard for a 100-Mbps Ethernet. This was
followed by standards for gigabit per second (Gbps, 1 billion bits per second) Ethernet in
1998 and 1999.
All the standards are essentially compatible with the original Ethernet standard. An
Ethernet frame could leave an older coax 10-Mbps NIC in a PC, be placed onto a 10-Gbps
Ethernet fiber link, and end up at a 100-Mbps NIC. As long as the packet stays on Ethernet
networks it is not changed. For this reason Ethernet is considered very scalable. The
bandwidth of the network could be increased many times without changing the underlying
Ethernet technology.
The original Ethernet standard has been amended a number of times in order to manage
new transmission media and higher transmission rates. These amendments provide standards
for the emerging technologies and maintain compatibility between Ethernet variations.
6.1.2 IEEE Ethernet naming rules
Ethernet is not one networking technology, but a family of networking technologies that
includes Legacy, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet. Ethernet speeds can be 10, 100, 1000,
or 10,000 Mbps. The basic frame format and the IEEE sublayers of OSI Layers 1 and 2
remain consistent across all forms of Ethernet.
When Ethernet needs to be expanded to add a new medium or capability, the IEEE
issues a new supplement to the 802.3 standard. The new supplements are given a one or two
letter designation such as 802.3u. An abbreviated description (called an identifier) is also
assigned to the supplement.
The abbreviated description consists of:

A number indicating the number of Mbps transmitted.

The word base, indicating that baseband signaling is used.

One or more letters of the alphabet indicating the type of medium used (F= fiber
optical cable, T = copper unshielded twisted pair).
Ethernet relies on baseband signaling, which uses the entire bandwidth of the
transmission medium. The data signal is transmitted directly over the transmission medium.
In broadband signaling, not used by Ethernet, the data signal is never placed directly on the
transmission medium. An analog signal (carrier signal) is modulated by the data signal and
the modulated carrier signal is transmitted. Radio broadcasts and cable TV use broadband
signaling.
The IEEE cannot force manufacturers of networking equipment to fully comply with all
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111
the particulars of any standard. The IEEE hopes to achieve the following:

Supply the engineering information necessary to build devices that comply with
Ethernet standards.

Promote innovation by manufacturers.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: IEEE 802 Standards
This activity tests familiarity with all the IEEE 802 Standards.
6.1.3 Ethernet and the OSI model
Ethernet operates in two areas of the OSI model, the lower half of the data link layer,
known as the MAC sublayer and the physical layer.
To move data between one Ethernet station and another, the data often passes through a
repeater. All other stations in the same collision domain see traffic that passes through a
repeater. A collision domain is then a shared resource. Problems originating in one part of
the collision domain will usually impact the entire collision domain.
A repeater is responsible for forwarding all traffic to all other ports. Traffic received by a
repeater is never sent out the originating port. Any signal detected by a repeater will be
forwarded. If the signal is degraded through attenuation or noise, the repeater will attempt to
reconstruct and regenerate the signal.
Standards guarantee minimum bandwidth and operability by specifying the maximum
number of stations per segment, maximum segment length, maximum number of repeaters
between stations, etc. Stations separated by repeaters are within the same collision domain.
Stations separated by bridges or routers are in different collision domains.
Figure
maps a variety of Ethernet technologies to the lower half of OSI Layer 2 and all
of Layer 1. Ethernet at Layer 1 involves interfacing with media, signals, bit streams that travel
on the media, components that put signals on media, and various topologies. Ethernet Layer 1
performs a key role in the communication that takes place between devices, but each of its
functions has limitations. Layer 2 addresses these limitations.
Data link sublayers contribute significantly to technology compatibility and computer
communication. The MAC sublayer is concerned with the physical components that will be
used to communicate the information. The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer remains
relatively independent of the physical equipment that will be used for the communication
process.
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Figure
maps a variety of Ethernet technologies to the lower half of OSI Layer 2 and all
of Layer 1. While there are other varieties of Ethernet, the ones shown are the most widely
used.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: The OSI Model
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the 7 layers of the OSI
model including the two data link sublayers.
6.1.4 Naming
To allow for local delivery of frames on the Ethernet, there must be an addressing
system, a way of uniquely identifying computers and interfaces.
Ethernet uses MAC
addresses that are 48 bits in length and expressed as twelve hexadecimal digits. The first six
hexadecimal digits, which are administered by the IEEE, identify the manufacturer or vendor.
This portion of the MAC address is known as the Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI). The
remaining six hexadecimal digits represent the interface serial number, or another value
administered by the specific equipment manufacturer.
MAC addresses are sometimes
referred to as burned-in addresses (BIA) because they are burned into read-only memory
(ROM) and are copied into random-access memory (RAM) when the NIC initializes.
At the data link layer MAC headers and trailers are added to upper layer data. The
header and trailer contain control information intended for the data link layer in the
destination system. Data from upper layer entities is encapsulated in the data link layer header
and trailer.
The NIC uses the MAC address to assess whether the message should be passed onto the
upper layers of the OSI model. The NIC makes this assessment without using CPU processing
time, enabling better communication times on an Ethernet network.
On an Ethernet network, when one device sends data it can open a communication
pathway to the other device by using the destination MAC address. The source device
attaches a header with the MAC address of the intended destination and sends data onto the
network. As this data propagates along the network media the NIC in each device on the
network checks to see if the MAC address matches the physical destination address carried by
the data frame. If there is no match, the NIC discards the data frame. When the data reaches
the destination node, the NIC makes a copy and passes the frame up the OSI layers. On an
Ethernet network, all nodes must examine the MAC header even if the communicating nodes
are side by side.
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113
All devices that are connected to the Ethernet LAN have MAC addressed interfaces
including workstations, printers, routers, and switches.
6.1.5 Layer 2 framing
Encoded bit streams (data) on physical media represent a tremendous technological
accomplishment, but they, alone, are not enough to make communication happen. Framing
helps obtain essential information that could not, otherwise, be obtained with coded bit
streams alone. Examples of such information are:

Which computers are communicating with one another

When communication between individual computers begins and when it terminates

Provides a method for detection of errors that occurred during the communication

Whose turn it is to "talk" in a computer "conversation"
Framing is the Layer 2 encapsulation process. A frame is the Layer 2 protocol data unit.
A voltage vs. time graph could be used to visualize bits. However, when dealing with
larger units of data, addressing and control information, a voltage vs. time graph could
become large and confusing. Another type of diagram that could be used is the frame format
diagram, which is based on voltage versus time graphs. Frame format diagrams are read from
left to right, just like an oscilloscope graph. The frame format diagram shows different
groupings of bits (fields) that perform other functions.
There are many different types of frames described by various standards. A single
generic frame has sections called fields, and each field is composed of bytes. The names of
the fields are as follows:

Start frame field

Address field

Length / type field

Data field

Frame check sequence field
When computers are connected to a physical medium, there must be a way they can grab
the attention of other computers to broadcast the message, "Here comes a frame!" Various
technologies have different ways of doing this process, but all frames, regardless of
technology, have a beginning signaling sequence of bytes.
All frames contain naming information, such as the name of the source node (MAC
address) and the name of the destination node (MAC address).
Most frames have some specialized fields. In some technologies, a length field specifies
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the exact length of a frame in bytes. Some frames have a type field, which specifies the Layer
3 protocol making the sending request.
The reason for sending frames is to get upper layer data, ultimately the user application
data, from the source to the destination. The data package has two parts, the user application
data and the encapsulated bytes to be sent to the destination computer. Padding bytes may be
added so frames have a minimum length for timing purposes. Logical link control (LLC)
bytes are also included with the data field in the IEEE standard frames. The LLC sub-layer
takes the network protocol data, an IP packet, and adds control information to help deliver
that IP packet to the destination node. Layer 2 communicates with the upper-level layers
through LLC.
All frames and the bits, bytes, and fields contained within them, are susceptible to errors
from a variety of sources. The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field contains a number that is
calculated by the source node based on the data in the frame. This FCS is then added to the
end of the frame that is being sent. When the destination node receives the frame the FCS
number is recalculated and compared with the FCS number included in the frame. If the two
numbers are different, an error is assumed, the frame is discarded, and the source is asked to
retransmit.
There are three primary ways to calculate the Frame Check Sequence number:

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) – performs calculations on the data.

Two-dimensional parity – adds an 8th bit that makes an 8 bit sequence have an odd
or even number of binary 1s.

Internet checksum – adds the values of all of the data bits to arrive at a sum.
The node that transmits data must get the attention of other devices, in order to start a
frame, and to end the frame. The length field implies the end, and the frame is considered
ended after the FCS. Sometimes there is a formal byte sequence referred to as an end-frame
delimiter.
6.1.6 Ethernet frame structure
At the data link layer the frame structure is nearly identical for all speeds of Ethernet
from 10 Mbps to 10,000 Mbps. However, at the physical layer almost all versions of
Ethernet are substantially different from one another with each speed having a distinct set of
architecture design rules.
In the version of Ethernet that was developed by DIX prior to the adoption of the IEEE
802.3 version of Ethernet, the Preamble and Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) were combined into
a single field, though the binary pattern was identical. The field labeled Length/Type was only
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115
listed as Length in the early IEEE versions and only as Type in the DIX version. These two
uses of the field were officially combined in a later IEEE version, as both uses of the field
were common throughout industry.
The Ethernet II Type field is incorporated into the current 802.3 frame definition. The
receiving node must determine which higher-layer protocol is present in an incoming frame
by examining the Length/Type field. If the two-octet value is equal to or greater than 0x600
(hexadecimal), then the frame is interpreted according to the Ethernet II type code indicated.
6.1.7 Ethernet frame fields
Some of the fields permitted or required in an 802.3 Ethernet Frame are:

Preamble

Start Frame Delimiter

Destination Address

Source Address

Length/Type

Data and Pad

FCS

Extension
The Preamble is an alternating pattern of ones and zeroes used for timing
synchronization in the asynchronous 10 Mbps and slower implementations of Ethernet. Faster
versions of Ethernet are synchronous, and this timing information is redundant but retained
for compatibility.
A Start Frame Delimiter consists of a one-octet field that marks the end of the timing
information, and contains the bit sequence 10101011.
The Destination Address field contains the MAC destination address. The destination
address can be unicast, multicast (group), or broadcast (all nodes).
The Source Address field contains the MAC source address. The source address is
generally the unicast address of the transmitting Ethernet node. There are, however, an
increasing number of virtual protocols in use that use and sometimes share a specific source
MAC address to identify the virtual entity.
The Length/Type field supports two different uses. If the value is less than 1536 decimal,
0x600 (hexadecimal), then the value indicates length. The length interpretation is used where
the LLC Layer provides the protocol identification. The type value specifies the upper-layer
protocol to receive the data after Ethernet processing is completed. The length indicates the
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number of bytes of data that follows this field. If the value is equal to or greater than 1536
decimal (0600 hexadecimal), the value indicates that the type and contents of the Data field
are decoded per the protocol indicated.
The Data and Pad field may be of any length that does not cause the frame to exceed the
maximum frame size. The maximum transmission unit (MTU) for Ethernet is 1500 octets, so
the data should not exceed that size. The content of this field is unspecified. An unspecified
pad is inserted immediately after the user data when there is not enough user data for the
frame to meet the minimum frame length. Ethernet requires that the frame be not less than 46
octets or more than 1518 octets.
A FCS contains a four byte CRC value that is created by the sending device and is
recalculated by the receiving device to check for damaged frames. Since the corruption of a
single bit anywhere from the beginning of the Destination Address through the end of the FCS
field will cause the checksum to be different, the coverage of the FCS includes itself. It is not
possible to distinguish between corruption of the FCS itself and corruption of any preceding
field used in the calculation.
6.2 Ethernet Operation
6.2.1 Media Access Control (MAC)
MAC refers to protocols that determine which computer on a shared-medium
environment, or collision domain, is allowed to transmit the data. MAC, with LLC, comprises
the IEEE version of the OSI Layer 2. MAC and LLC are sublayers of Layer 2. There are two
broad categories of Media Access Control, deterministic (taking turns) and non-deterministic
(first come, first served).
Examples of deterministic protocols include Token Ring and FDDI. In a Token Ring
network, individual hosts are arranged in a ring and a special data token travels around the
ring to each host in sequence. When a host wants to transmit, it seizes the token, transmits the
data for a limited time, and then forwards the token to the next host in the ring. Token Ring is
a collisionless environment as only one host is able to transmit at any given time.
Non-deterministic MAC protocols use a first-come, first-served approach. CSMA/CD is
a simple system. The NIC listens for an absence of a signal on the media and starts
transmitting. If two nodes transmit at the same time a collision occurs and none of the nodes
are able to transmit.
Three common Layer 2 technologies are Token Ring, FDDI, and Ethernet. All three
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specify Layer 2 issues, LLC, naming, framing, and MAC, as well as Layer 1 signaling
components and media issues. The specific technologies for each are as follows:

Ethernet – logical bus topology (information flow is on a linear bus) and physical
star or extended star (wired as a star)

Token Ring – logical ring topology (in other words, information flow is controlled
in a ring) and a physical star topology (in other words, it is wired as a star)

FDDI – logical ring topology (information flow is controlled in a ring) and
physical dual-ring topology (wired as a dual-ring)
6.2.2 MAC rules and collision detection/backoff
Ethernet is a shared-media broadcast technology. The access method CSMA/CD used in
Ethernet performs three functions:

Transmitting and receiving data packets

Decoding data packets and checking them for valid addresses before passing them
to the upper layers of the OSI model

Detecting errors within data packets or on the network
In the CSMA/CD access method, networking devices with data to transmit work in a
listen-before-transmit mode. This means when a node wants to send data, it must first check
to see whether the networking media is busy. If the node determines the network is busy, the
node will wait a random amount of time before retrying. If the node determines the
networking media is not busy, the node will begin transmitting and listening. The node listens
to ensure no other stations are transmitting at the same time. After completing data
transmission the device will return to listening mode.
Networking devices detect a collision has occurred when the amplitude of the signal on
the networking media increases. When a collision occurs, each node that is transmitting will
continue to transmit for a short time to ensure that all devices see the collision. Once all the
devices have detected the collision a backoff algorithm is invoked and transmission is stopped.
The nodes stop transmitting for a random period of time, which is different for each device.
When the delay period expires, all devices on the network can attempt to gain access to the
networking media. When data transmission resumes on the network, the devices that were
involved in the collision do not have priority to transmit data.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Collision Detection Flowchart
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the procedure of
collision detection in an Ethernet network.
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6.2.3 Ethernet timing
The basic rules and specifications for proper operation of Ethernet are not particularly
complicated, though some of the faster physical layer implementations are becoming so.
Despite the basic simplicity, when a problem occurs in Ethernet it is often quite difficult to
isolate the source. Because of the common bus architecture of Ethernet, also described as a
distributed single point of failure, the scope of the problem usually encompasses all devices
within the domain. In situations where repeaters are used, this can include devices up to four
segments away.
Any station on an Ethernet network wishing to transmit a message first “listens” to
ensure that no other station is currently transmitting. If the cable is quiet, the station will begin
transmitting immediately. The electrical signal takes time to travel down the cable (delay),
and each subsequent repeater introduces a small amount of latency in forwarding the frame
from one port to the next. Because of the delay and latency, it is possible for more than one
station to begin transmitting at or near the same time. This results in a collision.
If the attached station is operating in full duplex then the station may send and receive
simultaneously and collisions should not occur. Full-duplex operation also changes the timing
considerations and eliminates the concept of slot time. Full-duplex operation allows for larger
network architecture designs since the timing restriction for collision detection is removed.
In half duplex, assuming that a collision does not occur, the sending station will transmit
64 bits of timing synchronization information that is known as the preamble. The sending
station will then transmit the following information:

Destination and source MAC addressing information

Certain other header information

The actual data payload

Checksum (FCS) used to ensure that the message was not corrupted along the way
Stations receiving the frame recalculate the FCS to determine if the incoming message is
valid and then pass valid messages to the next higher layer in the protocol stack.
10 Mbps and slower versions of Ethernet are asynchronous. Asynchronous means that
each receiving station will use the eight octets of timing information to synchronize the
receive circuit to the incoming data, and then discard it. 100 Mbps and higher speed
implementations of Ethernet are synchronous. Synchronous means the timing information is
not required, however for compatibility reasons the Preamble and SFD are present.
For all speeds of Ethernet transmission at or below 1000 Mbps, the standard describes
how a transmission may be no smaller than the slot time. Slot time for 10 and 100-Mbps
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Ethernet is 512 bit-times, or 64 octets. Slot time for 1000-Mbps Ethernet is 4096 bit-times, or
512 octets. Slot time is calculated assuming maximum cable lengths on the largest legal
network architecture. All hardware propagation delay times are at the legal maximum and the
32-bit jam signal is used when collisions are detected.
The actual calculated slot time is just longer than the theoretical amount of time required
to travel between the furthest points of the collision domain, collide with another transmission
at the last possible instant, and then have the collision fragments return to the sending station
and be detected. For the system to work the first station must learn about the collision before
it finishes sending the smallest legal frame size. To allow 1000-Mbps Ethernet to operate in
half duplex the extension field was added when sending small frames purely to keep the
transmitter busy long enough for a collision fragment to return. This field is present only on
1000-Mbps, half-duplex links and allows minimum-sized frames to be long enough to meet
slot time requirements. Extension bits are discarded by the receiving station.
On 10-Mbps Ethernet one bit at the MAC layer requires 100 nanoseconds (ns) to
transmit. At 100 Mbps that same bit requires 10 ns to transmit and at 1000 Mbps only takes 1
ns. As a rough estimate, 20.3 cm (8 in) per nanosecond is often used for calculating
propagation delay down a UTP cable. For 100 meters of UTP, this means that it takes just
under 5 bit-times for a 10BASE-T signal to travel the length the cable.
For CSMA/CD Ethernet to operate, the sending station must become aware of a
collision before it has completed transmission of a minimum-sized frame. At 100 Mbps the
system timing is barely able to accommodate 100 meter cables. At 1000 Mbps special
adjustments are required as nearly an entire minimum-sized frame would be transmitted
before the first bit reached the end of the first 100 meters of UTP cable. For this reason half
duplex is not permitted in 10-Gigabit Ethernet.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Ethernet Timing
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the bit times of various
Ethernet speeds.
6.2.4 Interframe spacing and backoff
The minimum spacing between two non-colliding frames is also called the interframe
spacing. This is measured from the last bit of the FCS field of the first frame to the first bit of
the preamble of the second frame.
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After a frame has been sent, all stations on a 10-Mbps Ethernet are required to wait a
minimum of 96 bit-times (9.6 microseconds) before any station may legally transmit the next
frame. On faster versions of Ethernet the spacing remains the same, 96 bit-times, but the time
required for that interval grows correspondingly shorter. This interval is referred to as the
spacing gap. The gap is intended to allow slow stations time to process the previous frame
and prepare for the next frame.
A repeater is expected to regenerate the full 64 bits of timing information, which is the
preamble and SFD, at the start of any frame. This is despite the potential loss of some of the
beginning preamble bits because of slow synchronization. Because of this forced
reintroduction of timing bits, some minor reduction of the interframe gap is not only possible
but expected. Some Ethernet chipsets are sensitive to a shortening of the interframe spacing,
and will begin failing to see frames as the gap is reduced. With the increase in processing
power at the desktop, it would be very easy for a personal computer to saturate an Ethernet
segment with traffic and to begin transmitting again before the interframe spacing delay time
is satisfied.
After a collision occurs and all stations allow the cable to become idle (each waits the
full interframe spacing), then the stations that collided must wait an additional and potentially
progressively longer period of time before attempting to retransmit the collided frame. The
waiting period is intentionally designed to be random so that two stations do not delay for the
same amount of time before retransmitting, which would result in more collisions. This is
accomplished in part by expanding the interval from which the random retransmission time is
selected on each retransmission attempt. The waiting period is measured in increments of the
parameter slot time.
If the MAC layer is unable to send the frame after sixteen attempts, it gives up and
generates an error to the network layer. Such an occurrence is fairly rare and would happen
only under extremely heavy network loads, or when a physical problem exists on the network.
6.2.5 Error handling
The most common error condition on an Ethernet is the collision. Collisions are the
mechanism for resolving contention for network access. A few collisions provide a smooth,
simple, low overhead way for network nodes to arbitrate contention for the network resource.
When network contention becomes too great, collisions can become a significant impediment
to useful network operation.
Collisions result in network bandwidth loss that is equal to the initial transmission and
the collision jam signal. This is consumption delay and affects all network nodes possibly
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causing significant reduction in network throughput.
The considerable majority of collisions occur very early in the frame, often before the
SFD. Collisions occurring before the SFD are usually not reported to the higher layers, as if
the collision did not occur. As soon as a collision is detected, the sending stations transmit a
32-bit “jam” signal that will enforce the collision. This is done so that any data being
transmitted is thoroughly corrupted and all stations have a chance to detect the collision.
In Figure
two stations listen to ensure that the cable is idle, then transmit. Station 1
was able to transmit a significant percentage of the frame before the signal even reached the
last cable segment. Station 2 had not received the first bit of the transmission prior to
beginning its own transmission and was only able to send several bits before the NIC sensed
the collision. Station 2 immediately truncated the current transmission, substituted the 32-bit
jam signal and ceased all transmissions. During the collision and jam event that Station 2 was
experiencing, the collision fragments were working their way back through the repeated
collision domain toward Station 1. Station 2 completed transmission of the 32-bit jam signal
and became silent before the collision propagated back to Station 1 which was still unaware of
the collision and continued to transmit. When the collision fragments finally reached Station 1,
it also truncated the current transmission and substituted a 32-bit jam signal in place of the
remainder of the frame it was transmitting. Upon sending the 32-bit jam signal Station 1
ceased all transmissions.
A jam signal may be composed of any binary data so long as it does not form a proper
checksum for the portion of the frame already transmitted. The most commonly observed data
pattern for a jam signal is simply a repeating one, zero, one, zero pattern, the same as
Preamble. When viewed by a protocol analyzer this pattern appears as either a repeating
hexadecimal 5 or A sequence. The corrupted, partially transmitted messages are often referred
to as collision fragments or runts. Normal collisions are less than 64 octets in length and
therefore fail both the minimum length test and the FCS checksum test.
6.2.6 Types of collisions
Collisions typically take place when two or more Ethernet stations transmit
simultaneously within a collision domain. A single collision is a collision that was detected
while trying to transmit a frame, but on the next attempt the frame was transmitted
successfully. Multiple collisions indicate that the same frame collided repeatedly before being
successfully transmitted. The results of collisions, collision fragments, are partial or corrupted
frames that are less than 64 octets and have an invalid FCS. Three types of collisions are:

Local

Remote
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
Late
To create a local collision on coax cable (10BASE2 and 10BASE5), the signal travels
down the cable until it encounters a signal from the other station. The waveforms then overlap,
canceling some parts of the signal out and reinforcing or doubling other parts. The doubling
of the signal pushes the voltage level of the signal beyond the allowed maximum. This
over-voltage condition is then sensed by all of the stations on the local cable segment as a
collision.
In the beginning the waveform in Figure
represents normal Manchester encoded data.
A few cycles into the sample the amplitude of the wave doubles. That is the beginning of the
collision, where the two waveforms are overlapping. Just prior to the end of the sample the
amplitude returns to normal. This happens when the first station to detect the collision quits
transmitting, and the jam signal from the second colliding station is still observed.
On UTP cable, such as 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX and 1000BASE-T, a collision is
detected on the local segment only when a station detects a signal on the RX pair at the same
time it is sending on the TX pair. Since the two signals are on different pairs there is no
characteristic change in the signal. Collisions are only recognized on UTP when the station is
operating in half duplex. The only functional difference between half and full duplex
operation in this regard is whether or not the transmit and receive pairs are permitted to be
used simultaneously. If the station is not engaged in transmitting it cannot detect a local
collision. Conversely, a cable fault such as excessive crosstalk can cause a station to perceive
its own transmission as a local collision.
The characteristics of a remote collision are a frame that is less than the minimum length,
has an invalid FCS checksum, but does not exhibit the local collision symptom of
over-voltage or simultaneous RX/TX activity. This sort of collision usually results from
collisions occurring on the far side of a repeated connection. A repeater will not forward an
over-voltage state, and cannot cause a station to have both the TX and RX pairs active at the
same time. The station would have to be transmitting to have both pairs active, and that would
constitute a local collision. On UTP networks this is the most common sort of collision
observed.
There is no possibility remaining for a normal or legal collision after the first 64 octets
of data has been transmitted by the sending stations. Collisions occurring after the first 64
octets are called “late collisions". The most significant difference between late collisions and
collisions occurring before the first 64 octets is that the Ethernet NIC will retransmit a
normally collided frame automatically, but will not automatically retransmit a frame that was
collided late. As far as the NIC is concerned everything went out fine, and the upper layers of
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the protocol stack must determine that the frame was lost. Other than retransmission, a station
detecting a late collision handles it in exactly the same way as a normal collision.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Collision Types
After completing this activity, the student will learn the three different types of
collisions.
6.2.7 Ethernet errors
Knowledge of typical errors is invaluable for understanding both the operation and
troubleshooting of Ethernet networks.
The following are the sources of Ethernet error:

Collision or runt – Simultaneous transmission occurring before slot time has
elapsed

Late collision – Simultaneous transmission occurring after slot time has elapsed

Jabber, long frame and range errors – Excessively or illegally long transmission

Short frame, collision fragment or runt – Illegally short transmission

FCS error – Corrupted transmission

Alignment error – Insufficient or excessive number of bits transmitted

Range error – Actual and reported number of octets in frame do not match

Ghost or jabber – Unusually long Preamble or Jam event
While local and remote collisions are considered to be a normal part of Ethernet
operation, late collisions are considered to be an error. The presence of errors on a network
always suggests that further investigation is warranted. The severity of the problem indicates
the troubleshooting urgency related to the detected errors. A handful of errors detected over
many minutes or over hours would be a low priority. Thousands detected over a few minutes
suggest that urgent attention is warranted.
Jabber is defined in several places in the 802.3 standard as being a transmission of at
least 20,000 to 50,000 bit times in duration. However, most diagnostic tools report jabber
whenever a detected transmission exceeds the maximum legal frame size, which is
considerably smaller than 20,000 to 50,000 bit times. Most references to jabber are more
properly called long frames.
A long frame is one that is longer than the maximum legal size, and takes into
consideration whether or not the frame was tagged. It does not consider whether or not the
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frame had a valid FCS checksum. This error usually means that jabber was detected on the
network.
A short frame is a frame smaller than the minimum legal size of 64 octets, with a good
frame check sequence. Some protocol analyzers and network monitors call these frames
“runts". In general the presence of short frames is not a guarantee that the network is failing.
The term runt is generally an imprecise slang term that means something less than a
legal frame size. It may refer to short frames with a valid FCS checksum although it usually
refers to collision fragments.
Interactive Media Activity
Matching: Ethernet Errors Matching
After completing this activity, the student will be able to understand the terms and
definitions of Ethernet errors.
6.2.8 FCS and beyond
A received frame that has a bad Frame Check Sequence, also referred to as a checksum
or CRC error, differs from the original transmission by at least one bit. In an FCS error frame
the header information is probably correct, but the checksum calculated by the receiving
station does not match the checksum appended to the end of the frame by the sending station.
The frame is then discarded.
High numbers of FCS errors from a single station usually indicates a faulty NIC and/or
faulty or corrupted software drivers, or a bad cable connecting that station to the network. If
FCS errors are associated with many stations, they are generally traceable to bad cabling, a
faulty version of the NIC driver, a faulty hub port, or induced noise in the cable system.
A message that does not end on an octet boundary is known as an alignment error.
Instead of the correct number of binary bits forming complete octet groupings, there are
additional bits left over (less than eight). Such a frame is truncated to the nearest octet
boundary, and if the FCS checksum fails, then an alignment error is reported. This is often
caused by bad software drivers, or a collision, and is frequently accompanied by a failure of
the FCS checksum.
A frame with a valid value in the Length field but did not match the actual number of
octets counted in the data field of the received frame is known as a range error. This error
also appears when the length field value is less than the minimum legal unpadded size of the
data field. A similar error, Out of Range, is reported when the value in the Length field
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indicates a data size that is too large to be legal.
Fluke Networks has coined the term ghost to mean energy (noise) detected on the cable
that appears to be a frame, but is lacking a valid SFD. To qualify as a ghost, the frame must be
at least 72 octets long, including the preamble. Otherwise, it is classified as a remote collision.
Because of the peculiar nature of ghosts, it is important to note that test results are largely
dependent upon where on the segment the measurement is made.
Ground loops and other wiring problems are usually the cause of ghosting. Most
network monitoring tools do not recognize the existence of ghosts for the same reason that
they do not recognize preamble collisions. The tools rely entirely on what the chipset tells
them. Software-only protocol analyzers, many hardware-based protocol analyzers, hand held
diagnostic tools, as well as most remote monitoring (RMON) probes do not report these
events.
Interactive Media Activity
Checkbox: Name That Ethernet Error
After completing this activity, the student will be able to understand the terms and
definitions of Ethernet errors.
6.2.9 Ethernet auto-negotiation
As Ethernet grew from 10 to 100 and 1000 Mbps, one requirement was to make each
technology interoperable, even to the point that 10, 100, and 1000 interfaces could be directly
connected. A process called Auto-Negotiation of speeds at half or full duplex was developed.
Specifically, at the time that Fast Ethernet was introduced, the standard included a method of
automatically configuring a given interface to match the speed and capabilities of the link
partner. This process defines how two link partners may automatically negotiate a
configuration offering the best common performance level. It has the additional advantage of
only involving the lowest part of the physical layer.
10BASE-T required each station to transmit a link pulse about every 16 milliseconds,
whenever the station was not engaged in transmitting a message. Auto-Negotiation adopted
this signal and renamed it a Normal Link Pulse (NLP). When a series of NLPs are sent in a
group for the purpose of Auto-Negotiation, the group is called a Fast Link Pulse (FLP) burst.
Each FLP burst is sent at the same timing interval as an NLP, and is intended to allow older
10BASE-T devices to operate normally in the event they should receive an FLP burst.
Auto-Negotiation is accomplished by transmitting a burst of 10BASE-T Link Pulses
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from each of the two link partners. The burst communicates the capabilities of the
transmitting station to its link partner. After both stations have interpreted what the other
partner is offering, both switch to the highest performance common configuration and
establish a link at that speed. If anything interrupts communications and the link is lost, the
two link partners first attempt to link again at the last negotiated speed. If that fails, or if it has
been too long since the link was lost, the Auto-Negotiation process starts over. The link may
be lost due to external influences, such as a cable fault, or due to one of the partners issuing a
reset.
6.2.10 Link establishment and full and half duplex
Link partners are allowed to skip offering configurations of which they are capable. This
allows the network administrator to force ports to a selected speed and duplex setting, without
disabling Auto-Negotiation.
Auto-Negotiation is optional for most Ethernet implementations. Gigabit Ethernet
requires its implementation, though the user may disable it. Auto-Negotiation was originally
defined for UTP implementations of Ethernet and has been extended to work with other fiber
optic implementations.
When an Auto-Negotiating station first attempts to link it is supposed to enable
100BASE-TX to attempt to immediately establish a link. If 100BASE-TX signaling is present,
and the station supports 100BASE-TX, it will attempt to establish a link without negotiating.
If either signaling produces a link or FLP bursts are received, the station will proceed with
that technology. If a link partner does not offer an FLP burst, but instead offers NLPs, then
that device is automatically assumed to be a 10BASE-T station. During this initial interval of
testing for other technologies, the transmit path is sending FLP bursts. The standard does not
permit parallel detection of any other technologies.
If a link is established through parallel detection, it is required to be half duplex. There
are only two methods of achieving a full-duplex link. One method is through a completed
cycle of Auto-Negotiation, and the other is to administratively force both link partners to full
duplex. If one link partner is forced to full duplex, but the other partner attempts to
Auto-Negotiate, then there is certain to be a duplex mismatch. This will result in collisions
and errors on that link. Additionally if one end is forced to full duplex the other must also be
forced. The exception to this is 10-Gigabit Ethernet, which does not support half duplex.
Many vendors implement hardware in such a way that it cycles through the various
possible states. It transmits FLP bursts to Auto-Negotiate for a while, then it configures for
Fast Ethernet, attempts to link for a while, and then just listens. Some vendors do not offer
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any transmitted attempt to link until the interface first hears an FLP burst or some other
signaling scheme.
There are two duplex modes, half and full. For shared media, the half-duplex mode is
mandatory. All coaxial implementations are half duplex in nature and cannot operate in full
duplex. UTP and fiber implementations may be operated in half duplex. 10-Gbps
implementations are specified for full duplex only.
In half duplex only one station may transmit at a time. For the coaxial implementations a
second station transmitting will cause the signals to overlap and become corrupted. Since
UTP and fiber generally transmit on separate pairs the signals have no opportunity to overlap
and become corrupted. Ethernet has established arbitration rules for resolving conflicts arising
from instances when more than one station attempts to transmit at the same time. Both
stations in a point-to-point full-duplex link are permitted to transmit at any time, regardless of
whether the other station is transmitting.
Auto-Negotiation avoids most situations where one station in a point-to-point link is
transmitting under half-duplex rules and the other under full-duplex rules.
In the event that link partners are capable of sharing more than one common technology,
refer to the list in Figure . This list is used to determine which technology should be chosen
from the offered configurations.
Fiber-optic Ethernet implementations are not included in this priority resolution list
because the interface electronics and optics do not permit easy reconfiguration between
implementations. It is assumed that the interface configuration is fixed. If the two interfaces
are able to Auto-Negotiate then they are already using the same Ethernet implementation.
However, there remain a number of configuration choices such as the duplex setting, or which
station will act as the Master for clocking purposes, that must be determined.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Link Establishment Flowchart
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the priority of the link
establishment process.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

The basics of Ethernet technology
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
The naming rules of Ethernet technology

How Ethernet and the OSI model interact

Ethernet framing process and frame structure

Ethernet frame field names and purposes

The characteristics and function of CSMA/CD

Ethernet timing

Interframe spacing

The backoff algorithm and time after a collision

Ethernet errors and collisions

Auto-negotiation in relation to speed and duplex
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Ethernet Technologies
Overview
Ethernet has been the most successful LAN technology largely because of its simplicity
of implementation compared to other technologies. Ethernet has also been successful because
it has been a flexible technology that has evolved to meet changing needs and media
capabilities. This module introduces the specifics of the most important varieties of Ethernet.
The goal is not to convey all the facts about each type of Ethernet, but rather to develop a
sense of what is common to all forms of Ethernet.
Changes in Ethernet have resulted in major improvements over the 10-Mbps Ethernet of
the early 1980s. The 10-Mbps Ethernet standard remained virtually unchanged until 1995
when IEEE announced a standard for a 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet. In recent years, an even more
rapid growth in media speed has moved the transition from Fast Ethernet to Gigabit Ethernet.
The standards for Gigabit Ethernet emerged in only three years. An even faster Ethernet
version, 10 Gigabit Ethernet, is now widely available and still faster versions are being
developed.
In these faster versions of Ethernet, MAC addressing, CSMA/CD, and the frame format
have not been changed from earlier versions of Ethernet. However, other aspects of the MAC
sublayer, physical layer, and medium have changed. Copper-based network interface card
(NICs) capable of 10/100/1000 operation are now common. Gigabit switch and router ports
are becoming the standard for wiring closets. Optical fiber to support Gigabit Ethernet is
considered a standard for backbone cabling in most new installations.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Describe the differences and similarities among 10BASE5, 10BASE2, and
10BASE-T Ethernet.

Define Manchester encoding.

List the factors affecting Ethernet timing limits.

List 10BASE-T wiring parameters.

Describe the key characteristics and varieties of 100-Mbps Ethernet.

Describe the evolution of Ethernet.

Explain the MAC methods, frame formats, and transmission process of Gigabit
Ethernet.

Describe the uses of specific media and encoding with Gigabit Ethernet.

Identify the pinouts and wiring typical to the various implementations of Gigabit
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Ethernet.

Describe the similarities and differences between Gigabit and 10 Gigabit Ethernet.

Describe the basic architectural considerations of Gigabit and 10 Gigabit Ethernet.
7.1 10-Mbps and 100-Mbps Ethernet
7.1.1 10-Mbps Ethernet
10BASE5, 10BASE2, and 10BASE-T Ethernet are considered Legacy Ethernet. The
four common features of Legacy Ethernet are timing parameters, frame format, transmission
process, and a basic design rule.
10BASE5, 10BASE2, and 10BASE-T all share the same timing parameters, as shown in
Figure
(1 bit time at 10 Mbps = 100 nsec = 0.1 µsec = 1 ten-millionth of a second.)
10BASE5, 10BASE2, and 10BASE-T also have a common frame format.
The Legacy Ethernet transmission process is identical until the lower part of the OSI
physical layer. The Layer 2 frame data is converted from hex to binary. As the frame passes
from the MAC sublayer to the physical layer, further processes occur prior to the bits being
placed from the physical layer onto the medium. One important process is the signal quality
error (SQE) signal. SQE is always used in half-duplex. SQE can be used in full-duplex
operation but is not required. SQE is active:

Within 4 to 8 microseconds following a normal transmission to indicate that the
outbound frame was successfully transmitted

Whenever there is a collision on the medium

Whenever there is an improper signal on the medium. Improper signals might
include jabber, or reflections that result from a cable short.

Whenever a transmission has been interrupted
All 10 Mbps forms of Ethernet take octets received from the MAC sublayer and perform
a process called line encoding. Line encoding describes how the bits are actually signaled on
the wire. The simplest encodings have undesirable timing and electrical characteristics. So
line codes have been designed to have desirable transmission properties. This form of
encoding used in 10 Mbps systems is called “Manchester.”
Manchester encoding relies on the direction of the edge transition in the middle of the
timing window to determine the binary value for that bit period. The top waveform has a
falling edge, so it is interpreted as a binary 0. The second waveform shows a rising edge,
which is interpreted as a binary 1. In the third waveform, there is an alternating binary
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sequence. With alternating binary data, there is no need to return to the previous voltage level.
As can be seen from the third and fourth wave forms in the graphic, the binary bit values are
indicated by the direction of change during any given bit period. The waveform voltage levels
at the beginning or end of any bit period are not factors when determining binary values.
Legacy Ethernet has common architectural features. Networks usually contain multiple
types of media. The standard ensures that interoperability is maintained. The overall
architectural design is of the utmost importance when implementing a mixed-media network.
It becomes easier to violate maximum delay limits as the network grows. The timing limits
are based on parameters such as:

Cable length and its propagation delay

Delay of repeaters

Delay of transceivers

Interframe gap shrinkage

Delays within the station
10-Mbps Ethernet operates within the timing limits offered by a series of not more than
five segments separated by no more than four repeaters. This is known as the 5-4-3 rule. No
more than four repeaters may be connected in series between any two distant stations. There
can also be no more than three populated segments between any two distant stations.
7.1.2 10BASE5
The original 1980 Ethernet product 10BASE5 transmitted 10 Mbps over a single thick
coaxial cable bus. 10BASE5 is important because it was the first medium used for Ethernet.
10BASE5 was part of the original 802.3 standard. The primary benefit of 10BASE5 was
length. Today it may be found in legacy installations, but would not be recommended for new
installations. 10BASE5 systems are inexpensive and require no configuration, but basic
components like NICs are very difficult to find as well as the fact that it is sensitive to signal
reflections on the cable. 10BASE5 systems also represent a single point of failure.
10BASE5 uses Manchester encoding. It has a solid central conductor. Each of the
maximum five segments of thick coax may be up to 500 m (1640.4 ft) in length. The cable is
large, heavy, and difficult to install. However, the distance limitations were favorable and this
prolonged its use in certain applications.
Because the medium is a single coaxial cable, only one station can transmit at a time or
else a collision will occur. Therefore, 10BASE5 only runs in half-duplex resulting in a
maximum of 10 Mbps of data transfer.
Figure
illustrates one possible configuration for a maximum end-to-end collision
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domain. Between any two distant stations only three repeated segments are permitted to have
stations connected to them, with the other two repeated segments used only as link segments
to extend the network.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Waveform Decoding
This lab is to integrate knowledge of networking media, OSI Layers 1, 2, and 3, and
Ethernet, by taking a digital waveform of an Ethernet frame and decoding it.
Interactive Media Activity
Matching: 10BASE5
After completing this activity, the student will learn the characteristics of 10BASE5
technology.
7.1.3 10BASE2
10BASE2 was introduced in 1985. Installation was easier because of its smaller size,
lighter weight, and greater flexibility. It still exists in legacy networks. Like 10BASE5, it is
not recommended for installations in networks today. It has a low cost and a lack of need for
hubs. Again, NICs are also difficult to obtain for this medium.
10BASE2 also uses Manchester encoding. Computers on the LAN were linked together
by an unbroken series of coaxial cable lengths. These lengths were attached by BNC
connectors to a T-shaped connector on the NIC.
10BASE2 has a stranded central conductor. Each of the maximum five segments of thin
coax may be up to 185 meters long and each station is connected directly to the BNC “T”
connector on the coax.
Only one station can transmit at a time or else a collision will occur. 10BASE2 also uses
half-duplex. The maximum transmission rate of 10BASE2 is 10 Mbps.
There may be up to 30 stations on any individual 10BASE2 segment. Out of the five
consecutive segments in series between any two distant stations, only three may have stations
attached.
Interactive Media Activity
Matching: 10BASE2
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After completing this activity, the student will learn the characteristics of 10BASE2
technology.
7.1.4 10BASE-T
10BASE-T was introduced in 1990. 10BASE-T used cheaper and easier to install
Category 3 unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper cable rather than coax cable. The cable
plugged into a central connection device that contained the shared bus. This device was a hub.
It was at the center of a set of cables that radiated out to the PCs like the spokes on a wheel.
This is referred to as a star topology. The distances the cables could extend from the hub and
the way in which the UTP was installed increasingly used stars made up of stars, referred to
as an extended star topology. Originally 10BASE-T was a half-duplex protocol, but
full-duplex features were added later. The explosion in the popularity of Ethernet in the
mid-to-late 1990s was when Ethernet came to dominate LAN technology.
10BASE-T also uses Manchester encoding. A 10BASE-T UTP cable has a solid
conductor for each wire in the maximum 90 meter horizontal cable. UTP cable uses eight-pin
RJ-45 connectors. Though Category 3 cable is adequate for use on 10BASE-T networks, it is
strongly recommended that any new cable installations be made with Category 5e or better.
All four pairs of wires should be used either with the T568-A or T568-B cable pinout
arrangement. With this type of cable installation, supports the use of multiple protocols
without rewiring. Figure shows the pinout arrangement for a 10BASE-T connection. The
transmitting pair on the receiving side are connected to the receiving pair on the attached
device.
Half duplex or full duplex is a configuration choice. 10BASE-T carries 10 Mbps of
traffic in half-duplex mode and 20 Mbps in full-duplex mode.
Interactive Media Activity
Matching: 10BASE-T
After completing this activity, the student will learn the characteristics of 10BASE-T
technology.
7.1.5 10BASE-T wiring and architecture
10BASE-T links generally consist of a connection between the station and a hub or
switch. Hubs are multi-port repeaters and count toward the limit on repeaters between distant
stations. Hubs do not divide network segments into separate collision domains. Because hubs
or repeaters merely extend the length of a network segment within a single collision domain,
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there is a limit on how many hubs may be used in that segment. Bridges and switches divide a
segment into separate collision domains, only leaving the media limitations to determine the
distance between the switches. 10BASE-T limits the distance between switches to 100 m (328
ft).
Although hubs may be linked, it is best to avoid this arrangement. This is to prevent
exceeding the limit for maximum delay between distant stations. When multiple hubs are
required, it is best to arrange them in hierarchical order as to create a tree structure.
Performance will be improved if fewer repeaters separate stations.
An architectural example is shown in Figure . All distances between stations are
acceptable. However, the total distance from one end of the network to the other, places the
architecture at its limit. The most important aspect to consider is how to keep the delay
between distant stations to a minimum, regardless of the architecture and media types
involved. A shorter maximum delay will provide better overall performance.
10BASE-T links can have unrepeated distances up to 100 m. While this may seem like a
long distance, it is typically “used up” when wiring an actual building. Hubs can solve the
distance issue but will allow collisions to propagate. The widespread introduction of switches
has made the distance limitation less important. As long as workstations are located within
100 m of a switch, the 100 m distance starts over at the switch.
7.1.6 100-Mbps Ethernet
100-Mbps Ethernet is also known as Fast Ethernet. The two technologies that have
become important are 100BASE-TX, which is a copper UTP medium and 100BASE-FX,
which is a multimode optical fiber medium.
Three characteristics common to 100BASE-TX and 100BASE-FX are the timing
parameters, the frame format, and parts of the transmission process. 100BASE-TX and
100-BASE-FX both share timing parameters. Note that one bit time in 100-Mbps Ethernet is
10nsec = .01 microseconds = 1 100-millionth of a second.
The 100-Mbps frame format is the same as the 10-Mbps frame.
Fast Ethernet represents a 10-fold increase in speed over 10BASE-T. Because of the
increase in speed, extra care must be taken because the bits being sent are getting shorter in
duration and occurring more frequently. These higher frequency signals are more susceptible
to noise. In response to these issues, two separate encoding steps are used by 100-Mbps
Ethernet. The first part of the encoding uses a technique called 4B/5B, the second part of the
encoding is the actual line encoding specific to copper or fiber.
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7.1.7 100BASE-TX
In 1995, 100BASE-TX was the standard, using Cat 5 UTP cable, which became
commercially successful.
The original coaxial Ethernet used half-duplex transmission so only one device could
transmit at a time. However, in 1997, Ethernet was expanded to include a full duplex
capability that allowed more than one PC on a network to transmit at the same time. Switches
increasingly replaced hubs. These switches had the capability of full duplex and rapid
handling of Ethernet frames.
100BASE-TX uses 4B/5B encoding, which is then scrambled and converted to
multi-level transmit-3 levels or MLT-3. In the example, the highlighted window shows four
waveform examples. The top waveform has no transition in the center of the timing window.
No transition indicates that a binary 0 is present. The second waveform shows a transition in
the center of the timing window. A binary 1 is represented by a transition. The third waveform
shows an alternating binary sequence. The absence of binary transition indicates a binary 0,
and the presence of a transition indicates a binary 1. Rising or falling edges indicate 1s. Very
steep signal changes indicate 1s. Any noticeable horizontal line in the signal indicates a 0.
Figure
shows the pinout for a 100BASE-TX connection. Notice that the two separate
transmit-receive paths exist. This is identical to the 10BASE-T configuration.
100BASE-TX carries 100 Mbps of traffic in half-duplex mode. In full-duplex mode,
100BASE-TX can exchange 200 Mbps of traffic. The concept of full duplex will become
increasingly important as Ethernet speeds increase.
7.1.8 100BASE-FX
At the time copper-based Fast Ethernet was introduced, a fiber version was also desired.
A fiber vervsion could be used for backbone applications, connections between floors and
buildings where copper is less desirable, and also in high noise environments. 100BASE-FX
was introduced to satisfy this desire. However, 100BASE-FX was never adopted successfully.
This was due to the timely introduction of Gigabit Ethernet copper and fiber standards.
Gigabit Ethernet standards are now the dominant technology for backbone installations,
high-speed cross-connects, and general infrastructure needs.
The timing, frame format, and transmission are all common to both versions of 100
Mbps Fast Ethernet. 100BASE-FX also uses 4B/5B encoding. In Figure
notice the
highlighted waveform in the example. The top waveform has no transition, which indicates
that a binary 0 is present. In the second waveform, a transition is in the center of the timing
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window. A binary 1 is represented by a transition. In the third waveform, there is an
alternating binary sequence. In this example it is more obvious that no transition indicates a
binary 0 and the presence of a transition is a binary 1.
Figure
summarizes a 100BASE-FX link and pinouts. Fiber pair with either ST or SC
connectors is most commonly used.
200 Mbps transmission is possible because of the separate Transmit and Receive paths
in 100BASE-FX optical fiber.
7.1.9 Fast Ethernet architecture
Fast Ethernet links generally consist of a connection between a station and a hub or
switch. Hubs are considered multi-port repeaters and switches are considered multi-port
bridges. These are subject to the 100 m UTP media distance limitation.
A Class I repeater may introduce up to 140 bit-times of latency. Any repeater that
changes between one Ethernet implementation and another is a Class I repeater. A Class II
repeater may only introduce a maximum of 92 bit-times latency. Because of the reduced
latency it is possible to have two Class II repeaters in series, but only if the cable between
them is very short.
As with 10 Mbps versions, it is possible to modify some of the architecture rules for 100
Mbps versions. However there is virtually no allowance for additional delay. Modification of
the architecture rules is strongly discouraged for 100BASE-TX. 100BASE-TX cable between
Class II repeaters may not exceed 5 meters. Links operating in half duplex are not uncommon
to find in Fast Ethernet. However, half duplex is undesirable because the signaling scheme is
inherently full duplex.
Figure
shows architecture configuration cable distances. 100BASE-TX links can have
unrepeated distances up to 100 m. The widespread introduction of switches has made this
distance limitation less important. If workstations are located within 100 m of a switch, the
100 m distance starts over at the switch. Since most Fast Ethernet is switched, these are the
practical limits between devices.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Introduction to Fluke Network Inspector
This lab is a tutorial demonstrating how to use the Fluke Networks Network Inspector
(NI) to discover and analyze network devices within a broadcast domain.
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Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Introduction to Fluke Protocol Inspector
This lab is a tutorial demonstrating how to use the Fluke Networks Protocol Inspector to
analyze network traffic and data frames.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Fast Ethernet Architecture
After completing this activity, the student will understand the architecture of Fast
Ethernet.
7.2 Gigabit and 10-Gigabit Ethernet
7.2.1 1000-Mbps Ethernet
The 1000-Mbps Ethernet or Gigabit Ethernet standards represent transmission using
both fiber and copper media. The 1000BASE-X standard, IEEE 802.3z, specifies 1 Gbps
full duplex over optical fiber. The 1000BASE-X standard, IEEE 802.3z, specifies 1 Gbps full
duplex over optical fiber.
1000BASE-TX, 1000BASE-SX, and 1000BASE-LX use the same timing parameters, as
shown in Figure . They use a 1 nanosecond (0.000000001 seconds) or 1 billionth of a second
bit time. The Gigabit Ethernet frame has the same format as is used for 10 and 100-Mbps
Ethernet. Depending on the implementation, Gigabit Ethernet may use different processes to
convert frames to bits on the cable. Figure
shows the Ethernet frame formats.
The differences between standard Ethernet, Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet occur at
the physical layer. Due to the increased speeds of these newer standards, the shorter duration
bit times require special considerations. Since the bits are introduced on the medium for a
shorter duration and more often, timing is critical. This high-speed transmission requires
frequencies closer to copper medium bandwidth limitations. This causes the bits to be more
susceptible to noise on copper media.
These issues require Gigabit Ethernet to use two separate encoding steps. Data
transmission is made more efficient by using codes to represent the binary bit stream. The
encoded data provides synchronization, efficient usage of bandwidth, and improved
Signal-to-Noise Ratio characteristics.
At the physical layer, the bit patterns from the MAC layer are converted into symbols.
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The symbols may also be control information such as start frame, end frame, medium idle
conditions. The frame is coded into control symbols and data symbols to increase in network
throughput.
Fiber-based Gigabit Ethernet (1000BASE-X) uses 8B/10B encoding which is similar to
the 4B/5B concept. This is followed by the simple Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) line encoding
of light on optical fiber. This simpler encoding process is possible because the fiber medium
can carry higher bandwidth signals.
7.2.2 1000BASE-T
As Fast Ethernet was installed to increase bandwidth to workstations, this began to
create bottlenecks upstream in the network. 1000BASE-T (IEEE 802.3ab) was developed to
provide additional bandwidth to help alleviate these bottlenecks. It provided more "speed" for
applications such as intra-building backbones, inter-switch links, server farms, and other
wiring closet applications as well as connections for high-end workstations. Fast Ethernet was
designed to function over existing Cat 5 copper cable and this necessitated that cable would
pass the Cat 5e test. Most installed Cat 5 cable can pass 5e certification if properly terminated.
One of the most important attributes of the 1000BASE-T standard is that it be interoperable
with 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX.
Because Cat 5e cable can reliably carry up to 125 Mbps of traffic, getting 1000 Mbps
(Gigabit) of bandwidth was a design challenge. The first step to accomplish 1000BASE-T is
to use all four pairs of wires instead of the traditional two pairs of wires used by 10BASE-T
and 100BASE-TX. This is done using complex circuitry to allow full duplex transmissions on
the same wire pair. This provides 250 Mbps per pair. With all four-wire pairs, this provides
the desired 1000 Mbps. Since the information travels simultaneously across the four paths, the
circuitry has to divide frames at the transmitter and reassemble them at the receiver.
The 1000BASE-T encoding with 4D-PAM5 line encoding is used on Cat 5e or better
UTP. Achieving the 1 Gbps rate requires use of all four pairs in full duplex simultaneously.
That is the transmission and reception of data happens in both directions on the same wire at
the same time. As might be expected, this results in a permanent collision on the wire pairs.
These collisions result in complex voltage patterns. With the complex integrated circuits using
techniques such as echo cancellation, Layer 1 Forward Error Correction (FEC), and prudent
selection of voltage levels, the system achieves the 1Gigabit throughput.
In idle periods there are nine voltage levels found on the cable, and during data
transmission periods there are 17 voltage levels found on the cable.
With this large number
of states and the effects of noise, the signal on the wire looks more analog than digital. Like
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analog, the system is more susceptible to noise due to cable and termination problems.
The data from the sending station is carefully divided into four parallel streams, encoded,
transmitted and detected in parallel, and then reassembled into one received bit stream. Figure
represents of the simultaneous full duplex on four-wire pairs. 1000BASE-T supports both
half-duplex as well as full-duplex operation. The use of full-duplex 1000BASE-T is
widespread.
7.2.3 1000BASE-SX and LX
The IEEE 802.3 standard recommends that Gigabit Ethernet over fiber be the preferred
backbone technology.
The timing, frame format, and transmission are common to all versions of 1000 Mbps.
Two signal-encoding schemes are defined at the physical layer. The 8B/ 10B scheme is used
for optical fiber and shielded copper media, and the pulse amplitude modulation 5 (PAM5) is
used for UTP.
1000BASE-X uses 8B/10B encoding converted to non-return to zero (NRZ) line
encoding. NRZ encoding relies on the signal level found in the timing window to determine
the binary value for that bit period. Unlike most of the other encoding schemes described, this
encoding system is level driven instead of edge driven. That is the determination of whether a
bit is a zero or a one is made by the level of the signal rather than when the signal changes
levels.
The NRZ signals are then pulsed into the fiber using either short-wavelength or
long-wavelength light sources. The short-wavelength uses an 850 nm laser or LED source in
multimode optical fiber (1000BASE-SX). It is the lower-cost of the options but has shorter
distances. The long-wavelength 1310 nm laser source uses either single-mode or multimode
optical fiber (1000BASE-LX). Laser sources used with single-mode fiber can achieve
distances of up to 5000 meters. Because of the length of time to completely turn the LED or
laser on and off each time, the light is pulsed using low and high power. A logic zero is
represented by low power, and a logic one by high power.
The Media Access Control method treats the link as point-to-point. Since separate fibers
are used for transmitting (Tx) and receiving (Rx) the connection is inherently full duplex.
Gigabit Ethernet permits only a single repeater between two stations. Figure is a 1000BASE
Ethernet media comparison chart.
Interactive Media Activity
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Drag and Drop: Comparison of Gigabit Ethernet Media
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the differences in
gigabit Ethernet media.
Interactive Media Activity
Checkbox: Fiber Versions of Gigabit Ethernet
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify Gigabit Ethernet on
Fiber.
7.2.4 Gigabit Ethernet architecture
The distance limitations of full-duplex links are only limited by the medium, and not the
round-trip delay. Since most Gigabit Ethernet is switched, the values in Figures
and are
the practical limits between devices. Daisy-chaining, star, and extended star topologies are all
allowed. The issue then becomes one of logical topology and data flow, not timing or distance
limitations.
A 1000BASE-T UTP cable is the same as 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX cable, except
that link performance must meet the higher quality Category 5e or ISO Class D (2000)
requirements.
Modification of the architecture rules is strongly discouraged for 1000BASE-T. At 100
meters, 1000BASE-T is operating close to the edge of the ability of the hardware to recover
the transmitted signal. Any cabling problems or environmental noise could render an
otherwise compliant cable inoperable even at distances that are within the specification.
It is recommended that all links between a station and a hub or switch be configured for
Auto-Negotiation to permit the highest common performance. This will avoid accidental
misconfiguration of the other required parameters for proper Gigabit Ethernet operation.
7.2.5 10-Gigabit Ethernet
IEEE 802.3ae was adapted to include 10 Gbps full-duplex transmission over fiber optic
cable. The basic similarities between 802.3ae and 802.3, the original Ethernet are remarkable.
This 10-Gigabit Ethernet (10GbE) is evolving for not only LANs, but also MANs, and
WANs.
With the frame format and other Ethernet Layer 2 specifications compatible with
previous standards, 10GbE can provide increased bandwidth needs that are interoperable with
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existing network infrastructure.
A major conceptual change for Ethernet is emerging with 10GbE. Ethernet is
traditionally thought of as a LAN technology, but 10GbE physical layer standards allow both
an extension in distance to 40 km over single-mode fiber and compatibility with synchronous
optical network (SONET) and synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) networks. Operation at 40
km distance makes 10GbE a viable MAN technology. Compatibility with SONET/SDH
networks operating up to OC-192 speeds (9.584640 Gbps) make 10GbE a viable WAN
technology. 10GbE may also compete with ATM for certain applications.
To summarize, how does 10GbE compare to other varieties of Ethernet?

Frame format is the same, allowing interoperability between all varieties of legacy,
fast, gigabit, and 10 Gigabit, with no reframing or protocol conversions.

Bit time is now 0.1 nanoseconds. All other time variables scale accordingly.

Since only full-duplex fiber connections are used, CSMA/CD is not necessary

The IEEE 802.3 sublayers within OSI Layers 1 and 2 are mostly preserved, with a
few additions to accommodate 40 km fiber links and interoperability with
SONET/SDH technologies.

Flexible, efficient, reliable, relatively low cost end-to-end Ethernet networks
become possible.

TCP/IP can run over LANs, MANs, and WANs with one Layer 2 Transport
method.
The basic standard governing CSMA/CD is IEEE 802.3. An IEEE 802.3 supplement,
entitled 802.3ae, governs the 10GbE family. As is typical for new technologies, a variety of
implementations are being considered, including:

10GBASE-SR – Intended for short distances over already-installed multimode
fiber, supports a range between 26 m to 82 m

10GBASE-LX4 – Uses wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), supports 240 m
to 300 m over already-installed multimode fiber and 10 km over single-mode fiber

10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER – Support 10 km and 40 km over single-mode
fiber

10GBASE-SW, 10GBASE-LW, and 10GBASE-EW – Known collectively as
10GBASE-W are intended to work with OC-192 synchronous transport module
(STM) SONET/SDH WAN equipment.
The IEEE 802.3ae Task force and the 10-Gigabit Ethernet Alliance (10 GEA) are
working to standardize these emerging technologies.
10-Gbps Ethernet (IEEE 802.3ae) was standardized in June 2002. It is a full-duplex
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protocol that uses only optic fiber as a transmission medium. The maximum transmission
distances depend on the type of fiber being used. When using single-mode fiber as the
transmission medium, the maximum transmission distance is 40 kilometers (25 miles). Some
discussions between IEEE members have begun that suggest the possibility of standards for
40, 80, and even 100-Gbps Ethernet.
7.2.6 10-Gigabit Ethernet architectures
As with the development of Gigabit Ethernet, the increase in speed comes with extra
requirements. The shorter bit time duration because of increased speed requires special
considerations. For 10 GbE transmissions, each data bit duration is 0.1 nanosecond. This
means there would be 1,000 GbE data bits in the same bit time as one data bit in a 10-Mbps
Ethernet data stream. Because of the short duration of the 10 GbE data bit, it is often difficult
to separate a data bit from noise. 10 GbE data transmissions rely on exact bit timing to
separate the data from the effects of noise on the physical layer. This is the purpose of
synchronization.
In response to these issues of synchronization, bandwidth, and Signal-to-Noise Ratio,
10-Gigabit Ethernet uses two separate encoding steps. By using codes to represent the user
data, transmission is made more efficient. The encoded data provides synchronization,
efficient usage of bandwidth, and improved Signal-to-Noise Ratio characteristics.
Complex serial bit streams are used for all versions of 10GbE except for
10GBASE-LX4, which uses Wide Wavelength Division Multiplex (WWDM) to multiplex
four bit simultaneous bit streams as four wavelengths of light launched into the fiber at one
time.
Figure
represents the particular case of using four slightly different wavelength, laser
sources. Upon receipt from the medium, the optical signal stream is demultiplexed into four
separate optical signal streams. The four optical signal streams are then converted back into
four electronic bit streams as they travel in approximately the reverse process back up through
the sublayers to the MAC layer.
Currently, most 10GbE products are in the form of modules, or line cards, for addition to
high-end switches and routers. As the 10GbE technologies evolve, an increasing diversity of
signaling components can be expected. As optical technologies evolve, improved transmitters
and receivers will be incorporated into these products, taking further advantage of modularity.
All 10GbE varieties use optical fiber media. Fiber types include 10µ single-mode Fiber, and
50µ and 62.5µ multimode fibers. A range of fiber attenuation and dispersion characteristics is
supported, but they limit operating distances.
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Even though support is limited to fiber optic media, some of the maximum cable lengths
are surprisingly short. No repeater is defined for 10-Gigabit Ethernet since half duplex is
explicitly not supported.
As with 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps and 1000 Mbps versions, it is possible to modify some of
the architecture rules slightly. Possible architecture adjustments are related to signal loss and
distortion along the medium. Due to dispersion of the signal and other issues the light pulse
becomes undecipherable beyond certain distances.
7.2.7 Future of Ethernet
Ethernet has gone through an evolution from Legacy → Fast → Gigabit →
MultiGigabit technologies. While other LAN technologies are still in place (legacy
installations), Ethernet dominates new LAN installations. So much so that some have referred
to Ethernet as the LAN “dial tone”. Ethernet is now the standard for horizontal, vertical, and
inter-building connections. Recently developing versions of Ethernet are blurring the
distinction between LANs, MANs, and WANs.
While 1-Gigabit Ethernet is now widely available and 10-Gigabit products becoming
more available, the IEEE and the 10-Gigabit Ethernet Alliance are working on 40, 100, or
even 160 Gbps standards. The technologies that are adopted will depend on a number of
factors, including the rate of maturation of the technologies and standards, the rate of adoption
in the market, and cost.
Proposals for Ethernet arbitration schemes other than CSMA/CD have been made. The
problem of collisions with physical bus topologies of 10BASE5 and 10BASE2 and
10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX hubs is no longer common. Using UTP and optical fiber with
separate Tx and Rx paths, and the decreasing costs of switches make single shared media,
half-duplex media connections much less important.
The future of networking media is three-fold:

Copper (up to 1000 Mbps, perhaps more)

Wireless (approaching 100 Mbps, perhaps more)

Optical fiber (currently at 10,000 Mbps and soon to be more)
Copper and wireless media have certain physical and practical limitations on the highest
frequency signals that can be transmitted. This is not a limiting factor for optical fiber in the
foreseeable future. The bandwidth limitations on optical fiber are extremely large and are not
yet being threatened. In fiber systems, it is the electronics technology (such as emitters and
detectors) and fiber manufacturing processes that most limit the speed. Upcoming
developments in Ethernet are likely to be heavily weighted towards Laser light sources and
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single-mode optical fiber.
When Ethernet was slower, half-duplex, subject to collisions and a “democratic” process
for prioritization, was not considered to have the Quality of Service (QoS) capabilities
required to handle certain types of traffic. This included such things as IP telephony and video
multicast.
The full-duplex high-speed Ethernet technologies that now dominate the market are
proving to be sufficient at supporting even QoS-intensive applications. This makes the
potential applications of Ethernet even wider. Ironically end-to-end QoS capability helped
drive a push for ATM to the desktop and to the WAN in the mid-1990s, but now it is Ethernet,
not ATM that is approaching this goal.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

The differences and similarities among 10BASE5, 10BASE2, and 10BASE-T
Ethernet

Manchester encoding

The factors affecting Ethernet timing limits

10BASE-T wiring parameters

The key characteristics and varieties of 100-Mbps Ethernet

The evolution of Ethernet

MAC methods, frame formats, and transmission process of Gigabit Ethernet

The uses of specific media and encoding with Gigabit Ethernet

The pinouts and wiring typical to the various implementations of Gigabit Ethernet

The similarities and differences between Gigabit and 10-Gigabit Ethernet

The basic architectural considerations of Gigabit and 10-Gigabit Ethernet
Chapter 8
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Ethernet Switching
Overview
Shared Ethernet works extremely well under ideal conditions. When the number of
devices trying to access the network is low, the number of collisions stays well within
acceptable limits. However, when the number of users on the network increases, the increased
number of collisions can cause intolerably bad performance. Bridging was developed to help
ease performance problems that arose from increased collisions. Switching evolved from
bridging to become the key technology in modern Ethernet LANs.
Collisions and broadcasts are expected events in modern networking. They are, in fact,
engineered into the design of Ethernet and higher layer technologies. However, when
collisions and broadcasts occur in numbers that are above the optimum, network performance
suffers. The concept of collision domains and broadcast domains is concerned with the ways
that networks can be designed to limit the negative effects of collisions and broadcasts. This
module explores the effects of collisions and broadcasts on network traffic and then describes
how bridges and routers are used to segment networks for improved performance.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Define bridging and switching.

Define and describe the content-addressable memory (CAM) table.

Define latency.

Describe store-and forward and cut-through switching modes.

Explain Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP).

Define collisions, broadcasts, collision domains, and broadcast domains.

Identify the Layer 1, 2, and 3 devices used to create collision domains and
broadcast domains.

Discuss data flow and problems with broadcasts.

Explain network segmentation and list the devices used to create segments.
8.1 Ethernet Switching
8.1.1 Layer 2 bridging
As more nodes are added to an Ethernet physical segment, contention for the media
increases. Ethernet is a shared media, which means only one node can transmit data at a time.
The addition of more nodes increases the demands on the available bandwidth and places
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additional loads on the media. By increasing the number of nodes on a single segment, the
probability of collisions increases, resulting in more retransmissions. A solution to the
problem is to break the large segment into parts and separate it into isolated collision
domains.
To accomplish this a bridge keeps a table of MAC addresses and the associated ports.
The bridge then forwards or discards frames based on the table entries. The following steps
illustrate the operation of a bridge:

The bridge has just been started so the bridge table is empty. The bridge just waits
for traffic on the segment. When traffic is detected, it is processed by the bridge.

Host A is pinging Host B. Since the data is transmitted on the entire collision
domain segment, both the bridge and Host B process the packet.

The bridge adds the source address of the frame to its bridge table. Since the
address was in the source address field and the frame was received on port 1, the
frame must be associated with port 1 in the table.

The destination address of the frame is checked against the bridge table. Since the
address is not in the table, even though it is on the same collision domain, the
frame is forwarded to the other segment. The address of Host B has not been
recorded yet as only the source address of a frame is recorded.

Host B processes the ping request and transmits a ping reply back to Host A. The
data is transmitted over the whole collision domain. Both Host A and the bridge
receive the frame and process it.

The bridge adds the source address of the frame to its bridge table. Since the
source address was not in the bridge table and was received on port 1, the source
address of the frame must be associated with port 1in the table. The destination
address of the frame is checked against the bridge table to see if its entry is there.
Since the address is in the table, the port assignment is checked. The address of
Host A is associated with the port the frame came in on, so the frame is not
forwarded.

Host A is now going to ping Host C. Since the data is transmitted on the entire
collision domain segment, both the bridge and Host B process the frame. Host B
discards the frame as it was not the intended destination.

The bridge adds the source address of the frame to its bridge table. Since the
address is already entered into the bridge table the entry is just renewed.

The destination address of the frame is checked against the bridge table to see if its
entry is there. Since the address is not in the table, the frame is forwarded to the
other segment. The address of Host C has not been recorded yet as only the source
address of a frame is recorded.

Host C processes the ping request and transmits a ping reply back to Host A. The
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data is transmitted over the whole collision domain. Both Host D and the bridge
receive the frame and process it. Host D discards the frame, as it was not the
intended destination.

The bridge adds the source address of the frame to its bridge table. Since the
address was in the source address field and the frame was received on port 2, the
frame must be associated with port 2 in the table.

The destination address of the frame is checked against the bridge table to see if its
entry is present. The address is in the table but it is associated with port 1, so the
frame is forwarded to the other segment.

When Host D transmits data, its MAC address will also be recorded in the bridge
table. This is how the bridge controls traffic between to collision domains.
These are the steps that a bridge uses to forward and discard frames that are received on
any of its ports.
8.1.2 Layer 2 switching
Generally, a bridge has only two ports and divides a collision domain into two parts. All
decisions made by a bridge are based on MAC or Layer 2 addressing and do not affect the
logical or Layer 3 addressing. Thus, a bridge will divide a collision domain but has no effect
on a logical or broadcast domain. No matter how many bridges are in a network, unless there
is a device such as a router that works on Layer 3 addressing, the entire network will share the
same logical broadcast address space. A bridge will create more collision domains but will not
add broadcast domains.
A switch is essentially a fast, multi-port bridge, which can contain dozens of ports.
Rather than creating two collision domains, each port creates its own collision domain. In a
network of twenty nodes, twenty collision domains exist if each node is plugged into its own
switch port. If an uplink port is included, one switch creates twenty-one single-node collision
domains. A switch dynamically builds and maintains a Content-Addressable Memory (CAM)
table, holding all of the necessary MAC information for each port.
8.1.3 Switch operation
A switch is simply a bridge with many ports. When only one node is connected to a
switch port, the collision domain on the shared media contains only two nodes. The two nodes
in this small segment, or collision domain, consist of the switch port and the host connected to
it. These small physical segments are called microsegments.
Another capability emerges
when only two nodes are connected. In a network that uses twisted-pair cabling, one pair is
used to carry the transmitted signal from one node to the other node. A separate pair is used
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for the return or received signal. It is possible for signals to pass through both pairs
simultaneously. The capability of communication in both directions at once is known as full
duplex. Most switches are capable of supporting full duplex, as are most network interface
cards (NICs). In full duplex mode, there is no contention for the media. Thus, a collision
domain no longer exists. Theoretically, the bandwidth is doubled when using full duplex.
In addition to faster microprocessors and memory, two other technological advances
made switches possible. Content-addressable memory (CAM) is memory that essentially
works backwards compared to conventional memory. Entering data into the memory will
return the associated address. Using CAM allows a switch to directly find the port that is
associated with a MAC address without using search algorithms. An application-specific
integrated circuit (ASIC) is a device consisting of undedicated logic gates that can be
programmed to perform functions at logic speeds. Operations that might have been done in
software can now be done in hardware using an ASIC. The use of these technologies greatly
reduced the delays caused by software processing and enabled a switch to keep pace with the
data demands of many microsegments and high bit rates.
8.1.4 Latency
Latency is the delay between the time a frame first starts to leave the source device and
the time the first part of the frame reaches its destination. A wide variety of conditions can
cause delays as a frame travels from source to destination:

Media delays caused by the finite speed that signals can travel through the physical
media.

Circuit delays caused by the electronics that process the signal along the path.

Software delays caused by the decisions that software must make to implement
switching and protocols.

Delays caused by the content of the frame and where in the frame switching
decisions can be made. For example, a device cannot route a frame to a destination
until the destination MAC address has been read.
8.1.5 Switch modes
How a frame is switched to the destination port is a trade off between latency and
reliability. A switch can start to transfer the frame as soon as the destination MAC address is
received. Switching at this point is called cut-through switching and results in the lowest
latency through the switch. However, no error checking is available. At the other extreme,
the switch can receive the entire frame before sending it out the destination port. This gives
the switch software an opportunity to verify the Frame Check Sum (FCS) to ensure that the
frame was reliably received before sending it to the destination. If the frame is found to be
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invalid, it is discarded at this switch rather than at the ultimate destination. Since the entire
frame is stored before being forwarded, this mode is called store-and-forward.
A
compromise between the cut-through and store-and-forward modes is the fragment-free mode.
Fragment-free reads the first 64 bytes, which includes the frame header, and switching begins
before the entire data field and checksum are read. This mode verifies the reliability of the
addressing and Logical Link Control (LLC) protocol information to ensure the destination and
handling of the data will be correct.
When using cut-through methods of switching, both the source port and destination port
must be operating at the same bit rate in order to keep the frame intact. This is called
synchronous switching. If the bit rates are not the same, the frame must be stored at one bit
rate before it is sent out at the other bit rate. This is known as asynchronous switching.
Store-and-forward mode must be used for asynchronous switching.
Asymmetric switching provides switched connections between ports of unlike
bandwidths, such as a combination of 100 Mbps and 1000 Mbps. Asymmetric switching is
optimized for client/server traffic flows in which multiple clients simultaneously
communicate with a server, requiring more bandwidth dedicated to the server port to prevent
a bottleneck at that port.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Switch Modes
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the three types of
switch modes.
8.1.6 Spanning-Tree Protocol
When multiple switches are arranged in a simple hierarchical tree, switching loops are
unlikely to occur. However, switched networks are often designed with redundant paths to
provide for reliability and fault tolerance. While redundant paths are desirable, they can
have undesirable side effects. Switching loops are one such side effect. Switching loops can
occur by design or by accident, and they can lead to broadcast storms that will rapidly
overwhelm a network. To counteract the possibility of loops, switches are provided with a
standards-based protocol called the Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP). Each switch in a LAN
using STP sends special messages called Bridge Protocol Data Units (BPDUs) out all its ports
to let other switches know of its existence and to elect a root bridge for the network. The
switches then use the Spanning-Tree Algorithm (STA) to resolve and shut down the redundant
paths.
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Each port on a switch using Spanning-Tree Protocol exists in one of the following five
states:

Blocking

Listening

Learning

Forwarding

Disabled
A port moves through these five states as follows:

From initialization to blocking

From blocking to listening or to disabled

From listening to learning or to disabled

From learning to forwarding or to disabled

From forwarding to disabled
The result of resolving and eliminating loops using STP is to create a logical hierarchical
tree with no loops. However, the alternate paths are still available should they be needed.
Interactive Media Activity
Crossword Puzzle: Spanning Tree States
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the function of
spanning tree states.
8.2 Collision Domains and Broadcast Domains
8.2.1 Shared media environments
Understanding collision domains requires understanding what collisions are and how
they are caused. To help explain collisions, Layer 1 media and topologies are reviewed here.
Some networks are directly connected and all hosts share Layer 1. Examples are listed
in the following:

Shared media environment – Occurs when multiple hosts have access to the same
medium. For example, if several PCs are attached to the same physical wire,
optical fiber, or share the same airspace, they all share the same media
environment.

Extended shared media environment – Is a special type of shared media
environment in which networking devices can extend the environment so that it
can accommodate multiple access or longer cable distances.
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Point-to-point network environment – Is widely used in dialup network
connections and is the most familiar to the home user. It is a shared networking
environment in which one device is connected to only one other device, such as
connecting a computer to an Internet service provider by modem and a phone line.
It is important to be able to identify a shared media environment, because collisions only
occur in a shared environment. A highway system is an example of a shared environment in
which collisions can occur because multiple vehicles are using the same roads. As more
vehicles enter the system, collisions become more likely. A shared data network is much like a
highway. Rules exist to determine who has access to the network medium, but sometimes the
rules simply cannot handle the traffic load and collisions occur.
8.2.2 Collision domains
Collision domains are the connected physical network segments where collisions can
occur. Collisions cause the network to be inefficient. Every time a collision happens on a
network, all transmission stops for a period of time. The length of this period of time without
transmissions varies and is determined by a backoff algorithm for each network device.
The types of devices that interconnect the media segments define collision domains.
These devices have been classified as OSI Layer 1, 2 or 3 devices. Layer 1 devices do not
break up collision domains, Layer 2 and Layer 3 devices do break up collision domains.
Breaking up, or increasing the number of collision domains with Layer 2 and 3 devices is also
known as segmentation.
Layer 1 devices, such as repeaters and hubs, serve the primary function of extending the
Ethernet cable segments. By extending the network more hosts can be added. However,
every host that is added increases the amount of potential traffic on the network. Since Layer
1 devices pass on everything that is sent on the media, the more traffic that is transmitted
within a collision domain, the greater the chances of collisions. The final result is diminished
network performance, which will be even more pronounced if all the computers on that
network are demanding large amounts of bandwidth. Simply put, Layer 1 devices extend
collision domains, but the length of a LAN can also be overextended and cause other collision
issues.
The four repeater rule in Ethernet states that no more than four repeaters or repeating
hubs can be between any two computers on the network.
To assure that a repeated
10BASE-T network will function properly, the round-trip delay calculation must be within
certain limits otherwise all the workstations will not be able to hear all the collisions on the
network. Repeater latency, propagation delay, and NIC latency all contribute to the four
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repeater rule.
Exceeding the four repeater rule can lead to violating the maximum delay
limit. When this delay limit is exceeded, the number of late collisions dramatically increases.
A late collision is when a collision happens after the first 64 bytes of the frame are transmitted.
The chipsets in NICs are not required to retransmit automatically when a late collision occurs.
These late collision frames add delay that is referred to as consumption delay. As
consumption delay and latency increase, network performance decreases.
The 5-4-3-2-1 rule requires that the following guidelines should not be exceeded:

Five segments of network media

Four repeaters or hubs

Three host segments of the network

Two link sections (no hosts)

One large collision domain
The 5-4-3-2-1 rule also provides guidelines to keep round-trip delay time in a shared
network within acceptable limits.
8.2.3 Segmentation
The history of how Ethernet handles collisions and collision domains dates back to
research at the University of Hawaii in 1970. In its attempts to develop a wireless
communication system for the islands of Hawaii, university researchers developed a protocol
called Aloha. The Ethernet protocol is actually based on the Aloha protocol.
One important skill for a networking professional is the ability to recognize collision
domains.
Connecting several computers to a single shared-access medium that has no other
networking devices attached creates a collision domain. This situation limits the number of
computers that can use the medium, also called a segment. Layer 1 devices extend but do not
control collision domains.
Layer 2 devices segment or divide collision domains. Controlling frame propagation
using the MAC address assigned to every Ethernet device performs this function. Layer 2
devices, bridges, and switches, keep track of the MAC addresses and which segment they are
on. By doing this these devices can control the flow of traffic at the Layer 2 level. This
function makes networks more efficient by allowing data to be transmitted on different
segments of the LAN at the same time without the frames colliding. By using bridges and
switches, the collision domain is effectively broken up into smaller parts, each becoming its
own collision domain.
These smaller collision domains will have fewer hosts and less traffic than the original
domain. The fewer hosts that exist in a collision domain, the more likely the media will be
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available. As long as the traffic between bridged segments is not too heavy a bridged network
works well. Otherwise, the Layer 2 device can actually slow down communication and
become a bottleneck itself.
Layer 3 devices, like Layer 2 devices, do not forward collisions. Because of this, the use
of Layer 3 devices in a network has the effect of breaking up collision domains into smaller
domains.
Layer 3 devices perform more functions than just breaking up a collision domain. Layer
3 devices and their functions will be covered in more depth in the section on broadcast
domains.
Interactive Media Activity
Fill in the blank: Segmentation
After completing this activity, the student will learn about segmentation of a network.
8.2.4 Layer 2 broadcasts
To communicate with all collision domains, protocols use broadcast and multicast
frames at Layer 2 of the OSI model. When a node needs to communicate with all hosts on
the network, it sends a broadcast frame with a destination MAC address 0xFFFFFFFFFFFF.
This is an address to which the network interface card (NIC) of every host must respond.
Layer 2 devices must flood all broadcast and multicast traffic. The accumulation of
broadcast and multicast traffic from each device in the network is referred to as broadcast
radiation. In some cases, the circulation of broadcast radiation can saturate the network so that
there is no bandwidth left for application data. In this case, new network connections cannot
be established, and existing connections may be dropped, a situation known as a broadcast
storm. The probability of broadcast storms increases as the switched network grows.
Because the NIC must interrupt the CPU to process each broadcast or multicast group it
belongs to, broadcast radiation affects the performance of hosts in the network. Figure
shows the results of tests that Cisco conducted on the effect of broadcast radiation on the CPU
performance of a Sun SPARCstation 2 with a standard built-in Ethernet card. As indicated by
the results shown, an IP workstation can be effectively shut down by broadcasts flooding the
network. Although extreme, broadcast peaks of thousands of broadcasts per second have been
observed during broadcast storms. Testing in a controlled environment with a range of
broadcasts and multicasts on the network shows measurable system degradation with as few
as 100 broadcasts or multicasts per second.
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Most often, the host does not benefit from processing the broadcast, as it is not the
destination being sought. The host does not care about the service that is being advertised, or
it already knows about the service. High levels of broadcast radiation can noticeably degrade
host performance. The three sources of broadcasts and multicasts in IP networks are
workstations, routers, and multicast applications.
Workstations broadcast an Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) request every time they
need to locate a MAC address that is not in the ARP table. Although the numbers in Figure
might appear low, they represent an average, well-designed IP network. When broadcast and
multicast traffic peak due to storm behavior, peak CPU loss can be orders of magnitude
greater than average. Broadcast storms can be caused by a device requesting information from
a network that has grown too large. So many responses are sent to the original request that the
device cannot process them, or the first request triggers similar requests from other devices
that effectively block normal traffic flow on the network.
As an example, the command telnet mumble.com translates into an IP address through a
Domain Name System (DNS) search. To locate the corresponding MAC address an ARP
request is broadcast. Generally, IP workstations cache 10 to 100 addresses in their ARP tables
for about two hours. The ARP rate for a typical workstation might be about 50 addresses
every two hours or 0.007 ARPs per second. Thus, 2000 IP end stations produce about 14
ARPs per second.
The routing protocols that are configured on a network can increase broadcast traffic
significantly. Some administrators configure all workstations to run Routing Information
Protocol (RIP) as a redundancy and reachability policy. Every 30 seconds, RIPv1 uses
broadcasts to retransmit the entire RIP routing table to other RIP routers. If 2000 workstations
were configured to run RIP and, on average, 50 packets were required to transmit the routing
table, the workstations would generate 3333 broadcasts per second. Most network
administrators only configure a small number of routers, usually five to ten, to run RIP. For a
routing table that has a size of 50 packets, 10 RIP routers would generate about 16 broadcasts
per second.
IP multicast applications can adversely affect the performance of large, scaled, switched
networks. Although multicasting is an efficient way to send a stream of multimedia data to
many users on a shared-media hub, it affects every user on a flat switched network. A
particular packet video application can generate a seven megabyte (MB) stream of multicast
data that, in a switched network, would be sent to every segment, resulting in severe
congestion.
8.2.5 Broadcast domains
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A broadcast domain is a grouping of collision domains that are connected by Layer 2
devices.
Breaking up a LAN into multiple collision domains increases the opportunity for
each host in the network to gain access to the media. This effectively reduces the chance of
collisions and increases available bandwidth for every host. But broadcasts are forwarded by
Layer 2 devices and if excessive, can reduce the efficiency of the entire LAN. Broadcasts
have to be controlled at Layer 3, as Layer 2 and Layer 1 devices have no way of controlling
them. The total size of a broadcast domain can be identified by looking at all of the collision
domains that the same broadcast frame is processed by. In other words, all the nodes that are a
part of that network segment bounded by a layer three device. Broadcast domains are
controlled at Layer 3 because routers do not forward broadcasts. Routers actually work at
Layers 1, 2, and 3. They, like all Layer 1 devices, have a physical connection to, and transmit
data onto, the media. They have a Layer 2 encapsulation on all interfaces and perform just
like any other Layer 2 device. It is Layer 3 that allows the router to segment broadcast
domains.
In order for a packet to be forwarded through a router it must have already been
processed by a Layer 2 device and the frame information stripped off. Layer 3 forwarding is
based on the destination IP address and not the MAC address. For a packet to be forwarded it
must contain an IP address that is outside of the range of addresses assigned to the LAN and
the router must have a destination to send the specific packet to in its routing table.
8.2.6 Introduction to data flow
Data flow in the context of collision and broadcast domains focuses on how data frames
propagate through a network. It refers to the movement of data through Layer 1, 2 and 3
devices and how data must be encapsulated to effectively make that journey. Remember that
data is encapsulated at the network layer with an IP source and destination address, and at the
data-link layer with a MAC source and destination address.
A good rule to follow is that a Layer 1 device always forwards the frame, while a Layer
2 device wants to forward the frame. In other words, a Layer 2 device will forward the frame
unless something prevents it from doing so. A Layer 3 device will not forward the frame
unless it has to. Using this rule will help identify how data flows through a network.
Layer 1 devices do no filtering, so everything that is received is passed on to the next
segment. The frame is simply regenerated and retimed and thus returned to its original
transmission quality. Any segments connected by Layer 1 devices are part of the same domain,
both collision and broadcast.
Layer 2 devices filter data frames based on the destination MAC address. A frame is
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forwarded if it is going to an unknown destination outside the collision domain. The frame
will also be forwarded if it is a broadcast, multicast, or a unicast going outside of the local
collision domain. The only time that a frame is not forwarded is when the Layer 2 device
finds that the sending host and the receiving host are in the same collision domain. A Layer 2
device, such as a bridge, creates multiple collision domains but maintains only one broadcast
domain.
Layer 3 devices filter data packets based on IP destination address. The only way that a
packet will be forwarded is if its destination IP address is outside of the broadcast domain and
the router has an identified location to send the packet. A Layer 3 device creates multiple
collision and broadcast domains.
Data flow through a routed IP based network, involves data moving across traffic
management devices at Layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI model. Layer 1 is used for transmission
across the physical media, Layer 2 for collision domain management, and Layer 3 for
broadcast domain management.
8.2.7 What is a network segment?
As with many terms and acronyms, segment has multiple meanings. The dictionary
definition of the term is as follows:

A separate piece of something

One of the parts into which an entity, or quantity is divided or marked off by or as
if by natural boundaries
In the context of data communication, the following definitions are used:

Section of a network that is bounded by bridges, routers, or switches.

In a LAN using a bus topology, a segment is a continuous electrical circuit that is
often connected to other such segments with repeaters.

Term used in the TCP specification to describe a single transport layer unit of
information. The terms datagram, frame, message, and packet are also used to
describe logical information groupings at various layers of the OSI reference
model and in various technology circles.
To properly define the term segment, the context of the usage must be presented with the
word. If segment is used in the context of TCP, it would be defined as a separate piece of the
data. If segment is being used in the context of physical networking media in a routed
network, it would be seen as one of the parts or sections of the total network.
Interactive Media Activity
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Point and Click: Types of Segments
After completing this activity, the student will understand the various meanings of the
term segment.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

Bridging and switching evolution

Content-addressable memory (CAM)

Bridging latency

Store-and-forward and cut-through switching modes

Spanning-Tree Protocol (STP)

Collisions, broadcasts, collision domains, and broadcast domains

The Layer 1, 2, and 3 devices used to create collision domains and broadcast
domains

Data flow and problems with broadcasts

Network segmentation and the devices used to create segments
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Chapter 9
TCP/IP Protocol Suite and IP Addressing
Overview
The Internet was developed to provide a communication network that could continue to
function in wartime. Although the Internet has evolved in ways very different from those
imagined by its architects, it is still based on the TCP/IP protocol suite. The design of TCP/IP
is ideal for the decentralized and robust network that is the Internet. Many protocols used
today were designed using the four-layer TCP/IP model.
It is useful to know both the TCP/IP and OSI networking models. Each model offers its
own structure for explaining how a network works but there is much overlap between the two.
Without an understanding of both, a system administrator may not have sufficient insight into
why a network functions the way it does.
Any device on the Internet that wants to communicate with other Internet devices must
have a unique identifier. The identifier is known as the IP address because routers use a layer
three protocol, the IP protocol, to find the best route to that device. IPv4, the current version
of IP, was designed before there was a large demand for addresses. Explosive growth of the
Internet has threatened to deplete the supply of IP addresses. Subnetting, Network Address
Translation (NAT) and private addressing are used to extend IP addressing without exhausting
the supply. Another version of IP known as IPv6 improves on the current version providing a
much larger address space, integrating or eliminating the methods used to work with the
shortcomings of IPv4.
In addition to the physical MAC address, each computer needs a unique IP address,
sometimes called logical address, to be part of the Internet. There are several methods of
assigning an IP address to a device. Some devices always have a static address, while others
have a temporary address assigned to them every time they connect to the network. When a
dynamically assigned IP address is needed, the device can obtain it using several methods.
For efficient routing to occur between devices, other issues must be resolved. For
example, duplicate IP addresses can stop efficient routing of data.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Explain why the Internet was developed and how TCP/IP fits the design of the
Internet.

List the four layers of the TCP/IP model.

Describe the functions of each layer of the TCP/IP model.
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
Compare the OSI model and the TCP/IP model.

Describe the function and structure of IP addresses.

Understand why subnetting is necessary.

Explain the difference between public and private addressing.

Understand the function of reserved IP addresses.

Explain the use of static and dynamic addressing for a device.

Understand how dynamic addressing can be done using RARP, BootP and DHCP.

Use ARP to obtain the MAC address to send a packet to another device.

Understand the issues related to addressing between networks.
9.1 Introduction to TCP/IP
9.1.1 History and future of TCP/IP
The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model because it
wanted a network that could survive any conditions. To illustrate further, imagine a world,
crossed by multiple cable runs, wires, microwaves, optical fibers, and satellite links. Then
imagine a need for data to be transmitted without regard for the condition of any particular
node or network. The DoD required reliable data transmission to any destination on the
network under any circumstance. The creation of the TCP/IP model helped to solve this
difficult design problem. The TCP/IP model has since become the standard on which the
Internet is based.
In reading about the layers of the TCP/IP model layers, keep in mind the original intent
of the Internet. Remembering the intent will help reduce confusion. The TCP/IP model has
four layers: the application layer, transport layer, Internet layer, and the network access layer.
Some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the OSI model. It is
critical not to confuse the layer functions of the two models because the layers include
different functions in each model.
The present version of TCP/IP was standardized in September of 1981. As shown in
Figure , IPv4 addresses are 32 bits long, written in dotted decimal, and separated by periods.
IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, written in hexadecimal, and separated by colons. Colons
separate 16-bit fields. Leading zeros can be omitted in each field as can be seen in the Figure
where the field :0003: is written :3:. In 1992 the standardization of a new generation of IP,
often called IPng, was supported by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). IPng is now
known as IPv6. IPv6 has not gained wide implementation, but it has been released by most
vendors of networking equipment and will eventually become the dominant standard.
9.1.2 Application layer
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The application layer of the TCP/IP model handles high-level protocols, issues of
representation, encoding, and dialog control. The TCP/IP protocol suite combines all
application related issues into one layer and assures this data is properly packaged before
passing it on to the next layer. TCP/IP includes not only Internet and transport layer
specifications, such as IP and TCP, but also specifications for common applications. TCP/IP
has protocols to support file transfer, e-mail, and remote login, in addition to the following
applications:

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – FTP is a reliable, connection-oriented service that
uses TCP to transfer files between systems that support FTP. It supports
bi-directional binary file and ASCII file transfers.

Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) – TFTP is a connectionless service that uses
the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TFTP is used on the router to transfer
configuration files and Cisco IOS images, and to transfer files between systems
that support TFTP. It is useful in some LANs because it operates faster than FTP in
a stable environment.

Network File System (NFS) – NFS is a distributed file system protocol suite
developed by Sun Microsystems that allows file access to a remote storage device
such as a hard disk across a network.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) – SMTP administers the transmission of
e-mail over computer networks. It does not provide support for transmission of
data other than plaintext.

Terminal emulation (Telnet) – Telnet provides the capability to remotely access
another computer. It enables a user to log in to an Internet host and execute
commands. A Telnet client is referred to as a local host. A Telnet server is referred
to as a remote host.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) – SNMP is a protocol that
provides a way to monitor and control network devices, and to manage
configurations, statistics collection, performance, and security.

Domain Name System (DNS) – DNS is a system used on the Internet for
translating names of domains and their publicly advertised network nodes into IP
addresses.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: The Application Layer
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the protocols used in
the application layer.
9.1.3 Transport layer
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The transport layer provides transport services from the source host to the destination
host. The transport layer constitutes a logical connection between the endpoints of the
network, the sending host and the receiving host.
Transport protocols segment and
reassemble upper-layer applications into the same data stream between endpoints. The
transport layer data stream provides end-to-end transport services.
The Internet is often represented by a cloud. The transport layer sends data packets from
the sending source to the receiving destination through the cloud. End-to-end control,
provided by sliding windows and reliability in sequencing numbers and acknowledgments, is
the primary duty of the transport layer when using TCP. The transport layer also defines
end-to-end connectivity between host applications. Transport services include all the
following services:
TCP and UDP

Segmenting upper-layer application data

Sending segments from one end device to another end device
TCP only

Establishing end-to-end operations

Flow control provided by sliding windows

Reliability provided by sequence numbers and acknowledgments
The Internet is often represented by a cloud. The transport layer sends data packets from
the sending source to the receiving destination through the cloud. The cloud deals with
issues such as “Which of several paths is best for a given route?”
Interactive Media Activity
Checkbox: The Transport Layer
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the protocols used in
the transport layer.
9.1.4 Internet layer
The purpose of the Internet layer is to select the best path through the network for
packets to travel. The main protocol that functions at this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP).
Best path determination and packet switching occur at this layer.
The following protocols operate at the TCP/IP Internet layer:

IP provides connectionless, best-effort delivery routing of packets. IP is not
concerned with the content of the packets but looks for a path to the destination.
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
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) provides control and messaging
capabilities.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) determines the data link layer address, MAC
address, for known IP addresses.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) determines IP addresses when the
MAC address is known.
IP performs the following operations:

Defines a packet and an addressing scheme

Transfers data between the Internet layer and network access layers

Routes packets to remote hosts
Finally, as a clarification of terminology, IP is sometimes referred to as an unreliable
protocol. This does not mean that IP will not accurately deliver data across a network. Calling
IP an unreliable protocol simply means that IP does not perform error checking and correction.
That function is handled by upper layer protocols from the transport or application layers.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: The Internet Layer
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the protocols used in
the Internet layer.
9.1.5 Network access layer
The network access layer is also called the host-to-network layer. The network access
layer is the layer that is concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet requires to actually
make a physical link to the network media. It includes the LAN and WAN technology details,
and all the details contained in the OSI physical and data-link layers.
Drivers for software applications, modem cards and other devices operate at the network
access layer. The network access layer defines the procedures for interfacing with the network
hardware and accessing the transmission medium. Modem protocol standards such as Serial
Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) provide network access
through a modem connection. Because of an intricate interplay of hardware, software, and
transmission-medium specifications, there are many protocols operating at this layer. This can
lead to confusion for users. Most of the recognizable protocols operate at the transport and
Internet layers of the TCP/IP model.
Network access layer functions include mapping IP addresses to physical hardware
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addresses and encapsulation of IP packets into frames. Based upon the hardware type and the
network interface, the network access layer will define the connection with the physical
network media.
A good example of network access layer configuration would be to set up a Windows
system using a third party NIC. Depending on the version of Windows, the NIC would
automatically be detected by the operating system and then the proper drivers would be
installed. If this were an older version of Windows, the user would have to specify the
network card driver. The card manufacturer supplies these drivers on disks or CD-ROMs.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: The Network Access Layer
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the protocols used in
the network access layer.
9.1.6 Comparing the OSI model and the TCP/IP model
The following is a comparison of the OSI model and the TCP/IP model noting the
similarities and differences:
Similarities of the OSI and TCP/IP models:

Both have layers

Both have application layers, though they include very different services

Both have comparable transport and network layers

Packet-switched, not circuit-switched, technology is assumed

Networking professionals need to know both models
Differences of the OSI and TCP/IP models:

TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer into its application layer

TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer

TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers

TCP/IP transport layer using UDP does not always guarantee reliable delivery of
packets as the transport layer in the OSI model does
The Internet is developed by the standards of the TCP/IP protocols. The TCP/IP model
gains credibility because of its protocols. In contrast, networks typically are not built on the
OSI protocol. The OSI model is used as a guide for understanding the communication
process.
Interactive Media Activity
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Drag and Drop: Comparing the TCP/IP and OSI Model
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the differences
between the TCP/IP model and OSI model.
9.1.7 Internet architecture
While the Internet is complex, there are some basic ideas in its operation. In this section
the basic architecture of the Internet will be examined. The Internet is a deceptively simple
idea, that when repeated on a large scale, enables nearly instantaneous worldwide data
communications between anyone, anywhere, at any time.
LANs are smaller networks limited in geographic area. Many LANs connected together
allow the Internet to function. But LANs have limitations in scale. Although there have been
technological advances to improve the speed of communications, such as Metro Optical,
Gigabit, and 10-Gigabit Ethernet, distance is still a problem.
Focusing on the communication between the source and destination computer and
intermediate computers at the application layer is one way to get an overview of the Internet
architecture. Placing identical instances of an application on all the computers in the network
could ease the delivery of messages across the large network. However, this does not scale
well. For new software to function properly, it would require new applications installed on
every computer in the network. For new hardware to function properly, it would require
modifying the software. Any failure of an intermediate computer or the application of the
computer would cause a break in the chain of the messages that are passed.
The Internet uses the principle of network layer interconnection. Using the OSI model as
an example, the goal is to build the functionality of the network in independent modules. This
allows a diversity of LAN technologies at Layers 1 and 2 and a diversity of applications
functioning at Layers 5, 6, and 7. The OSI model provides a mechanism where the details of
the lower and the upper layers are separated. This allows intermediate networking devices to
“relay” traffic without having to bother with the details of the LAN.
This leads to the concept of internetworking, or building networks of networks. A
network of networks is called an internet, indicated with the lowercase “i”. When referring to
the networks that developed from the DoD on which the Worldwide Web (www) runs, the
uppercase “I” is used and is called the Internet. Internetworking must be scalable with regard
to the number of networks and computers attached. Internetworking must be able to handle
the transport of data across vast distances. It must be flexible to account for constant
technological innovations. It must be able to adjust to dynamic conditions on the network.
And internetworks must be cost-effective. Internetworks must be designed to permit anytime,
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anywhere, data communications to anyone.
Figure
summarizes the connection of one physical network to another through a
special purpose computer called a router. These networks are described as directly connected
to the router. The router is needed to handle any path decisions required for the two networks
to communicate. Many routers are needed to handle large volumes of network traffic.
Figure
extends the idea to three physical networks connected by two routers. Routers
make complex decisions to allow all the users on all the networks to communicate with each
other. Not all networks are directly connected to one another. The router must have some
method to handle this situation.
One option is for a router to keep a list of all computers and all the paths to them. The
router would then decide how to forward data packets based on this reference table. The
forwarding is based on the IP address of the destination computer. This option would become
difficult as the number of users grows. Scalability is introduced when the router keeps a list of
all networks, but leaves the local delivery details to the local physical networks. In this
situation, the routers pass messages to other routers. Each router shares information about
which networks it is connected to. This builds the routing table.
Figure
shows the transparency that users require. Yet, the physical and logical
structures inside the Internet cloud can be extremely complex as displayed in Figure . The
Internet has grown rapidly to allow more and more users. The fact that the Internet has grown
so large with more than 90,000 core routes and 300,000,000 end users is proof of the
soundness of the Internet architecture.
Two computers, anywhere in the world, following certain hardware, software, and
protocol specifications, can communicate reliably. Standardization of practices and
procedures for moving data across networks has made the Internet possible.
9.2
Internet Addresses
9.2.1 IP addressing
For any two systems to communicate, they must be able to identify and locate each other.
While these addresses in Figure
are not actual network addresses, they represent and show
the concept of address grouping. This uses the A or B to identify the network and the number
sequence to identify the individual host.
A computer may be connected to more than one network. In this situation, the system
must be given more than one address. Each address will identify the connection of the
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computer to a different network. A device is not said to have an address, but that each of the
connection points, or interfaces, on that device has an address to a network. This will allow
other computers to locate the device on that particular network. The combination of letter
(network address) and the number (host address) create a unique address for each device on
the network. Each computer in a TCP/IP network must be given a unique identifier, or IP
address. This address, operating at Layer 3, allows one computer to locate another computer
on a network. All computers also have a unique physical address, known as a MAC address.
These are assigned by the manufacturer of the network interface card. MAC addresses operate
at Layer 2 of the OSI model.
An IP address is a 32-bit sequence of 1s and 0s. Figure shows a sample 32-bit number.
To make the IP address easier to use, the address is usually written as four decimal numbers
separated by periods. For example, an IP address of one computer is 192.168.1.2. Another
computer might have the address 128.10.2.1. This way of writing the address is called the
dotted decimal format. In this notation, each IP address is written as four parts separated by
periods, or dots. Each part of the address is called an octet because it is made up of eight
binary
digits.
For
example,
the
IP
address
192.168.1.8
would
be
11000000.10101000.00000001.00001000 in binary notation. The dotted decimal notation is
an easier method to understand than the binary ones and zeros method. This dotted decimal
notation also prevents a large number of transposition errors that would result if only the
binary numbers were used.
Using dotted decimal allows number patterns to be more easily understood. Both the
binary and decimal numbers in Figure represent the same values, but it is easier to see in
dotted decimal notation. This is one of the common problems found in working directly with
binary number. The long strings of repeated ones and zeros make transposition and omission
errors more likely.
It is easy to see the relationship between the numbers 192.168.1.8 and 192.168.1.9,
where
11000000.10101000.00000001.00001000
and
11000000.10101000.00000001.00001001 are not as easy to recognize. Looking at the binary,
it is almost impossible to see that they are consecutive numbers.
9.2.2 Decimal and binary conversion
There are many ways to solve a problem. There are also several ways to convert decimal
numbers to binary numbers. One method is presented here, however it is not the only method.
The student may find other methods easier. It is a matter of personal preference.
When converting a decimal number to binary, the biggest power of two that will fit into
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If this process is designed to be working with
computers, the most logical place to start is with the largest values that will fit into a byte or
two bytes. As mentioned earlier, the most common grouping of bits is eight, which make up
one byte. However, sometimes the largest value that can be held in one byte is not large
enough for the values needed. To accommodate this, bytes are combined. Instead of having
two eight-bit numbers, one 16-bit number is created. Instead of three eight-bit numbers, one
24-bit number is created. The same rules apply as they did for eight-bit numbers. Multiply the
previous position value by two to get the present column value.
Since working with computers often is referenced by bytes it is easiest to start with byte
boundaries and calculate from there.
Start by calculating a couple of examples, the first
being 6,783. Since this number is greater than 255, the largest value possible in a single byte,
two bytes will be used. Start calculating from 215. The binary equivalent of 6,783 is
00011010 01111111.
The second example is 104. Since this number is less than 255, it can be represented by
one byte. The binary equivalent of 104 is 01101000.
This method works for any decimal number. Consider the decimal number one million.
Since one million is greater than the largest value that can be held in two bytes, 65535, at least
three bytes will be needed. By multiplying by two until 24 bits, three bytes, is reached, the
value will be 8,388,608. This means that the largest value that 24 bits can hold is 16,777,215.
So starting at the 24-bit, follow the process until zero is reached. Continuing with the
procedure described, it is determined that the decimal number one million is equal to the
binary number 00001111 01000010 01000000.
Figure
includes some decimal to binary conversion exercises.
Binary to decimal conversion is just the opposite. Simply place the binary in the table
and if there is a one in a column position add that value into the total. Convert 00000100
00011101 to decimal. The answer is 1053.
Figure
includes some decimal to binary conversion exercises.
9.2.3 IPv4 addressing
A router forwards packets from the originating network to the destination network using
the IP protocol. The packets must include an identifier for both the source and destination
networks.
Using the IP address of destination network, a router can deliver a packet to the
correct network. When the packet arrives at a router connected to the destination network, the
router uses the IP address to locate the particular computer connected to that network. This
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system works in much the same way as the national postal system. When the mail is routed, it
must first be delivered to the post office at the destination city using the zip code. That post
office then must locate the final destination in that city using the street address. This is a
two-step process.
Accordingly, every IP address has two parts.
One part identifies the network where the
system is connected, and a second part identifies that particular system on the network. As is
shown Figure , each octet ranges from 0 to 255. Each one of the octets breaks down into 256
subgroups and they break down into another 256 subgroups with 256 addresses in each. By
referring to the group address directly above a group in the hierarchy, all of the groups that
branch from that address can be referenced as a single unit.
This kind of address is called a hierarchical address, because it contains different levels.
An IP address combines these two identifiers into one number. This number must be a unique
number, because duplicate addresses would make routing impossible. The first part identifies
the system's network address. The second part, called the host part, identifies which particular
machine it is on the network.
IP addresses are divided into classes to define the large, medium, and small networks.
Class A addresses are assigned to larger networks. Class B addresses are used for
medium-sized networks, and Class C for small networks.
The first step in determining
which part of the address identifies the network and which part identifies the host is
identifying the class of an IP address.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Identifying Address Classes
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify all the details within
the different internet address classes.
9.2.4 Class A, B, C, D, and E IP addresses
To accommodate different size networks and aid in classifying these networks, IP
addresses are divided into groups called classes. This is known as classful addressing. Each
complete 32-bit IP address is broken down into a network part and a host part. A bit or bit
sequence at the start of each address determines the class of the address. There are five IP
address classes as shown in Figure .
The Class A address was designed to support extremely large networks, with more than
16 million host addresses available.
Class A IP addresses use only the first octet to indicate
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the network address. The remaining three octets provide for host addresses.
The first bit of a Class A address is always 0. With that first bit a 0, the lowest number
that can be represented is 00000000, decimal 0. The highest number that can be represented is
01111111, decimal 127. The numbers 0 and 127 are reserved and cannot be used as network
addresses. Any address that starts with a value between 1 and 126 in the first octet is a Class A
address.
The 127.0.0.0 network is reserved for loopback testing. Routers or local machines can
use this address to send packets back to themselves. Therefore, this number cannot be
assigned to a network.
The Class B address was designed to support the needs of moderate to large-sized
networks.
A Class B IP address uses the first two of the four octets to indicate the network
address. The other two octets specify host addresses.
The first two bits of the first octet of a Class B address are always 10. The remaining six
bits may be populated with either 1s or 0s. Therefore, the lowest number that can be
represented with a Class B address is 10000000, decimal 128. The highest number that can be
represented is 10111111, decimal 191. Any address that starts with a value in the range of 128
to 191 in the first octet is a Class B address.
The Class C address space is the most commonly used of the original address classes.
This address space was intended to support small networks with a maximum of 254 hosts.
A Class C address begins with binary 110. Therefore, the lowest number that can be
represented is 11000000, decimal 192. The highest number that can be represented is
11011111, decimal 223. If an address contains a number in the range of 192 to 223 in the first
octet, it is a Class C address.
The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP address. A
multicast address is a unique network address that directs packets with that destination
address to predefined groups of IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously
transmit a single stream of data to multiple recipients.
The Class D address space, much like the other address spaces, is mathematically
constrained. The first four bits of a Class D address must be 1110. Therefore, the first octet
range for Class D addresses is 11100000 to 11101111, or 224 to 239. An IP address that starts
with a value in the range of 224 to 239 in the first octet is a Class D address.
A Class E address has been defined. However, the Internet Engineering Task Force
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(IETF) reserves these addresses for its own research. Therefore, no Class E addresses have
been released for use in the Internet. The first four bits of a Class E address are always set to
1s. Therefore, the first octet range for Class E addresses is 11110000 to 11111111, or 240 to
255.
Figure
shows the IP address range of the first octet both in decimal and binary for each
IP address class.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: IP Addressing Basics
This lab is to name the five different classes of IP addresses and to describe the
characteristics and use of the different IP address classes.
9.2.5 Reserved IP addresses
Certain host addresses are reserved and cannot be assigned to devices on a network.
These reserved host addresses include the following:

Network address – Used to identify the network itself
In Figure , the section that is identified by the upper box represents the
198.150.11.0 network. Data that is sent to any host on that network (198.150.11.1198.150.11.254) will be seen outside of the local area network as 198.159.11.0.
The only time that the host numbers matter is when the data is on the local area
network. The LAN that is contained in the lower box is treated the same as the
upper LAN, except that its network number is 198.150.12.0.

Broadcast address – Used for broadcasting packets to all the devices on a network
In Figure , the section that is identified by the upper box represents the
198.150.11.255 broadcast address. Data that is sent to the broadcast address will be
read by all hosts on that network (198.150.11.1- 198.150.11.254). The LAN that is
contained in the lower box is treated the same as the upper LAN, except that its
broadcast address is 198.150.12.255.
An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is reserved for the network
address. In a Class A network example, 113.0.0.0 is the IP address of the network, known as
the network ID, containing the host 113.1.2.3. A router uses the network IP address when it
forwards data on the Internet. In a Class B network example, the address 176.10.0.0 is a
network address, as shown in Figure .
In a Class B network address, the first two octets are designated as the network portion.
The last two octets contain 0s because those 16 bits are for host numbers and are used to
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identify devices that are attached to the network. The IP address, 176.10.0.0, is an example of
a network address. This address is never assigned as a host address. A host address for a
device on the 176.10.0.0 network might be 176.10.16.1. In this example, “176.10” is the
network portion and “16.1” is the host portion.
To send data to all the devices on a network, a broadcast address is needed.
A
broadcast occurs when a source sends data to all devices on a network. To ensure that all the
other devices on the network process the broadcast, the sender must use a destination IP
address that they can recognize and process. Broadcast IP addresses end with binary 1s in the
entire host part of the address.
In the network example, 176.10.0.0, the last 16 bits make up the host field or host part of
the address. The broadcast that would be sent out to all devices on that network would
include a destination address of 176.10.255.255. This is because 255 is the decimal value of
an octet containing 11111111.
9.2.6 Public and private IP addresses
The stability of the Internet depends directly on the uniqueness of publicly used network
addresses. In Figure , there is an issue with the network addressing scheme. In looking at the
networks, both have a network address of 198.150.11.0. The router in this illustration will not
be able to forward the data packets correctly. Duplicate network IP addresses prevent the
router from performing its job of best path selection. Unique addresses are required for each
device on a network.
A procedure was needed to make sure that addresses were in fact unique. Originally, an
organization known as the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) handled this
procedure. InterNIC no longer exists and has been succeeded by the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA). IANA carefully manages the remaining supply of IP addresses to
ensure that duplication of publicly used addresses does not occur. Duplication would cause
instability in the Internet and compromise its ability to deliver datagrams to networks.
Public IP addresses are unique. No two machines that connect to a public network can
have the same IP address because public IP addresses are global and standardized. All
machines connected to the Internet agree to conform to the system. Public IP addresses must
be obtained from an Internet service provider (ISP) or a registry at some expense.
With the rapid growth of the Internet, public IP addresses were beginning to run out.
New addressing schemes, such as classless interdomain routing (CIDR) and IPv6 were
developed to help solve the problem. CIDR and IPv6 are discussed later in the course.
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Private IP addresses are another solution to the problem of the impending exhaustion of
public IP addresses. As mentioned, public networks require hosts to have unique IP addresses.
However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet may use any host addresses,
as long as each host within the private network is unique. Many private networks exist
alongside public networks. However, a private network using just any address is strongly
discouraged because that network might eventually be connected to the Internet. RFC 1918
sets aside three blocks of IP addresses for private, internal use. These three blocks consist of
one Class A, a range of Class B addresses, and a range of Class C addresses. Addresses that
fall within these ranges are not routed on the Internet backbone. Internet routers immediately
discard private addresses. If addressing a nonpublic intranet, a test lab, or a home network,
these private addresses can be used instead of globally unique addresses.
Private IP
addresses can be intermixed, as shown in the graphic, with public IP addresses. This will
conserve the number of addresses used for internal connections.
Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet requires translation of the
private addresses to public addresses. This translation process is referred to as Network
Address Translation (NAT). A router usually is the device that performs NAT. NAT, along
with CIDR and IPv6 are covered in more depth later in the curriculum.
9.2.7 Introduction to subnetting
Subnetting is another method of managing IP addresses. This method of dividing full
network address classes into smaller pieces has prevented complete IP address exhaustion. It
is impossible to cover TCP/IP without mentioning subnetting. As a system administrator it is
important to understand subnetting as a means of dividing and identifying separate networks
throughout the LAN. It is not always necessary to subnet a small network. However, for large
or extremely large networks, subnetting is required. Subnetting a network means to use the
subnet mask to divide the network and break a large network up into smaller, more efficient
and manageable segments, or subnets. An example would be the U.S. telephone system which
is broken into area codes, exchange codes, and local numbers.
The system administrator must resolve these issues when adding and expanding the
network. It is important to know how many subnets or networks are needed and how many
hosts will be needed on each network. With subnetting, the network is not limited to the
default Class A, B, or C network masks and there is more flexibility in the network design.
Subnet addresses include the network portion, plus a subnet field and a host field. The
subnet field and the host field are created from the original host portion for the entire network.
The ability to decide how to divide the original host portion into the new subnet and host
fields provides addressing flexibility for the network administrator.
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To create a subnet address, a network administrator borrows bits from the host field and
designates them as the subnet field. The minimum number of bits that can be borrowed is
two. When creating a subnet, where only one bit was borrowed the network number would be
the .0 network. The broadcast number would then be the .255 network. The maximum number
of bits that can be borrowed can be any number that leaves at least two bits remaining, for the
host number.
9.2.8 IPv4 versus IPv6
When TCP/IP was adopted in the 1980s, it relied on a two-level addressing scheme. At
the time this offered adequate scalability. Unfortunately, the designers of TCP/IP could not
have predicted that their protocol would eventually sustain a global network of information,
commerce, and entertainment. Over twenty years ago, IP Version 4 (IPv4) offered an
addressing strategy that, although scalable for a time, resulted in an inefficient allocation of
addresses.
The Class A and B addresses make up 75 percent of the IPv4 address space, however
fewer than 17,000 organizations can be assigned a Class A or B network number. Class C
network addresses are far more numerous than Class A and Class B addresses, although they
account for only 12.5 percent of the possible four billion IP addresses.
Unfortunately, Class C addresses are limited to 254 usable hosts. This does not meet the
needs of larger organizations that cannot acquire a Class A or B address. Even if there were
more Class A, B, and C addresses, too many network addresses would cause Internet routers
to come to a stop under the burden of the enormous size of routing tables required to store the
routes to reach each of the networks.
As early as 1992, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) identified the following
two specific concerns:

Exhaustion of the remaining, unassigned IPv4 network addresses. At the time, the
Class B space was on the verge of depletion.

The rapid and large increase in the size of Internet routing tables occurred as more
Class C networks came online. The resulting flood of new network information
threatened the ability of Internet routers to cope effectively.
Over the past two decades, numerous extensions to IPv4 have been developed. These
extensions are specifically designed to improve the efficiency with which the 32-bit address
space can be used. Two of the more important of these are subnet masks and classless
interdomain routing (CIDR), which are discussed in more detail in later lessons.
Meanwhile, an even more extendible and scalable version of IP, IP Version 6 (IPv6), has
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been defined and developed. IPv6 uses 128 bits rather than the 32 bits currently used in
IPv4. IPv6 uses hexadecimal numbers to represent the 128 bits. IPv6 provides 640 sextrillion
addresses. This version of IP should provide enough addresses for future communication
needs. Figure
shows IPv4 addresses which are 32 bits long, written in decimal form, and
separated by periods. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long, written in hexadecimal form, and
separated by colons. IPv6 fields are 16 bits long. To make the addresses easier to read, leading
zeros can be omitted from each field. The field :0003: is written :3:. IPv6 shorthand
representation of the 128 bits uses eight 16-bit numbers, shown as four hexadecimal digits.
After years of planning and development, IPv6 is slowly being implemented in select
networks. Eventually, IPv6 may replace IPv4 as the dominant Internet protocol.
9.3 Obtaining an IP address
9.3.1 Obtaining an Internet address
A network host needs to obtain a globally unique address in order to function on the
Internet. The physical or MAC address that a host has is only locally significant, identifying
the host within the local area network. Since this is a Layer 2 address, the router does not use
it to forward outside the LAN.
IP addresses are the most commonly used addresses for Internet communications. This
protocol is a hierarchical addressing scheme that allows individual addresses to be associated
together and treated as groups. These groups of addresses allow efficient transfer of data
across the Internet.
Network administrators use two methods to assign IP addresses. These methods are
static and dynamic. Later in this lesson, static addressing and three variations of dynamic
addressing will be covered. Regardless of which addressing scheme is chosen, no two
interfaces can have the same IP address. Two hosts that have the same IP address could create
a conflict that might cause both of the hosts involved not to operate properly. As shown in
Figure , the hosts have a physical address by having a network interface card that allows
connection to the physical medium.
9.3.2 Static assignment of an IP address
Static assignment works best on small, infrequently changing networks. The system
administrator manually assigns and tracks IP addresses for each computer, printer, or server
on the intranet. Good recordkeeping is critical to prevent problems which occur with duplicate
IP addresses. This is possible only when there are a small number of devices to track.
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Servers should be assigned a static IP address so workstations and other devices will
always know how to access needed services. Consider how difficult it would be to phone a
business that changed its phone number every day.
Other devices that should be assigned static IP addresses are network printers,
application servers, and routers.
9.3.3 RARP IP address assignment
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) associates a known MAC addresses with
an IP addresses. This association allows network devices to encapsulate data before sending
the data out on the network. A network device, such as a diskless workstation, might know its
MAC address but not its IP address. RARP allows the device to make a request to learn its IP
address. Devices using RARP require that a RARP server be present on the network to answer
RARP requests.
Consider an example where a source device wants to send data to another device. In this
example, the source device knows its own MAC address but is unable to locate its own IP
address in the ARP table. The source device must include both its MAC address and IP
address in order for the destination device to retrieve data, pass it to higher layers of the OSI
model, and respond to the originating device. Therefore, the source initiates a process called a
RARP request. This request helps the source device detect its own IP address. RARP requests
are broadcast onto the LAN and are responded to by the RARP server which is usually a
router.
RARP uses the same packet format as ARP. However, in a RARP request, the MAC
headers and "operation code" are different from an ARP request.
The RARP packet format
contains places for MAC addresses of both the destination and source devices. The source IP
address field is empty. The broadcast goes to all devices on the network. Therefore, the
destination MAC address will be set to all binary 1s. Workstations running RARP have codes
in ROM that direct them to start the RARP process. A step-by-step layout of the RARP
process is illustrated in Figures through .
9.3.4 BOOTP IP address assignment
The bootstrap protocol (BOOTP) operates in a client-server environment and only
requires a single packet exchange to obtain IP information.
However, unlike RARP,
BOOTP packets can include the IP address, as well as the address of a router, the address of a
server, and vendor-specific information.
One problem with BOOTP, however, is that it was not designed to provide dynamic
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address assignment. With BOOTP, a network administrator creates a configuration file that
specifies the parameters for each device. The administrator must add hosts and maintain the
BOOTP database. Even though the addresses are dynamically assigned, there is still a one to
one relationship between the number of IP addresses and the number of hosts. This means that
for every host on the network there must be a BOOTP profile with an IP address assignment
in it. No two profiles can have the same IP address. Those profiles might be used at the same
time and that would mean that two hosts have the same IP address.
A device uses BOOTP to obtain an IP address when starting up. BOOTP uses UDP to
carry messages. The UDP message is encapsulated in an IP packet. A computer uses BOOTP
to send a broadcast IP packet using a destination IP address of all 1s, 255.255.255.255 in
dotted decimal notation. A BOOTP server receives the broadcast and then sends back a
broadcast. The client receives a frame and checks the MAC address. If the client finds its own
MAC address in the destination address field and a broadcast in the IP destination field, it
takes and stores the IP address and other information supplied in the BOOTP reply message.
A step-by-step description of the process is shown in Figures through .
9.3.5 DHCP IP address management
Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) is the successor to BOOTP. Unlike
BOOTP, DHCP allows a host to obtain an IP address dynamically without the network
administrator having to set up an individual profile for each device. All that is required when
using DHCP is a defined range of IP addresses on a DHCP server. As hosts come online, they
contact the DHCP server and request an address. The DHCP server chooses an address and
leases it to that host. With DHCP, the entire network configuration of a computer can be
obtained in one message. This includes all of the data supplied by the BOOTP message, plus a
leased IP address and a subnet mask.
The major advantage that DHCP has over BOOTP is that it allows users to be mobile.
This mobility allows the users to freely change network connections from location to location.
It is no longer required to keep a fixed profile for every device attached to the network as was
required with the BOOTP system. The importance to this DHCP advancement is its ability to
lease an IP address to a device and then reclaim that IP address for another user after the first
user releases it. This means that DHCP offers a one to many ratio of IP addresses and that an
address is available to anyone who connects to the network.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: DHCP Client Setup
This lab is to introduce Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) and the process
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for setting up a network computer as a DHCP client to use DHCP services.
9.3.6 Problems in address resolution
One of the major problems in networking is how to communicate with other network
devices.
In TCP/IP communications, a datagram on a local-area network must contain both
a destination MAC address and a destination IP address. These addresses must be correct and
match the destination MAC and IP addresses of the host device. If it does not match, the
datagram will be discarded by the destination host. Communications within a LAN segment
require two addresses. There needs to be a way to automatically map IP to MAC addresses. It
would be too time consuming for the user to create the maps manually. The TCP/IP suite has a
protocol, called Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which can automatically obtain MAC
addresses for local transmission. Different issues are raised when data is sent outside of the
local area network.
Communications between two LAN segments have an additional task. Both the IP and
MAC addresses are needed for both the destination host and the intermediate routing device.
TCP/IP has a variation on ARP called Proxy ARP that will provide the MAC address of an
intermediate device for transmission outside the LAN to another network segment.
9.3.7 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
With TCP/IP networking, a data packet must contain both a destination MAC address
and a destination IP address. If the packet is missing either one, the data will not pass from
Layer 3 to the upper layers. In this way, MAC addresses and IP addresses act as checks and
balances for each other. After devices determine the IP addresses of the destination devices,
they can add the destination MAC addresses to the data packets.
Some devices will keep tables that contain MAC addresses and IP addresses of other
devices that are connected to the same LAN. These are called Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) tables. ARP tables are stored in RAM memory, where the cached information is
maintained automatically on each of the devices. It is very unusual for a user to have to make
an ARP table entry manually. Each device on a network maintains its own ARP table. When a
network device wants to send data across the network, it uses information provided by the
ARP table.
When a source determines the IP address for a destination, it then consults the ARP table
in order to locate the MAC address for the destination. If the source locates an entry in its
table, destination IP address to destination MAC address, it will associate the IP address to the
MAC address and then uses it to encapsulate the data. The data packet is then sent out over
the networking media to be picked up by the destination device.
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There are two ways that devices can gather MAC addresses that they need to add to the
encapsulated data.
One way is to monitor the traffic that occurs on the local network
segment. All stations on an Ethernet network will analyze all traffic to determine if the data is
for them. Part of this process is to record the source IP and MAC address of the datagram to
an ARP table. So as data is transmitted on the network, the address pairs populate the ARP
table. Another way to get an address pair for data transmission is to broadcast an ARP request.
The computer that requires an IP and MAC address pair broadcasts an ARP request. All
the other devices on the local area network analyze this request. If one of the local devices
matches the IP address of the request, it sends back an ARP reply that contains its IP-MAC
pair. If the IP address is for the local area network and the computer does not exist or is turned
off, there is no response to the ARP request. In this situation, the source device reports an
error. If the request is for a different IP network, there is another process that can be used.
Routers do not forward broadcast packets. If the feature is turned on, a router performs a
proxy ARP. Proxy ARP is a variation of the ARP protocol. In this variation, a router sends
an ARP response with the MAC address of the interface on which the request was received, to
the requesting host. The router responds with the MAC addresses for those requests in which
the IP address is not in the range of addresses of the local subnet.
Another method to send data to the address of a device that is on another network
segment is to set up a default gateway. The default gateway is a host option where the IP
address of the router interface is stored in the network configuration of the host. The source
host compares the destination IP address and its own IP address to determine if the two IP
addresses are located on the same segment. If the receiving host is not on the same segment,
the source host sends the data using the actual IP address of the destination and the MAC
address of the router. The MAC address for the router was learned from the ARP table by
using the IP address of that router.
If the default gateway on the host or the proxy ARP feature on the router is not
configured, no traffic can leave the local area network. One or the other is required to have a
connection outside of the local area network.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Workstation ARP
This lab is to to introduce Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and the arp –a
workstation command.
Interactive Media Activity
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Drag and Drop: The ARP Process
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify different the ARP
process.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

Why the Internet was developed and how TCP/IP fits the design of the Internet

The four layers of the TCP/IP model

The functions of each layer of the TCP/IP model

The OSI model compared to the TCP/IP model

IP addressing gives each device on the Internet a unique identifier

IP address classes are logical divisions of the address space used to meet the needs
of various sizes of networks

Subnetting is used to divide a network into smaller networks

Reserved addresses fulfill a special role in IP addressing and cannot be used for
any other purpose

Private addresses cannot be routed on the public Internet.

The function of a subnet mask is to map the parts of an IP address that are the
network and the host

Someday IPV4 will be completely obsolete and IPV6 will be the commonly used
version

A computer must have an IP address to communicate on the Internet

An IP address may be configured statically or dynamically

A dynamic IP address may be allocated using RARP, BOOTP or DHCP

DHCP supplies more information to a client than BOOTP

DHCP allows computers to be mobile allowing a connection to many different
networks

ARP and Proxy ARP can be used to solve address resolution problems
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Chapter 10
Routing Fundamentals and Subnets
Overview
Internet Protocol (IP) is the routed protocol of the Internet. IP addressing enables
packets to be routed from source to destination using the best available path. The propagation
of packets, encapsulation changes, and connection-oriented and connectionless protocols are
also critical to ensure that data is properly transmitted to its destination. This module will
provide an overview for each.
The difference between routing and routed protocols is a common source of confusion
for students learning networking. The two words sound similar but are quite different. This
module also introduces routing protocols which allow routers to build tables from which to
determine the best path to a host on the Internet.
No two organizations in the world are identical. In fact, not all the organizations can fit
into the three class system of A, B, and C addresses. However, flexibility does exist within the
class addressing system and it is called subnetting. Subnetting allows the network
administrators to determine the size of the pieces of the network they will be working with.
Once they have determined how to segment their network, they can then use the subnet mask
to determine what part of the network each device is on.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Describe routed (routable) protocols.

List the steps of data encapsulation in an internetwork as data is routed to one or
more Layer 3 devices.

Describe connectionless and connection-oriented delivery.

Name the IP packet fields.

Describe process of routing.

Compare and contrast different types of routing protocols.

List and describe several metrics used by routing protocols.

List several uses for subnetting.

Determine the subnet mask for a given situation.

Use a subnet mask to determine the subnet ID.
10.1 Routed Protocol
10.1.1 Routable and routed protocols
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A protocol is a set of rules that determines how computers communicate with each other
across networks. Computers communicate with one another by exchanging data messages. To
accept and act on these messages, computers must have definitions of how a message is
interpreted. Examples of messages include those establishing a connection to a remote
machine, e-mail messages, and files transferred over a network.
A protocol describes the following:

The format that a message must conform to

The way in which computers must exchange a message within the context of a
particular activity
A routed protocol allows the router to forward data between nodes on different networks.
In order for a protocol to be routable, it must provide the ability to assign a network number
and a host number to each individual device. Some protocols, such as IPX, require only a
network number because these protocols use the host's MAC address for the host number.
Other protocols, such as IP, require a complete address consisting of a network portion and a
host portion. These protocols also require a network mask in order to differentiate the two
numbers. The network address is obtained by ANDing the address with the network mask.
The reason that a network mask is used is to allow groups of sequential IP addresses to
be treated as a single unit. If this grouping were not allowed, each host would have to be
mapped individually for routing. According to the Internet Software Consortium, this would
not be possible with the 162,128,000 hosts that are currently on the Internet.
10.1.2 IP as a routed protocol
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most widely used implementation of a hierarchical
network-addressing scheme.
IP is a connectionless, unreliable, best-effort delivery protocol.
The term connectionless means that no dedicated circuit connection is established prior to
transmission as there is when placing a telephone call. IP determines the most efficient route
for data based on the routing protocol. The terms unreliable and best-effort do not imply that
the system is unreliable and does not work well, but that IP does not verify that the data
reached its destination. This function is handled by the upper layer protocols.
As information flows down the layers of the OSI model, the data is processed at each
layer. At the network layer, the data is encapsulated into packets, also known as datagrams.
IP determines the contents of the IP packet header, which includes addressing and other
control information, but is not concerned with the actual data. IP accepts whatever data is
passed down to it from the upper layers.
10.1.3 Packet propagation and switching within a router
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As a packet travels through an internetwork to its final destination, the Layer 2 frame
headers and trailers are removed and replaced at every Layer 3 device. This is because
Layer 2 data units, frames, are for local addressing. Layer 3 data units, packets, are for
end-to-end addressing.
Layer 2 Ethernet frames are designed to operate within a broadcast domain using the
MAC address that is burned into the physical device. Other Layer 2 frame types include
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) serial links and Frame Relay connections, which use different
Layer 2 addressing schemes. Regardless of the type of Layer 2 addressing used, frames are
designed to operate within a Layer 2 broadcast domain, as the data crosses a Layer 3 device
the Layer 2 information changes.
As a frame is received at a router interface, the destination MAC address is extracted.
The address is checked to see if the frame is directly addressed to the router interface, or if it
is a broadcast. In either of these two cases, the frame is accepted. Otherwise, the frame is
discarded since it is destined for another device on the collision domain. The accepted frame
has the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) information extracted from the frame trailer, and
calculated to verify that the frame data is without error. If the check fails, the frame is
discarded. If the check is valid, the frame header and trailer are removed and the packet is
passed up to Layer 3. The packet is then checked to see if it is actually destined for the router,
or if it is to be routed to another device in the internetwork. If the destination IP address
matches one of the router ports, the Layer 3 header is removed and the data is passed up to the
Layer 4. If the packet is to be routed, the destination IP address will be compared to the
routing table. If a match is found or there is a default route, the packet will be sent to the
interface specified in the matched routing table statement. When the packet is switched to the
outgoing interface, a new CRC value is added as a frame trailer, and the proper frame header
is added to the packet. The frame is then transmitted to the next broadcast domain on its trip
to the final destination.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Packet Propagation Flowchart
After completing this activity, the student will be able to better understand the detailed
packet propagation process that goes on within a router.
10.1.4 Internet Protocol (IP)
Two types of delivery services are connectionless and connection-oriented. These two
services provide the actual end-to-end delivery of data in an internetwork.
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Most network services use a connectionless delivery system. Different packets may
take different paths to get through the network, but are reassembled after arriving at the
destination. In a connectionless system, the destination is not contacted before a packet is sent.
A good comparison for a connectionless system is a postal system. The recipient is not
contacted to see if they will accept the letter before it is sent. Also, the sender never knows
whether the letter arrived at the destination.
In connection-oriented systems, a connection is established between the sender and the
recipient before any data is transferred. An example of a connection-oriented network is the
telephone system. The caller places the call, a connection is established, and then
communication occurs.
Connectionless network processes are often referred to as packet switched processes. As
the packets pass from source to destination, packets can switch to different paths, and possibly
arrive out of order. Devices make the path determination for each packet based on a variety of
criteria. Some of the criteria, such as available bandwidth, may differ from packet to packet.
Connection-oriented network processes are often referred to as circuit switched
processes. A connection with the recipient is first established, and then data transfer begins.
All packets travel sequentially across the same physical or virtual circuit.
The Internet is a gigantic, connectionless network in which all packet deliveries are
handled by IP. TCP adds Layer 4, connection-oriented reliability services to IP.
10.1.5 Anatomy of an IP packet
IP packets consist of the data from upper layers plus an IP header. The IP header consists
of the following:

Version – Indicates the version of IP currently used; four bits. If the version field is
different than the IP version of the receiving device, that device will reject the
packets.

IP header length (HLEN) – Indicates the datagram header length in 32-bit words.
This is the total length of all header information, accounting for the two
variable-length header fields.

Type-of-service (TOS) – Specifies the level of importance that has been assigned
by a particular upper-layer protocol, eight bits.

Total length – Specifies the length of the entire packet in bytes, including data and
header, 16 bits. To get the length of the data payload subtract the HLEN from the
total length.

Identification – Contains an integer that identifies the current datagram, 16 bits.
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This is the sequence number.

Flags – A three-bit field in which the two low-order bits control fragmentation.
One bit specifies whether the packet can be fragmented, and the other specifies
whether the packet is the last fragment in a series of fragmented packets.

Fragment offset – Used to help piece together datagram fragments, 13 bits. This
field allows the previous field to end on a 16-bit boundary.

Time-to-live (TTL) – A field that specifies the number of hops a packet may travel.
This number is decreased by one as the packet travels through a router. When the
counter reaches zero the packet is discarded. This prevents packets from looping
endlessly.

Protocol – indicates which upper-layer protocol, such as TCP or UDP, receives
incoming packets after IP processing has been completed, eight bits.

Header checksum – helps ensure IP header integrity, 16 bits.

Source address – specifies the sending node IP address, 32 bits.

Destination address – specifies the receiving node IP address, 32 bits.

Options – allows IP to support various options, such as security, variable length.

Padding – extra zeros are added to this field to ensure that the IP header is always a
multiple of 32 bits.

Data – contains upper-layer information, variable length up to 64 Kb.
While the IP source and destination addresses are important, the other header fields have
made IP very flexible. The header fields are the information that is provided to the upper layer
protocols defining the data in the packet.
10.2
IP Routing Protocols
10.2.1 Routing overview
Routing is an OSI Layer 3 function. Routing is a hierarchical organizational scheme
that allows individual addresses to be grouped together. These individual addresses are treated
as a single unit until the destination address is needed for final delivery of the data.
Routing
is the process of finding the most efficient path from one device to another. The primary
device that performs the routing process is the router.
The following are the two key functions of a router:

Routers must maintain routing tables and make sure other routers know of changes
in the network topology. This function is performed using a routing protocol to
communicate network information with other routers.

When packets arrive at an interface, the router must use the routing table to
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determine where to send them. The router switches the packets to the appropriate
interface, adds the necessary framing information for the interface, and then
transmits the frame.
A router is a network layer device that uses one or more routing metrics to determine the
optimal path along which network traffic should be forwarded. Routing metrics are values
used in determining the advantage of one route over another. Routing protocols use various
combinations of metrics for determining the best path for data.
Routers interconnect network segments or entire networks. Routers pass data frames
between networks based on Layer 3 information. Routers make logical decisions regarding
the best path for the delivery of data. Routers then direct packets to the appropriate output
port to be encapsulated for transmission. The encapsulation and de-encapsulation process
occurs each time a packet transfers through a router. As shown in Figure 4, the process of
sending data from one device to another involves the process of encapsulation and
de-encapsulation. This process breaks up the data stream into segments, adds the appropriate
headers and trailers then transmits the data. The de-encapsulation process is the opposite
process, removing the headers and trailers, then recombining the data into a seamless stream.
This course focuses on the most common routable protocol, which is the Internet
Protocol (IP). Other examples of routable protocols include IPX/SPX and AppleTalk. These
protocols provide Layer 3 support. Non-routable protocols do not provide Layer 3 support.
The most common non-routable protocol is NetBEUI. NetBEUI is a small, fast, and efficient
protocol that is limited to frame delivery within one segment.
10.2.2 Routing versus switching
Routing is often contrasted with switching. Routing and switching might seem to
perform the same function to the inexperienced observer. The primary difference is that
switching occurs at Layer 2, the data link layer, of the OSI model and routing occurs at Layer
3. This distinction means routing and switching use different information in the process of
moving data from source to destination.
The relationship between switching and routing parallels that of telephone local and
long distance calls. When a telephone call is made to a number within the same area code, a
local switch handles the call. However, the local switch can only keep track of its own local
numbers. The local switch cannot handle all the telephone numbers in the world. When the
switch receives a request for a call outside of its area code, it switches the call to a
higher-level switch that recognizes area codes. The higher-level switch then switches the call
so that it eventually gets to the local switch for the area code dialed.
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The router performs a function similar to that of the higher-level switch in the telephone
example. Figure shows the ARP tables for Layer 2 addressing and routing tables for Layer 3
addressing. Each computer and router interface maintains an ARP table for Layer 2
communication. The ARP table is only effective for the broadcast domain (or LAN) that it is
connected to. The router also maintains a routing table that allows it to route data outside of
the broadcast domain. Each ARP table contains an IP-MAC address pair (the MAC addresses
in the graphic are represented by the acronym MAC, as the actual addresses are too long to fit
in the graphic). The routing tables also track how the route was learned (in this case either
directly connected [C] or learned by RIP [R]), the network IP address for reachable networks,
the hop count or distance to those networks, and the interface the data must be sent out to get
to the destination network.
The Layer 2 switch can only recognize its own local MAC addresses and cannot handle
Layer 3 IP addresses. When a host has data for a non-local IP address, it sends the frame to
the closest router, also known as its default gateway. The host uses the MAC address of the
router as the destination MAC address.
A Layer 2 switch interconnects segments belonging to same logical network or
subnetwork.
If Host X needs to send a frame to a host on a different network or
subnetwork, Host X sends the frame to the router that is also connected to the switch. The
switch forwards the frame to the router based on the destination MAC address. The router
examines the Layer 3 destination address of the packet to make the forwarding decision. Host
X knows the IP address of the router because the IP configuration of the router also includes
the IP address of the default gateway.
Just as a Layer 2 switch keeps a table of known MAC addresses, the router keeps a table
of IP addresses known as a routing table. There is a difference between these two types of
addresses. MAC addresses are not logically organized, but IP addresses are organized in a
hierarchical manner. A Layer 2 device can handle a reasonable number of unorganized MAC
addresses, because it will only have to search its table for those addresses within its segment.
Routers need to handle a greater volume of addresses. Therefore, routers need an organized
addressing system that can group similar addresses together and treat them as a single
network unit until the data reaches the destination segment. If IP addresses were not organized,
the Internet simply would not work. An example would be like a library that contained
millions of individual pages of printed material in a large pile. This material is useless
because it is impossible to locate an individual document. If the pages are organized into
books and each page is individually identified, and the books are also listed in a book index, it
becomes a lot easier to locate and use the data.
Another difference between switched and routed networks is switched networks do not
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block broadcasts. As a result, switches can be overwhelmed by broadcast storms. Routers
block LAN broadcasts, so a broadcast storm only affects the broadcast domain from which it
originated. Because routers block broadcasts, routers also provide a higher level of security
and bandwidth control than switches.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Routing vs. Switching
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the differences
between routing and switching.
10.2.3 Routed versus routing
Protocols used at the network layer that transfer data from one host to another across a
router are called routed or routable protocols. Routed protocols transport data across a
network. Routing protocols allow routers to choose the best path for data from source to
destination.
A routed protocol functions include the following:

Includes any network protocol suite that provides enough information in its
network layer address to allow a router to forward it to the next device and
ultimately to its destination.

Defines the format and use of the fields within a packet
The Internet Protocol (IP) and Novell's Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are
examples of routed protocols. Other examples include DECnet, AppleTalk, Banyan VINES,
and Xerox Network Systems (XNS).
Routers use routing protocols to exchange routing tables and share routing information.
In other words, routing protocols enable routers to route routed protocols.
A routing protocol functions includes the following:

Provides processes for sharing route information

Allows routers to communicate with other routers to update and maintain the
routing tables
Examples of routing protocols that support the IP routed protocol include the Routing
Information Protocol (RIP), Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP), Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), and Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP).
Interactive Media Activity
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Checkbox: Routed vs. Routing Protocols
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the differences
between routed and routing protocols.
10.2.4 Path determination
Path determination occurs at the network layer. Path determination enables a router to
compare the destination address to the available routes in its routing table, and to select the
best path. The routers learn of these available routes through static routing or dynamic routing.
Routes configured manually by the network administrator are static routes. Routes learned by
others routers using a routing protocol are dynamic routes.
The router uses path determination to decide which port an incoming packet should be
sent out of to travel on to its destination. This process is also referred to as routing the
packet. Each router that the packet encounters along the way is called a hop. The hop count is
the distanced traveled. Path determination can be compared to a person driving a car from one
location in a city to another. The driver has a map that shows the streets that can be taken to
get to the destination, just as a router has a routing table. The driver travels from one
intersection to another just as a packet travels from one router to another in each hop. At any
intersection, the driver can route himself by choosing to turn left, turn right, or go straight
ahead. In the same manner, a router decides which outbound port the packet should be sent.
The decisions of a driver are influenced by factors such as traffic on a road, the speed
limit of the road, the number of lanes on the road, whether or not there is a toll on the road,
and whether or not the road is frequently closed. Sometimes it is faster to take a longer route
on a smaller, less crowded back street instead of a highway with a lot of traffic. Similarly,
routers can make decisions based on the load, bandwidth, delay, cost, and reliability of a
network link.
The following process is used during path determination for every packet that is routed:

The destination address is obtained from the packet.

The mask of the first entry in the routing table is applied to the destination address.

The masked destination and the routing table entry are compared.

If there is a match, the packet is forwarded to the port that is associated with that
table entry.

If there is not a match, the next entry in the table is checked.

If the packet does not match any entries in the table, the router checks to see if a
default route has been set.

If a default route has been set, the packet is forwarded to the associated port. A
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default route is a route that is configured by the network administrator as the route
to use if there are no matches in the routing table.

If there is no default route, the packet is discarded. Usually a message is sent back
to the sending device indicating that the destination was unreachable.
Interactive Media Activity
Drag and Drop: Path Determination Flowchart
After completing this activity, the student will be able to understand the detailed path
determination process.
10.2.5 Routing tables
Routers use routing protocols to build and maintain routing tables that contain route
information. This aids in the process of path determination. Routing protocols fill routing
tables with a variety of route information. This information varies depending on the routing
protocol used. Routing tables contain the information necessary to forward data packets
across connected networks. Layer 3 devices interconnect broadcast domains or LANs. A
hierarchical addressing scheme is required for data transfer to occur.
Routers keep track of important information in their routing tables, including the
following:

Protocol type – The type of routing protocol that created the routing table entry

Destination/next-hop associations – These associations tell a router that a particular
destination is either directly connected to the router, or that it can be reached using
another router called the “next-hop” on the way to the final destination. When a
router receives an incoming packet, it checks the destination address and attempts
to match this address with a routing table entry.

Routing metric – Different routing protocols use different routing metrics. Routing
metrics are used to determine the desirability of a route. For example, the Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) uses hop count as its only routing metric. Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) uses a combination of bandwidth, load, delay,
and reliability metrics to create a composite metric value.

Outbound interfaces – The interface that the data must be sent out on, in order to
reach the final destination.
Routers communicate with one another to maintain their routing tables through the
transmission of routing update messages. Some routing protocols transmit update messages
periodically, while others send them only when there are changes in the network topology.
Some protocols transmit the entire routing table in each update message, and some transmit
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only routes that have changed. By analyzing the routing updates from the neighboring routers,
a router builds and maintains its routing table.
10.2.6 Routing algorithms and metrics
An algorithm is a detailed solution to a problem. In the case of routing packets, different
routing protocols use different algorithms to decide which port an incoming packet should be
sent to. Routing algorithms depend on metrics to make these decisions.
Routing protocols often have one or more of the following design goals:

Optimization – Optimization describes the capability of the routing algorithm to
select the best route. The route will depend on the metrics and metric weightings
used in the calculation. For example, one algorithm may use both hop count and
delay metrics, but may consider delay metrics as more important in the calculation.

Simplicity and low overhead – The simpler the algorithm, the more efficiently it
will be processed by the CPU and memory in the router. This is important so that
the network can scale to large proportions, such as the Internet.

Robustness and stability – A routing algorithm should perform correctly when
confronted by unusual or unforeseen circumstances, such as hardware failures,
high load conditions, and implementation errors.

Flexibility – A routing algorithm should quickly adapt to a variety of network
changes. These changes include router availability, router memory, changes in
bandwidth, and network delay.

Rapid convergence – Convergence is the process of agreement by all routers on
available routes. When a network event causes changes in router availability,
updates are needed to reestablish network connectivity. Routing algorithms that
converge slowly can cause data to be undeliverable.
Routing algorithms use different metrics to determine the best route. Each routing
algorithm interprets what is best in its own way. The routing algorithm generates a number,
called the metric value, for each path through the network. Sophisticated routing algorithms
base route selection on multiple metrics, combining them in a single composite metric value.
Typically, smaller metric values indicate preferred paths.
Metrics can be based on a single characteristic of a path, or can be calculated based on
several characteristics. The following are the metrics that are most commonly used by routing
protocols:

Bandwidth – The data capacity of a link. Normally, a 10-Mbps Ethernet link is
preferable to a 64-kbps leased line.

Delay – The length of time required to move a packet along each link from source
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to destination. Delay depends on the bandwidth of intermediate links, the amount
of data that can be temporarily stored at each router, network congestion, and
physical distance.

Load – The amount of activity on a network resource such as a router or a link.

Reliability – Usually a reference to the error rate of each network link.

Hop count – The number of routers that a packet must travel through before
reaching its destination. Each router the data must pass through is equal to one hop.
A path that has a hop count of four indicates that data traveling along that path
would have to pass through four routers before reaching its final destination. If
multiple paths are available to a destination, the path with the least number of hops
is preferred.

Ticks – The delay on a data link using IBM PC clock ticks. One tick is
approximately 1/18 second.

Cost – An arbitrary value, usually based on bandwidth, monetary expense, or other
measurement, that is assigned by a network administrator.
10.2.7 IGP and EGP
An autonomous system is a network or set of networks under common administrative
control, such as the cisco.com domain. An autonomous system consists of routers that present
a consistent view of routing to the external world.
Two families of routing protocols are Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) and Exterior
Gateway Protocols (EGPs).
IGPs route data within an autonomous system.

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and (RIPv2)

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP)

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)

Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System protocol (IS-IS)
EGPs route data between autonomous systems. An example of an EGP is Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP).
10.2.8 Link state and distance vector
Routing protocols can be classified as either IGPs or EGPs, which describes whether a
group of routers is under a single administration or not. IGPs can be further categorized as
either distance-vector or link-state protocols.
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The distance-vector routing approach determines the distance and direction, vector, to
any link in the internetwork. The distance may be the hop count to the link. Routers using
distance-vector algorithms send all or part of their routing table entries to adjacent routers on
a periodic basis. This happens even if there are no changes in the network. By receiving a
routing update, a router can verify all the known routes and make changes to its routing table.
This process is also known as “routing by rumor”. The understanding that a router has of the
network is based upon the perspective of the adjacent router of the network topology.
Examples of distance-vector protocols include the following:

Routing Information Protocol (RIP) – The most common IGP in the Internet, RIP
uses hop count as its only routing metric.

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) – This IGP was developed by Cisco to
address issues associated with routing in large, heterogeneous networks.

Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP) – This Cisco-proprietary IGP includes many of the
features of a link-state routing protocol. Because of this, it has been called a
balanced-hybrid protocol, but it is really an advanced distance-vector routing
protocol.
Link-state routing protocols were designed to overcome limitations of distance vector
routing protocols. Link-state routing protocols respond quickly to network changes sending
trigger updates only when a network change has occurred. Link-state routing protocols send
periodic updates, known as link-state refreshes, at longer time intervals, such as every 30
minutes.
When a route or link changes, the device that detected the change creates a link-state
advertisement (LSA) concerning that link. The LSA is then transmitted to all neighboring
devices. Each routing device takes a copy of the LSA, updates its link-state database, and
forwards the LSA to all neighboring devices. This flooding of LSAs is required to ensure that
all routing devices create databases that accurately reflect the network topology before
updating their routing tables.
Link-state algorithms typically use their databases to create routing table entries that
prefer the shortest path. Examples of link-state protocols include Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) and Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS).
Interactive Media Activity
Checkbox: Link-State and Distance Vector Routing Protocols
After completing this activity, the student will be able to identify the difference between
link-state and distance vector routing protocols.
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10.2.9 Routing protocols
RIP is a distance vector routing protocol that uses hop count as its metric to determine
the direction and distance to any link in the internetwork. If there are multiple paths to a
destination, RIP selects the path with the least number of hops. However, because hop count
is the only routing metric used by RIP, it does not always select the fastest path to a
destination. Also, RIP cannot route a packet beyond 15 hops. RIP Version 1 (RIPv1) requires
that all devices in the network use the same subnet mask, because it does not include subnet
mask information in routing updates. This is also known as classful routing.
RIP Version 2 (RIPv2) provides prefix routing, and does send subnet mask information
in routing updates. This is also known as classless routing. With classless routing protocols,
different subnets within the same network can have different subnet masks. The use of
different subnet masks within the same network is referred to as variable-length subnet
masking (VLSM).
IGRP is a distance-vector routing protocol developed by Cisco. IGRP was developed
specifically to address problems associated with routing in large networks that were beyond
the range of protocols such as RIP. IGRP can select the fastest available path based on delay,
bandwidth, load, and reliability. IGRP also has a much higher maximum hop count limit than
RIP. IGRP uses only classful routing.
OSPF is a link-state routing protocol developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) in 1988. OSPF was written to address the needs of large, scalable internetworks that
RIP could not.
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS) is a link-state routing protocol used
for routed protocols other than IP. Integrated IS-IS is an expanded implementation of IS-IS
that supports multiple routed protocols including IP.
Like IGRP, EIGRP is a proprietary Cisco protocol. EIGRP is an advanced version of
IGRP. Specifically, EIGRP provides superior operating efficiency such as fast convergence
and low overhead bandwidth. EIGRP is an advanced distance-vector protocol that also uses
some link-state protocol functions. Therefore, EIGRP is sometimes categorized as a hybrid
routing protocol.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an example of an External Gateway Protocol (EGP).
BGP exchanges routing information between autonomous systems while guaranteeing
loop-free path selection. BGP is the principal route advertising protocol used by major
companies and ISPs on the Internet. BGP4 is the first version of BGP that supports classless
interdomain routing (CIDR) and route aggregation. Unlike common Internal Gateway
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Protocols (IGPs), such as RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP, BGP does not use metrics like hop count,
bandwidth, or delay. Instead, BGP makes routing decisions based on network policies, or
rules using various BGP path attributes.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Small Router Purchase
This lab is to introduce the variety and prices of network components in the market. This
lab will look specifically at small routers used by telecommuters when working from home.
10.3 The Mechanics of Subnetting
10.3.1 Classes of network IP addresses
Classes of IP addresses offer a range from 256 to 16.8 million hosts, as discussed
previously in this module. To efficiently manage a limited supply of IP addresses, all classes
can be subdivided into smaller subnetworks. Figure provides an overview of the division
between networks and hosts.
10.3.2 Introduction to and reason for subnetting
To create the subnetwork structure, host bits must be reassigned as network bits. This is
often referred to as ‘borrowing’ bits. However, a more accurate term would be ‘lending’ bits.
The starting point for this process is always the leftmost host bit, the one closest to the last
network octet.
Subnet addresses include the Class A, Class B, and Class C network portion, plus a
subnet field and a host field. The subnet field and the host field are created from the original
host portion of the major IP address. This is done by assigning bits from the host portion to
the original network portion of the address.
The ability to divide the original host portion
of the address into the new subnet and host fields provides addressing flexibility for the
network administrator.
In addition to the need for manageability, subnetting enables the network administrator
to provide broadcast containment and low-level security on the LAN. Subnetting provides
some security since access to other subnets is only available through the services of a router.
Further, access security may be provided through the use of access lists. These lists can permit
or deny access to a subnet, based on a variety of criteria, thereby providing more security.
Access lists will be studied later in the curriculum. Some owners of Class A and B networks
have also discovered that subnetting creates a revenue source for the organization through the
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leasing or sale of previously unused IP addresses.
A LAN is seen as a single network with no knowledge of the internal network structure.
This view of the network keeps the routing tables small and efficient. Given a local node
address of 192.168.10.14, the world outside the LAN sees only the advertised major network
number of 192.168.10.0. The reason for this is that the local address of 192.168.10.14 is only
valid within the LAN 192.168.10.0 and cannot function anywhere else.
10.3.3 Establishing the subnet mask address
Selecting the number of bits to use in the subnet process will depend on the maximum
number of hosts required per subnet. An understanding of basic binary math and the position
value of the bits in each octet is necessary when calculating the number of subnetworks and
hosts created when bits were borrowed.
The last two bits in the last octet, regardless of the IP address class, may never be
assigned to the subnetwork. These bits are referred to as the last two significant bits. Use of
all the available bits to create subnets, except these last two, will result in subnets with only
two usable hosts. This is a practical address conservation method for addressing serial router
links. However, for a working LAN this would result in prohibitive equipment costs.
The subnet mask gives the router the information required to determine in which
network and subnet a particular host resides. The subnet mask is created by using binary
ones in the host octet or octets. The subnet octet or octets are determined by adding the
position value of the bits that were borrowed. If three bits were borrowed, the mask for a
Class C address would be 255.255.255.224. This mask may also be represented, in the slash
format, as /27. The number following the slash is the total number of bits that were used for
the network and subnetwork portion.
To determine the number of bits to be used, the network designer needs to calculate how
many hosts the largest subnetwork requires and the number of subnetworks needed. As an
example, the network requires 30 hosts and five subnetworks. A shortcut to determine how
many bits to reassign is by using the subnetting chart. By consulting the row titled ”Usable
hosts”, the chart indicates that for 30 usable hosts three bits are required. The chart also shows
that this creates six usable subnetworks, which will satisfy the requirements of this scheme.
The difference between usable hosts and total hosts is a result of using the first available
address as the ID and the last available address as the broadcast for each subnetwork. The
ability to use these subnetworks is not provided with classful routing. However, classless
routing, which will be covered later in the course can recover many of these lost addresses.
The method that was used to create the subnet chart can be used to solve all subnetting
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problems.
This method uses the following formula:
Number of usable subnets= two to the power of the assigned subnet bits or borrowed
bits, minus two (reserved addresses for subnetwork id and subnetwork broadcast)
(2 power of borrowed bits) – 2 = usable subnets
(23) – 2 = 6
Number of usable hosts= two to the power of the bits remaining, minus two (reserved
addresses for subnet id and subnet broadcast)
(2 power of remaining host bits) – 2 = usable hosts
(25) – 2 = 30
10.3.4 Applying the subnet mask
Once the subnet mask has been established it then can be used to create the subnet
scheme.
The chart in the Figure is an example of the subnets and addresses created by
assigning three bits to the subnet field. This will create eight subnets with 32 hosts per subnet.
Start with zero (0) when numbering subnets. The first subnet is always referenced as the zero
subnet.
When filling in the subnet chart three of the fields are automatic, others require some
calculation. The subnetwork ID of subnet zero is the same as the major network number, in
this case 192.168.10.0. The broadcast ID for the whole network is the largest number possible,
in this case 192.168.10.255. The third number that is given is the subnetwork ID for subnet
number seven. This number is the three network octets with the subnet mask number inserted
in the fourth octet position. Three bits were assigned to the subnet field with a cumulative
value of 224. The ID for subnet seven is 192.168.10.224. By inserting these numbers,
checkpoints have been established that will verify the accuracy when the chart is completed.
When consulting the subnetting chart or using the formula, the three bits assigned to the
subnet field will result in 32 total hosts assigned to each subnet. This information provides
the step count for each subnetwork ID. Adding 32 to each preceding number, starting with
subnet zero, the ID for each subnet is established. Notice that the subnet ID has all binary 0s
in the host portion.
The broadcast field is the last number in each subnetwork, and has all binary ones in the
host portion. This address has the ability to broadcast only to the members of a single subnet.
Since the subnetwork ID for subnet zero is 192.168.10.0 and there are 32 total hosts the
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broadcast ID would be 192.168.10.31. Starting at zero the 32nd sequential number is 31. It is
important to remember that zero (0) is a real number in the world of networking.
The balance of the broadcast ID column can be filled in using the same process that was
used in the subnetwork ID column. Simply add 32 to the preceding broadcast ID of the subnet.
Another option is to start at the bottom of this column and work up to the top by subtracting
one from the preceding subnetwork ID.
10.3.5 Subnetting Class A and B networks
The Class A and B subnetting procedure is identical to the process for Class C, except
there may be significantly more bits involved. The available bits for assignment to the subnet
field in a Class A address is 22 bits while a Class B address has 14 bits.
Assigning 12 bits of a Class B address to the subnet field creates a subnet mask of
255.255.255.240 or /28. All eight bits were assigned in the third octet resulting in 255, the
total value of all eight bits. Four bits were assigned in the fourth octet resulting in 240. Recall
that the slash mask is the sum total of all bits assigned to the subnet field plus the fixed
network bits.
Assigning 20 bits of a Class A address to the subnet field creates a subnet mask of
255.255.255.240 or /28. All eight bits of the second and third octets were assigned to the
subnet field and four bits from the fourth octet.
In this situation, it is apparent that the subnet mask for the Class A and Class B
addresses appear identical. Unless the mask is related to a network address it is not possible to
decipher how many bits were assigned to the subnet field.
Whichever class of address needs to be subnetted, the following rules are the same:
Total subnets = 2 to the power of the bits borrowed
Total hosts= 2 to the power of the bits remaining
Usable subnets = 2 to the power of the bits borrowed minus 2
Usable hosts= 2 to the power of the bits remaining minus 2
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Basic Subnetting
This lab is to identify reasons to use a subnet mask and to distinguish between a default
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subnet mask and custom subnet mask.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Subnetting a Class A Network
This lab is to analyze a Class A network address with the number of network bits
specified in order to determine subnet mask, number of subnets, hosts per subnet, and
information about specific subnets.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Subnetting a Class B Network
This lab is to provide a subnetting scheme using a Class B network.
Lab Activity
Lab Exercise: Subnetting a Class C Network
This lab is to provide a subnetting scheme using a Class C network.
10.3.6 Calculating the resident subnetwork through ANDing
Routers use subnet masks to determine the home subnetwork for individual nodes. This
process is referred to as logical ANDing. ANDing is a binary process by which the router
calculates the subnetwork ID for an incoming packet. ANDing is similar to multiplication.
This process is handled at the binary level. Therefore, it is necessary to view the IP
address and mask in binary. The IP address and the subnetwork address are ANDed with the
result being the subnetwork ID. The router then uses that information to forward the packet
across the correct interface.
Subnetting is a learned skill. It will take many hours performing practice exercises to
gain a development of flexible and workable schemes. A variety of subnet calculators are
available on the web. However, a network administrator must know how to manually
calculate subnets in order to effectively design the network scheme and assure the validity of
the results from a subnet calculator. The subnet calculator will not provide the initial scheme,
only the final addressing. Also, no calculators, of any kind, are permitted during the
certification exam.
Summary
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An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

Routed or routable protocol characteristics

The steps of data encapsulation in an internetwork as data is routed to one or more
Layer 3 devices

Connectionless and connection-oriented delivery

The IP packet fields

Routers operate at the network layer. Initially, the router receives a Layer 2 frame
with a Layer 3 packet encapsulated within it. The router must strip off the Layer 2
frame and examine the Layer 3 packet. When the router is ready to transmit the
packet, the router then must encapsulate the Layer 3 packet in a new Layer 2
frame.

Routed protocols define the format and use of the fields within a packet. Packets
generally are conveyed from end system to end system.

LAN switching occurs at Layer 2 of the OSI reference model, and routing occurs
at Layer 3.

Routing protocols are used between routers to determine paths and maintain
routing tables. Routed protocols are used to direct user traffic.

Routing involves two basic activities: determining the best routing paths and
transporting packets through an internetwork.

Routing algorithms process routing updates and populate the routing table with the
best routes.

Routing tables contain the best routes to all known networks. These routes can be
either static routes, which are entered manually, or dynamic routes, which are
learned through routing protocols.

Convergence describes the speed at which all routers agree on a change in the
network.

Interior routing protocols route data within autonomous systems, while exterior
routing protocols route data between autonomous systems.

Routers using distance-vector routing protocols periodically send routing updates
consisting of all or part of its routing table. Routers using link-state routing
protocols use link-state advertisements (LSAs) to send updates only when
topological changes occur in the network, and send complete routing tables much
less frequently.

The uses for subnetting

How to determine the appropriate subnet mask for a given situation

How to subnet Class A, B, and C networks

How to use a subnet mask to determine the subnet ID
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Chapter 11
TCP/IP Application and Transport
Overview
As its name implies, the TCP/IP transport layer does the work of transporting data
between applications on source and destination devices. A thorough understanding of the
operation of the transport layer is essential to understanding modern data networking. This
module will describe the functions and services of this critical layer of the TCP/IP network
model.
Many of the network applications that are found at the TCP/IP application layer are
familiar to even casual network users. HTTP, FTP and SMTP, for example, are acronyms that
are commonly seen by users of Web browsers and e-mail clients. This module also describes
the function of these and other applications from the TCP/IP networking model.
Students completing this module should be able to:

Describe the functions of the TCP/IP transport layer.

Describe flow control.

Describe the processes of establishing a connection between peer systems.

Describe windowing.

Describe acknowledgment.

Identify and describe transport layer protocols.

Describe TCP and UDP header formats.

Describe TCP and UDP port numbers.

List the major protocols of the TCP/IP application layer.

Provide a brief description of the features and operation of well-known TCP/IP
applications.
11.1 TCP/IP Transport Layer
11.1.1 Introduction to transport layer
The primary duties of the transport layer, Layer 4 of the OSI model, are to transport and
regulate the flow of information from the source to the destination, reliably and accurately.
End-to-end control and reliability are provided by sliding windows, sequencing numbers, and
acknowledgments.
To understand reliability and flow control, think of someone who studies a foreign
language for one year and then they visit the country where that language is used. In
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conversation, words must be repeated for reliability and to speak slowly so that the meaning
of the conversation is not lost, this is flow control.
The transport layer provides transport services from the source host to the destination
host. It establishes a logical connection between the endpoints of the network. Transport
services segment and reassemble several upper-layer applications onto the same transport
layer data stream. This transport layer data stream provides end-to-end transport services.
The transport layer data stream is a logical connection between the endpoints of a
network. Its primary duties are to transport and regulate the flow of information from source
to destination reliably and accurately. The primary duty of Layer 4 is to provide end-to-end
control using sliding windows and to provide reliability in sequencing numbers and
acknowledgments. The transport layer defines end-to-end connectivity between host
applications. Transport services include the following basic services:

Segmentation of upper-layer application data

Establishment of end-to-end operations

Transport of segments from one end host to another end host

Flow control provided by sliding windows

Reliability provided by sequence numbers and acknowledgments
TCP/IP is a combination of two individual protocols. IP operates at Layer 3, and is a
connectionless protocol that provides best-effort delivery across a network. TCP operates at
Layer 4, and is a connection-oriented service that provides flow control as well as reliability.
By pairing these protocols, a wider range of services is provided. Together, they are the basis
for an entire suite of protocols called the TCP/IP protocol suite. The Internet is built upon this
TCP/IP protocol suite.
11.1.2 Flow control
As the transport layer sends data segments, it tries to ensure that data is not lost. A
receiving host that is unable to process data as quickly as it arrives could be a cause of data
loss. The receiving host is then forced to discard it. Flow control avoids the problem of a
transmitting host overflowing the buffers in the receiving host. TCP provides the mechanism
for flow control by allowing the sending and receiving host to communicate. The two hosts
then establish a data-transfer rate that is agreeable to both.
11.1.3 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination overview
Multiple applications can share the same transport connection in the OSI reference
model. Transport functionality is accomplished on a segment-by-segment basis. In other
words, different applications can send data segments on a first-come, first-served basis. The
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202
segments that arrive first will be taken care of first. These segments can be routed to the same
or different destinations. This is referred to as the multiplexing of upper-layer conversations.
One function of the transport layer is to establish a connection-oriented session between
similar devices at the application layer. For data transfer to begin, both the sending and
receiving applications inform the respective operating systems that a connection will be
initiated. One node initiates a connection that must be accepted by the other. Protocol
software modules in the two operating systems communicate with each other by sending
messages across the network to verify that the transfer is authorized and that both sides are
ready.
The connection is established and the transfer of data begins after all synchronization
has occurred. During transfer, the two machines continue to communicate with their protocol
software to verify that data is received correctly.
Figure
shows a typical connection between the sending and receiving systems. The
first handshake requests synchronization. The second and third handshakes acknowledge the
initial synchronization request, as well as synchronizing connection parameters in the
opposite direction. The final handshake segment is an acknowledgment used to inform the
destination that both sides agree that a connection has been established. After the connection
has been established, data transfer begins.
Congestion can occur during data transfer for two reasons. First, a high-speed computer
might be capable of generating traffic faster than a network can transfer it. Second, if many
computers simultaneously need to send datagrams to a single destination, that destination can
experience congestion, although no single source caused the problem.
When datagrams arrive too quickly for a host or gateway to process, they are
temporarily stored in memory. If the traffic continues, the host or gateway eventually exhausts
its memory and must discard additional datagrams that arrive.
Instead of allowing data to be lost, the transport function can issue a “not ready”
indicator to the sender. Acting like a stop sign, this indicator signals the sender to stop sending
data. When the receiver can handle additional data, the receiver sends a “ready” transport
indicator. When this indicator is received, the sender can resume the segment transmission.
At the end of data transfer, the sending host sends a signal that indicates the end of the
transmission. The receiving host at the end of the data sequence acknowledges the end of
transmission and the connection is terminated.
11.1.4 Three-way handshake
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TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. TCP requires connection establishment before
data transfer begins. For a connection to be established or initialized, the two hosts must
synchronize their Initial Sequence Numbers (ISNs). Synchronization is done through an
exchange of connection establishing segments that carry a control bit called SYN, for
synchronize, and the ISNs. Segments that carry the SYN bit are also called “SYNs". This
solution requires a suitable mechanism for picking an initial sequence number and a slightly
involved handshake to exchange the ISNs.
The synchronization requires each side to send its own initial sequence number and to
receive a confirmation of exchange in an acknowledgment (ACK) from the other side. Each
side must also receive the INS from the other side and send a confirming ACK. The sequence
is as follows:

A→B SYN—(A) initial sequence number is X, ACK number is 0, SYN bit is set,
but ACK bit is not set.

B→A ACK—(A) sequence number is X + 1, (B) initial sequence number is Y, and
SYN and ACK bit are set.

A→B ACK—(B) sequence number is Y + 1, (A) sequence number is X + 1, the
ACK bit is set, but the SYN bit is not set.
This exchange is called the three-way handshake.
A three-way handshake is necessary because sequence numbers are not tied to a global
clock in the network and TCP protocols may have different mechanisms for picking the ISN.
The receiver of the first SYN has no way of knowing whether the segment was an old delayed
one, unless it remembers the last sequence number used on the connection. Recalling that
number is not always possible Therefore, the receiver must ask the sender to verify this SYN.
11.1.5 Windowing
Data packets must be delivered to the recipient in the same order in which they were
transmitted to have a reliable, connection-oriented data transfer. The protocol fails if any data
packets are lost, damaged, duplicated, or received in a different order. An easy solution is to
have a recipient acknowledge the receipt of each packet before the next packet is sent.
If the sender must wait for an acknowledgment after sending each packet, throughput
would be low. Therefore, most connection-oriented, reliable protocols allow more than one
packet to be outstanding on the network at one time. Because time is available after the sender
finishes transmitting the data packet and before the sender finishes processing any received
acknowledgment, this interval is used for transmitting more data. The number of data packets
the sender is allowed to have outstanding without having received an acknowledgment is
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known as the window size, or window.
TCP uses expectational acknowledgments. Expectational acknowledgements mean that
the acknowledgment number refers to the packet that is next expected. Windowing refers to
the fact that the window size is negotiated dynamically during the TCP session. Windowing is
a flow-control mechanism. Windowing requires that the source device receive an
acknowledgment from the destination after transmitting a certain amount of data. The
receiving TCP process reports a “window” to the sending TCP. This window specifies the
number of packets, starting with the acknowledgment number, that the receiving TCP process
is currently prepared to receive.
With a window size of three, the source device can send three packets to the destination.
The source device must then wait for an acknowledgment. If the destination receives the three
packets, it sends an acknowledgment to the source device, which can now transmit three more
packets. If the destination does not receive the three packets, because of overflowing buffers,
it does not send an acknowledgment. Because the source does not receive an acknowledgment,
it knows that the packets should be retransmitted, and that the transmission rate should be
slowed.
TCP window sizes are variable during the lifetime of a connection. Each
acknowledgement contains a window advertisement that indicates the number of bytes the
receiver can accept. TCP also maintains a congestion-control window. This window is
normally the same size as the window of the receiver. However, this window is cut in half
when a packet is lost, perhaps as a result of network congestion. This approach permits the
window to be expanded or contracted as necessary to manage buffer space and processing. A
larger window size allows more data to be processed.
As shown in Figure , the sender sends three packets before expecting an ACK. If the
receiver can handle a window size of only two packets, the window drops packet three,
specifies three as the next packet, and specifies a new window size of two. The sender sends
the next two packets, but still specifies a window size of three. This means that the sender will
still expect a three packet acknowledgement from the receiver. The receiver replies by
requesting packet five and again specifying a window size of two.
11.1.6 Acknowledgment
Reliable delivery guarantees that a stream of data sent from one device is delivered
through a data link to another device without duplication or data loss. Positive
acknowledgment with retransmission is one technique that guarantees reliable delivery of data.
Positive acknowledgment requires a recipient to communicate with the source and send back
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an acknowledgment message when the data is received. The sender keeps a record of each
data packet (TCP segment), that it sends and expects an acknowledgment. The sender also
starts a timer when it sends a segment and will retransmit a segment if the timer expires
before an acknowledgment arrives.
Figure
shows the sender transmitting data packets 1, 2, and 3. The receiver
acknowledges receipt of the packets by requesting packet 4. Upon receiving the
acknowledgment, the sender sends packets 4, 5, and 6. If packet 5 does not arrive at the
destination, the receiver acknowledges with a request to resend packet 5. The sender resends
packet 5 and then receives an acknowledgment to continue with the transmission of packet 7.
TCP provides sequencing of segments with a forward reference acknowledgment. Each
datagram is numbered before transmission. At the receiving station, TCP reassembles the
segments into a complete message. If a sequence number is missing in the series, that segment
is retransmitted. Segments that are not acknowledged within a given time period will result in
a retransmission.
11.1.7 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented Layer 4 protocol that
provides reliable full-duplex data transmission. TCP is part of the TCP/IP protocol stack. In a
connection-oriented environment, a connection is established between both ends before the
transfer of information can begin. TCP is responsible for breaking messages into segments,
reassembling them at the destination station, resending anything that is not received, and
reassembling messages from the segments. TCP supplies a virtual circuit between end-user
applications.
The protocols that use TCP include:

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

Telnet
The following are the definitions of the fields in the TCP segment:

Source port – Number of the calling port

Destination port – Number of the called port

Sequence number – Number used to ensure correct sequencing of the arriving data

Acknowledgment number – Next expected TCP octet

HLEN – Number of 32-bit words in the header

Reserved – Set to zero
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
Code bits – Control functions, such as setup and termination of a session

Window – Number of octets that the sender is willing to accept

Checksum – Calculated checksum of the header and data fields

Urgent pointer – Indicates the end of the urgent data

Option – One option currently defined, maximum TCP segment size

Data – Upper-layer protocol data
11.1.8 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is the connectionless transport protocol in the TCP/IP
protocol stack. UDP is a simple protocol that exchanges datagrams, without acknowledgments
or guaranteed delivery. Error processing and retransmission must be handled by higher layer
protocols.
UDP uses no windowing or acknowledgments so reliability, if needed, is provided by
application layer protocols. UDP is designed for applications that do not need to put
sequences of segments together.
The protocols that use UDP include:

TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol)

DNS (Domain Name System)
The following are the definitions of the fields in the UDP segment:

Source port – Number of the calling port

Destination port – Number of the called port

Length – Number of bytes including header and data

Checksum – Calculated checksum of the header and data fields

Data – Upper-layer protocol data
11.1.9 TCP and UDP port numbers
Both TCP and UDP use port (socket) numbers to pass information to the upper layers.
Port numbers are used to keep track of different conversations crossing the network at the
same time.
Application software developers agree to use well-known port numbers that are issued
by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). Any conversation bound for the FTP
application uses the standard port numbers 20 and 21. Port 20 is used for the data portion and
port 21 is used for control. Conversations that do not involve an application with a
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207
well-known port number are assigned port numbers randomly from within a specific range
above 1023. Some ports are reserved in both TCP and UDP, but applications might not be
written to support them. Port numbers have the following assigned ranges:

Numbers below 1024 are considered well-known ports numbers.

Numbers above 1024 are dynamically assigned ports numbers.

Registered port numbers are those registered for vendor-specific applications. Most
of these are above 1024.
End systems use port numbers to select the proper application. The source host
dynamically assigns originating source port numbers. These numbers are always greater than
1023.
11.2
The Application Layer
11.2.1 Introduction to the TCP/IP application layer
When the TCP/IP model was designed, the session and presentation layers from the OSI
model were bundled into the application layer of the TCP model. This means that issues of
representation, encoding, and dialog control are handled in the application layer rather than in
separate lower layers as in the OSI model. This design assures that the TCP/IP model provides
maximum flexibility at the application layer for developers of software.
The TCP/IP protocols that support file transfer, e-mail, and remote login are probably
the most familiar to users of the Internet.
These protocols include the following
applications:

Domain Name System (DNS)

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

Telnet
11.2.2 DNS
The Internet is built on a hierarchical addressing scheme. This scheme allows for routing
to be based on classes of addresses rather than based on individual addresses. The problem
this creates for the user is associating the correct address with the Internet site. It is very easy
to forget an IP address to a particular site because there is nothing to associate the contents of
the site with the address. Imagine the difficulty of remembering the IP addresses of tens,
hundreds, or even thousands of Internet sites.
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A domain naming system was developed in order to associate the contents of the site
with the address of that site. The Domain Name System (DNS) is a system used on the
Internet for translating names of domains and their publicly advertised network nodes into IP
addresses. A domain is a group of computers that are associated by their geographical location
or their business type. A domain name is a string of characters, number, or both. Usually a
name or abbreviation that represents the numeric address of an Internet site will make up the
domain name. There are more than 200 top-level domains on the Internet, examples of which
include the following:

.us – United States

.uk – United Kingdom
There are also generic names, which examples include the following:

.edu – educational sites

.com – commercial sites

.gov – government sites

.org – non-profit sites

.net – network service
See Figure for a detailed explanation of these domains.
11.2.3 FTP and TFTP
FTP is a reliable, connection-oriented service that uses TCP to transfer files between
systems that support FTP. The main purpose of FTP is to transfer files from one computer to
another by copying and moving files from servers to clients, and from clients to servers.
When files are copied from a server, FTP first establishes a control connection between the
client and the server. Then a second connection is established, which is a link between the
computers through which the data is transferred. Data transfer can occur in ASCII mode or in
binary mode. These modes determine the encoding used for data file, which in the OSI model
is a presentation layer task. After the file transfer has ended, the data connection terminates
automatically. When the entire session of copying and moving files is complete, the command
link is closed when the user logs off and ends the session.
TFTP is a connectionless service that uses User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TFTP is used
on the router to transfer configuration files and Cisco IOS images and to transfer files
between systems that support TFTP. TFTP is designed to be small and easy to implement.
Therefore, it lacks most of the features of FTP. TFTP can read, write, or mail files to or from a
remote server but it cannot list directories and currently has no provisions for user
authentication. It is useful in some LANs because it operates faster than FTP and in a stable
environment it works reliably.
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11.2.4 HTTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) works with the World Wide Web, which is the
fastest growing and most used part of the Internet. One of the main reasons for the
extraordinary growth of the Web is the ease with which it allows access to information. A Web
browser is a client-server application, which means that it requires both a client and a server
component in order to function. A Web browser presents data in multimedia formats on Web
pages that use text, graphics, sound, and video. The Web pages are created with a format
language called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). HTML directs a Web browser on a
particular Web page to produce the appearance of the page in a specific manner. In addition,
HTML specifies locations for the placement of text, files, and objects that are to be transferred
from the Web server to the Web browser.
Hyperlinks make the World Wide Web easy to navigate. A hyperlink is an object, word,
phrase, or picture, on a Web page. When that hyperlink is clicked, it directs the browser to a
new Web page. The Web page contains, often hidden within its HTML description, an address
location known as a Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
In the URL http://www.cisco.com/edu/, the "http://" tells the browser which protocol to
use. The second part, "www", is the hostname or name of a specific machine with a specific
IP address. The last part, /education identifies the specific folder location on the server that
contains the default web page.
A Web browser usually opens to a starting or "home" page. The URL of the home page
has already been stored in the configuration area of the Web browser and can be changed at
any time. From the starting page, click on one of the Web page hyperlinks, or type a URL in
the address bar of the browser. The Web browser examines the protocol to determine if it
needs to open another program, and then determines the IP address of the Web server using
DNS. Then the transport layer, network layer, data link layer, and physical layer work
together to initiate a session with the Web server. The data that is transferred to the HTTP
server contains the folder name of the Web page location. The data can also contain a specific
file name for an HTML page. If no name is given, then the default name as specified in the
configuration on the server is used.
The server responds to the request by sending to the Web client all of the text, audio,
video, and graphic files specified in the HTML instructions. The client browser reassembles
all the files to create a view of the Web page, and then terminates the session. If another page
that is located on the same or a different server is clicked, the whole process begins again.
Lab Activity
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Lab Exercise: Protocol Inspector, TCP and HTTP
This lab is to use Protocol Inspector, or equivalent software, to view dynamic
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) operations. The operation that will be specifically
looked at is HTTP during web page access.
11.2.5 SMTP
Email servers communicate with each other using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
(SMTP) to send and receive mail. The SMTP protocol transports email messages in ASCII
format using TCP.
When a mail server receives a message destined for a local client, it stores that message
and waits for the client to collect the mail. There are several ways for mail clients to collect
their mail. They can use programs that access the mail server files directly or collect their mail
using one of many network protocols. The most popular mail client protocols are POP3 and
IMAP4, which both use TCP to transport data. Even though mail clients use these special
protocols to collect mail, they almost always use SMTP to send mail. Since two different
protocols, and possibly two different servers, are used to send and receive mail, it is possible
that mail clients can perform one task and not the other. Therefore, it is usually a good idea to
troubleshoot e-mail sending problems separately from e-mail receiving problems.
When checking the configuration of a mail client, verify that the SMTP and POP or
IMAP settings are correctly configured. A good way to test if a mail server is reachable is to
Telnet to the SMTP port (25) or to the POP3 port (110). The following command format is
used at the Windows command line to test the ability to reach the SMTP service on the mail
server at IP address 192.168.10.5:
C:\>telnet 192.168.10.5 25
The SMTP protocol does not offer much in the way of security and does not require any
authentication. Administrators often do not allow hosts that are not part of their network to
use their SMTP server to send or relay mail. This is to prevent unauthorized users from using
their servers as mail relays.
11.2.6 SNMP
The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an application layer protocol that
facilitates the exchange of management information between network devices. SNMP enables
network administrators to manage network performance, find and solve network problems,
and plan for network growth. SNMP uses UDP as its transport layer protocol.
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An SNMP managed network consists of the following three key components:

Network management system (NMS) – NMS executes applications that monitor
and control managed devices. The bulk of the processing and memory resources
required for network management are provided by NMS. One or more NMSs must
exist on any managed network.

Managed devices – Managed devices are network nodes that contain an SNMP
agent and that reside on a managed network. Managed devices collect and store
management information and make this information available to NMSs using
SNMP. Managed devices, sometimes called network elements, can be routers,
access servers, switches, and bridges, hubs, computer hosts, or printers.

Agents – Agents are network-management software modules that reside in
managed devices. An agent has local knowledge of management information and
translates that information into a form compatible with SNMP.
11.2.7 Telnet
Telnet client software provides the ability to login to a remote Internet host that is
running a Telnet server application and then to execute commands from the command line. A
Telnet client is referred to as a local host. Telnet server, which uses special software called a
daemon, is referred to as a remote host.
To make a connection from a Telnet client, the connection option must be selected. A
dialog box typically prompts for a host name and terminal type. The host name is the IP
address or DNS name of the remote computer. The terminal type describes the type of
terminal emulation that the Telnet client should perform. The Telnet operation uses none of
the processing power from the transmitting computer. Instead, it transmits the keystrokes to
the remote host and sends the resulting screen output back to the local monitor. All processing
and storage take place on the remote computer.
Telnet works at the application layer of the TCP/IP model. Therefore, Telnet works at
the top three layers of the OSI model. The application layer deals with commands. The
presentation layer handles formatting, usually ASCII. The session layer transmits. In the
TCP/IP model, all of these functions are considered to be part of the application layer.
Summary
An understanding of the following key points should have been achieved:

The functions of the TCP/IP transport layer

Flow control

The processes of establishing a connection between peer systems
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
Windowing

Acknowledgment

Transport layer protocols

TCP and UDP header formats

TCP and UDP port numbers

The processes and protocols at the TCP/IP application layer

Domain Name Services

File Transfer Protocols

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

Simple Network Management Protocol

Telnet
Appendix
Appendix
URL
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URL
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
http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214221,00.html
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http://searchwebservices.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid26_gci214219,00.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/search/1,293876,sid7,00.html?query=Hype
rtext+Transfer+Protocol&ctype=ALL

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci213976,00.htm

http://searchwebservices.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid26_gci213908,00.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci211579,00.html

http://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/portnumbers.asp

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/U/User_Datagram_Protocol.html

http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/T/TCP.html

http://cs.nmhu.edu/osimodel/transport

http://www.cs.panam.edu/~meng/Course/CS6345/Notes/chpt-6/node8.html

http://www.internet-tips.net/Networks/osi_transport.ht

http://netlab.caltech.edu/netlab-pub/EoTwiley.pd

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
http://www.ralphb.net/IPSubnet/

http://support.wrq.com/tutorials/tutorial.html

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/routing.htm

http://www.inetdaemon.com/tutorials/internet/routing/dv_vs_ls.html

http://www.faqs.org/faqs/cisco-networking-faq/section-28.html

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/routing.htm#xtocid6

http://www.pku.edu.cn/academic/research/computer-center/tc/html/TC0310.html

http://www.ictglobal.com/ICT009/routing_basics.html

http://www.inetdaemon.com/tutorials/internet/routing/routing_vs_routed.html

http://www.cs.cornell.edu/skeshav/talks/infocom97panel/

http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/inet-pages/ip-packet.htm

http://ironbark.ucnv.edu.au/courses/subjects/c202/1998/lectures/Lect19.html

http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/network/2001/05/22/net_2nd_lang.html

http://www.isc.org/

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci213780,00.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci213894,00.html

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ml

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214257,00.html

http://www.microsoft.com/windows2000/en/server/help/default.asp?url=/windows
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2000/en/server/help/ip_addresses.htm

http://iishelp.web.cern.ch/IISHelp/iis/htm/core/iinmadd.htm

http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/computing/users/sschmid/Spie/node5.html

http://www.nthelp.com/40/ip.htm

http://www.winntmag.com/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=7035

http://navigators.com/internet_architecture.html

http://www.snnug.com/meetings/tcpip.htm

http://www.pku.edu.cn/academic/research/computer-center/tc/html/TC0200.html

http://www.pku.edu.cn/academic/research/computer-center/tc/html/TC0300.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci213212,00.html

http://www.itep.co.ae/itportal/english/Content/EducationalCenter/InternetConcepts
/history_future.asp

http://compnetworking.about.com/library/glossary/bldef-segment.htm

http://www.howstuffworks.com/lan-switch3.htm

http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/network/2001/03/16/net_2nd_lang.html

http://www.transition-french.com/learning/whitepapers/downloads/colldom_wp.pd
f

http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/lan-pages/csma-cd.html

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/rtrmgmt/sw_ntman/cwsimain/cw
si2/cwsiug2/vlan2/stpapp.htm

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/lanswtch.ht

http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci212456,00.html

http://msridhar.freeshell.org/switching.htm

http://www.ctr.columbia.edu/~dimitri/teaching/E6761/Lecture7/switching_bridging
.pdf

http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/bridging.htm

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk389/tk214/technologies_white_paper09186a00
80092958.shtml

http://www.corning.com/opticalfiber/products__services/Frame_products.asp?Bod
yURL=/opticalfiber/pdf/wp4237%2Epdf

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk389/tk214/tk771/tech_protocol_home.html

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk389/tk214/technologies_white_paper09186a00
80092951.shtml

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk389/tk214/tech_brief09186a0080091a8a.html

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk389/tk214/tech_digest09186a0080091a86.htm
l

http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/3/tutorial/march98/mick_170398.pdf

http://www.bostontech.net/assets/files/articles/TechBrief1_P1.pdf
Appendix
URL
215

http://www.ethermanage.com/ethernet/100quickref/ch11qr_3.html

http://www.ethermanage.com/ethernet/100quickref/ch10qr_1.htm

http://www.iol.unh.edu/training/fe.html

http://www.usyd.edu.au/is/comms/networkcourse/USydNet_mod3_ethernet.html#t
oc10baseTtoc10baseT

http://www.usyd.edu.au/is/comms/networkcourse/USydNet_mod3_ethernet.html#t
oc10BASE2

http://www.usyd.edu.au/is/comms/networkcourse/USydNet_mod3_ethernet.html#t
oc10BASE5

http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/105/encheat.html

http://tc2.inre.asu.edu/datacomm/auto_negotiate/auto.htm

http://www.cites.uiuc.edu/network/autosense.html

http://www.networkinstruments.com/html/osup1021_-_ethernet_errors_tra.html

http://www.networkcomputing.com/netdesign/t15errors.html

http://www.usyd.edu.au/is/comms/networkcourse/USydNet_mod3_ethernet.html#t
ocDuplex

http://www.usyd.edu.au/is/comms/networkcourse/USydNet_mod3_ethernet.html#t
ocBackoff

http://www.wildpackets.com/compendium/EN/EN-Ifgap.html

http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk389/tk214/tk125/tech_protocol_home.html

http://howto.lycos.com/lycos/step/1,,pop-26166+25845+18046,00.html

http://www.techfest.com/networking/lan/ethernet2.htm

http://howto.lycos.com/lycos/step/1,,5+30+34556+34588+34592,00.html

http://www.usyd.edu.au/is/comms/networkcourse/USydNet_mod1_introduction&o
simodel.html#toc8023

http://standards.ieee.org/regauth/oui/index.shtml

http://www.usyd.edu.au/is/comms/networkcourse/USydNet_mod1_introduction&o
simodel.html#tocOSIModel

http://www.usyd.edu.au/is/comms/networkcourse/USydNet_mod1_introduction&o
simodel.html#tocIEEE

http://howto.lycos.com/lycos/step/1,,26166+25845+18041,00.html

http://www.cisco.com/warp/public/63/terminal_settings.html

http://www.webwisdom.com/edu_content/cps640fall00/lectures/module3/WAN/sld
054.htm

http://www.webwisdom.com/edu_content/cps640fall00/lectures/module3/WAN/sld
044.htm

http://www.webwisdom.com/edu_content/cps640fall00/lectures/module3/WAN/sld
008.htm
216
Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci211796,00.html

http://www.vtac.org/Tech/TDbasics_of_switching.htm

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci212769,00.html

http://searchsystemsmanagement.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid20_gci212660,0
0.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci213079,00.html

http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid14_gci211705,00.htm

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci213380,00.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci212294,00.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci212890,00.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214167,00.html

http://www.kan.org/networking/nethardware.html

http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/phy-pages/phy.html

http://www.cabletesting.com/CableTesting/default.htm

http://www.cabletesting.com/CableTesting/Testing/Definitions/Definitions_Power
+Sum+NEXT.htm

http://www.ecmweb.com/ar/electric_basics_datacom_copper_4

http://www.vislab.usyd.edu.au/photonics/fibres/fibre/attenuation0.html

http://www.eco.utexas.edu/faculty/Norman/long.extra/Student.F98/modem/Fourth
Right.html

http://www.wesonline.com/techsystems/bandwidth.htm

http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?article=articles%2F1992%2F
feb92%2F0215%2F92n0215%2Eas

http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~dil/ed-only/demos/doc/demonstrations/node3.html

http://arts.ucsc.edu/ems/music/tech_background/TE-06/teces_06.html

http://www.sosmath.com/algebra/logs/log1/log1.html

http://www.mindspring.com/~scottr/zmusic/

http://www.dattalo.com/technical/theory/sqwave.html

http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/waves/wavestoc.html

http://www.80211-planet.com/tutorials/article.php/149915

http://www.sss-mag.com/spectrum.html

http://www.surfnet.nl/innovatie/wlan/

http://www.80211-planet.com/tutorials/article.php/1548381

http://www.80211-planet.com/tutorials/article.php/992011

http://www.wlana.org/pdf/wlan_standards_orgs.pdf

http://www.ecmweb.com/ar/electric_new_fiberoptic_installation/

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci212992,00.htm

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci212613,00.html
Appendix
URL
217

http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/refrn/u14l3b.html

http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/propagation/propagation.html

http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/refln/reflntoc.html

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html

http://www.waterwheel.com/Guides/networking_basics_0006.htm

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci211806,00.html

http://www.tuplay.com/display.asp?i=41&p=1

http://www3.iptv.org/exploremore/energy/Energy_In_Depth/sections/circuits.htm

http://www.gelighting.com/eu/institute/firstlight/module01/01.html

http://www.sciencenet.org.uk/database/Physics/ACCircuits/p00396c.html

http://www.eccj.or.jp/catalog/2000w-he/memo/mame6.html

http://www.science-campus.com/electrical_theory/fundamentals/electrical_prop_m
ats.html

http://www.firewall.cx/osi-encap-decap.php

http://www.pku.edu.cn/academic/research/computer-center/tc/html/TC0102.html

http://nes.aueb.gr/presentations/p2p.pdf

http://www2.rad.com/networks/1994/osi/layers.htm

http://www.olemiss.edu/courses/EE/ELE_335/Spring2000/Htmlnotes/DigitalvsAna
log/

http://www.teamits.com/internet/support/?/internet/support/datatransferfaq.htm

http://www.commweb.com/article/COM20020517S0004

http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200105/18/eng20010518_70356.html

http://academic.udayton.edu/streaming/2_StreamingAtUD/analogy.htm

http://www.jegsworks.com/Lessons/lessonintro.htm

http://www.intrack.com/intranet/faqbasic.cfm

http://www.clavister.com/manuals/ver8x/manual/vpn/vpn_overview.htm

http://www.pcunix.com/Basics/vpn.html

http://www.gcn.com/21_16/guide/19055-1.html

http://searchnetworking.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid7_gci214083,00.html

http://www.webwisdom.com/edu_content/cps640fall00/lectures/module3/WAN/sld
004.htm

http://www.commweb.com/article/COM20020517S0006

http://www.protocols.com/pbook/tcpip.htm

http://www.icoe.k12.ca.us/support/network/topology.htm

http://www.howstuffworks.com/category.htm?cat=Hardwar

http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/

http://www.axis.com/documentation/whitepaper/ip_networks_basics.htm

http://www.howstuffworks.com/boolean.htm
218
Cisco Academy – CCNA 3.0 Semester 1

http://www.math.ohiou.edu/~just/hex.htm

http://www2.rad.com/networks/1994/ip_addr/tcpip2.htm

http://www.netlingo.com/more/binary.html

http://www.psinvention.com/zoetic/base2.htm

http://www.psinvention.com/zoetic/base10.htm

http://csep1.phy.ornl.gov/guidry/phys594/lectures/performance_prog/data.html

http://scholar.hw.ac.uk/site/computing/subindex_f1ncomp5topic1.html

http://www.jbase.com/knowledgebase/manuals/3.0/30manpages/man/AsciiChart.ht
m

http://www.jsifaq.com/SUBJ/tip4800/rh4873.htm

http://www.learnthenet.com/english/html/12browser.htm

http://howto.lycos.com/lycos/step/1,,26166+25551+19875,00.html

http://www.wown.com/j_helmig/tcpip.htm

http://www.linfield.edu/~darnett/helpages/NICinstall/NICStart.html

http://www.erg.abdn.ac.uk/users/gorry/course/lan-pages/nic.html

http://library.albany.edu/internet/

http://library.albany.edu/internet/connect.html