THE 18th CENTURY, EUROPEN STATES, INTERNATIONAL WARS & SOCIAL CHANGE
FOCUS QUESTIONS
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What were the main developments in France, Great Britain, the Dutch Republic, the Mediterranean states &
the Scandinavian monarchies in the 18th century?
What do historians mean by the term “Enlightened Absolutism” & to what degree did 18 th century Prussia,
Austria & Russia exhibit its characteristics?
What were the causes & results of the Seven Years War?
What changes occurred in agriculture, finance & industry during the 18th century?
Who were the main groups making up the European social order in the 18 th century & how did the conditions in
which they lived differ b/t groups & b/t different parts of Europe?
THE EUROPEAN STATES
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Most European states in the 18th century were ruled by monarchs although the justifications of the previous
century for strong monarchy continued, “_______________” assumptions were gradually superseded by
influential “utilitarian” (practical) arguments as Europe became increasingly “_______________”
Enlightened Absolutism
 Enlightenment thought had some impact on the _______________ development of European states in the
18th century
 Closely related to the Enlightenment idea of “_______________” was the belief in “_______________”
which were thought to be inalterable privileges that ought not to be with held from any person
o These natural rights included _______________ before the law, freedom of religious worship,
freedom of speech & press & the right to assemble, hold property & seek happiness (American
_______________)
 The question is “How are these natural rights to be _______________ & _______________”?
 In the opinion of most _____________, most people needed the direction provided by an enlightenment ruler
 These rulers were enlightened b/c
o They allowed __________ toleration, freedom of speech & press & the right to hold private property
o They fostered arts, sciences & _______________
o They must not be arbitrary in their _____________
o They must obey the _______________ & enforce them fairly for all _______________
 Many historians believed that a new monarchy emerged in the 18 th century called “enlightened ___________”
or “enlightened absolutism”
o Basically these were the rulers that followed the __________ of the philosophies & ruled by
enlightened principles, establishing a path to modern _______________ (Fredrick II of Prussia,
Catherine the Great of Russia & Joseph II of Austria)
The Atlantic Seaboard States
 As a result of overseas _______________ in the 16th century, the European economic axis began to shift
from the _______________ to the _______________ seaboard
 In the 17th century, the English & Dutch _______________ as Spain & Portugal _______________
 By the 18th century, Dutch power had waned & it was left to the English & French to build the ____________
empires that created a true global _______________
 In the 18th century France experienced an economic revival as the Enlightenment gained strength
o Louis VIV had left France with enlarged _______________, an enormous debt & a 5 year old great
grandson as his _______________
o The governing of France fell upon the Duke of _______________ whose good intentions thwarted by
his drunken & immoral behavior (after Louis XIV & during the reign of Louis XV)
o The loss of the 7 Years War, burdensome _________, mounting public _______, hungry people & a
court-life at Versailles that was frivolous & carefree forced Louis to recognize the growing disgust
with his _______________
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Louis was succeeded by his 22 year old grandson Louis XVI who knew little about the _______________ of
the French _______________ & lacked the energy to deal decisively with state affairs
o His wife “Marie _______________” was a spoiled Austrian princess who continued to spend lavishly
The success of the Glorious Revolution in England had prevented absolutism w/o clearly inaugurating
_______________ monarchy
The British political system was characterized by a sharing of power b/w the king & Parliament with Parliament
gradually gaining the _______________
o Because the aristocracy was divided by factional struggles based on family rivalries the kings could
take advantage of the divisions to win aristocratic supporters through _______________, awarding
them titles, government posts & positions in the _________ & household staff
After its century in the sun the Dutch Republic or United Netherlands suffered a _______________ in
economic prosperity
Both local & national affairs were dominate by the _____________ that governed the Dutch Republic’s towns
In the 18th century the struggle continued b/t “House of Orange” (headed the executive branch of
government), “_______________” (wanted to reduce power of the Orangists) & the “_______________”
(artisans, merchants & shop keepers)
o With foreign _______________ (Prussia king sent troops) the Patriots were crushed
Absolutism In Central & Eastern Europe (Prussia, Austria & Russia)
 2 able Prussian kings in the 18th century (Frederick William I) & (Frederick II) further developed the 2 major
institutions (army & the bureaucracy) which were the backbone of _______________
 The nobility or landed aristocracy known as “_______________” owned large estates with many serfs still
played a dominating role in the Prussian state
o They held a complete _______________ over the officer corps of the Prussian army which
constantly expanded
o By using nobles as officers Frederick William ensured a close bond b/t the ___________ & the
_________& in turn the loyalty of the nobility to the absolute monarch (served the state)
 The remaining ___________ in Prussia were less important than the nobility
 The _______________ wee born on their lords’ estates & spent most of the rest of their lives there or in
the army
o They had few real __________ & even needed their Junker’s permission to _________
 For the middle class the only opportunity for any social ___________ was in the Prussian civil service where
the ideal of loyal service to the state became a hallmark of the middle class official
 _______________ were encouraged to serve in important administrative posts
 The ___________ Empire had become one of the great European states by the beginning of the 18 th century
o The city of “_______________” (center of the Habsburg monarchy) was filled with magnificent
palaces & churches & would become the musical capital of _______________
 Austria found it difficult to provide common laws & administer it’s nation of different _______________,
languages, religions & _______________
 Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780) was _______________ but forced the nobles & clergy to pay property
taxes & income taxes to royal officials
 Austrian & _______________ lands were divided into 10 provinces & subdivided into districts administered
by _________ officials rather than representatives thus making part of the Austrian Empire more
centralized & more bureaucratic
o It _______________ the power of the Habsburg state & enlarged & _______________ the army
 Her successor (Joseph II---her son) was more open to wider reforms & was determined to make changes & at
the same time carry on is mothers goal of enhancing _______________ power within the monarchy & Europe
 He was an earnest man who believed in the need to “_____________” anything standing in the path of reason
o He abolished _______________ & tried to give the peasants hereditary rights to their holdings
o He abandoned economic restraints by eliminating internal trade barriers & ending _______________
o A new penal code was put in place abrogating (repel) the death penalty & established the principle of
_______________ of all before the law
He introduced _______________ reforms including complete religious toleration & _____________
on the Catholic Church
o Altogether he issued 6,000 decrees & 11,000 __________ in his effort to transform Austria
His reforms (just like these notes) overwhelmed Austria & ended up alienating the ___________ by freeing
the serfs & alienating the church by his attacks on the _______________ establishment
o Even the serfs were _______________ (could not comprehend the drastic changes)
Catherine the Great of Russia (Peter the III’s wife) was an intelligent woman who was familiar with the
works of the philosophes & claimed that she swished to __________ Russia along the lines of the
Enlightenment ________
o She was smart enough to realize that success depended upon the support of the palace _________ &
the gentry class from which it stemmed (she could not afford to alienate the Russian nobility)
She was eager to pursue reform & called for ___________ to debate the details of new ________ codes
o She questioned serfdom, _______________ & capital _______________ & advocated the equality
of all people in the eyes of the law
In an effort to reorganize local government, she divided _______________ into 50 provinces which was then
subdivided into districts whose ruling officials were chosen by the nobles (sound familiar???)
o Basically the local _______________ became responsible for the day to day governing of Russia
Her favoring of nobility led to even worse ______________ for the Russian peasantry
Catherine proved a worthy successor to Peter the Great by expanding Russia’s _______________ westward
into Poland & southward to the _________ Sea, they earned the right to sail in Turkish waters by defeating
the Turks & expanded westward by taking ___________
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The Mediterranean World
 At the beginning of the 18th century, Spain experienced a change of dynasties from the Habsburgs to the
_______________ whose rule temporarily rejuvenated Spain & at least provided an opportunity to centralize
the state _______________
 Under “Philip V” (1700-1746) the laws, administrative institutions & language of _______________ were
established in the other Spanish kingdoms making the king of Castile truly the king of Spain
o Since the Treaty of _______________ in 1713 had taken the Italian territories & the Netherlands
away from Spain there were fewer administrative problems & less drain on their already overtaxed
resources
 _______________ had experienced decline since the 26th century but Marquis of Pombal (1699-1782)
curtailed the nobility & the Catholic Church & temporarily revived the empire until his death (nobility & church
regained power)
 After the Treaty of Utrecht, ____________ had replaced ___________ as the dominant force in Italy in
the 18th century
 Milan, Sardinia & Naples were given to the northern Italian state of Savoy until 1734 when the Bourbons of
Spain reestablished control over _______________ & _______________
The Scandinavian States
 In the 17th century, _______________ had become the dominant power in northern Europe but after the
Battle of Poltava in 1709 Swedish power declined rapidly
 _______________ also saw an attempt at enlightened reforms by “King Christian VII” (1766-1808) but his
efforts were opposed & led to his death in
Enlightened Absolutism Revisited
 Of the 3 major rulers traditionally associated most closely with enlightened absolutism (Joseph II, Frederick
II & Catherine the Great) only _______________ sought truly radical changes based on Enlightenment ideas
 All 3 were guided by a concern for the power & well being of their states as this heightened state power was
used to amass __________ & wage wars to gain more ____________
 Enlightenment practices did take place as law was reformed, religious toleration & the extension of
_______________ served to create more satisfied subjects & _______________ the state
WARS & DIPLOMACY
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The philosophes _______________ war as a foolish waste of life & resources in stupid quarrels of no value to
_______________
By the 18th century, the European system of self-governing, individual states was grounded in the principle of
self-interest as international relations were based on considerations of _______________
o “Balance of Power” was predicted on how to _______________ the power of one state by another to
prevent any one state from _______________ the others
The diplomacy of the 18th century focused primarily on dynastic _______________or the desire of ruling
families to provide for their _______________ & extend their holdings
o War was considered a rational means to achieve specific goals & leaders justified war on the basis of
national _______________
The major nation-states of Europe fought wars regularly in order to gain new _______________ & protect
existing trade routes or _______________
o The 5 major ____________ of Europe included: Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia & Russia
War Of The Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
 Unable to produce a male heir to the Austrian throne, the Habsburg emperor _______________ (1711-1740)
so feared the consequences of the succession of his daughter Maria Theresa that he spent much of his reign
negotiating the “_______________ Sanction” by which different European powers agreed to recognize his
daughter as his legal heir
o After Charles’s death the Pragmatic Sanction was pushed aside by _______________ of Prussia, on
Dec. 16, 1740, when Frederick II of Prussia invaded Silesia, one of the richest Habsburg provinces
 The vulnerability of Maria Theresa encouraged France to enter the war against its traditional enemy Austria &
in turn Maria Theresa made an _____________ with Great Britain who feared French hegemony (dominance)
 By 1748 all parties were exhausted & agreed to stop when the “Treaty of _______________” ended the
fighting in Europe
o The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle promised the return of all occupied _______________ except
_______________ to their original owners
o Prussia’s _______________ to return Silesia guaranteed another war between Prussia & Austria
The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
 Maria Theresa refused to accept the loss of Silesia & prepared for its return by _______________ her
army while working diplomatically through her foreign minister (Count Wenzel von Kunitz) to _____________
Prussia from its chief ally, _______________
 France would abandon Prussia & allied itself with Austria & _______________ which saw Prussia as a major
hindrance to Russian goals in central Europe joined the new alliance---in return Great Britain allied with Prussia
o France, Austria & Russia
o Prussia & Great Britain
 The Seven Years War was the first __________ conflict & had 3 major areas of conflict---Conflict in Europe,
War in India & The French & _______________ War
 __________ would become established as the greatest colonial power w/ control over India & North America
 _______________ emerged as the greatest power on the Continent & the dominant force inside Germany,
reducing still further the power of the Holy Roman Empire & Habsburg Austria
 Frederick II of Prussia (The Great) emerges as the most remarkable _____________ of the war
o Prussia was the smallest of the main combatants & yet Frederick survived year after year of
campaigning, & despite coming near to defeat he emerged _______________
 The French lost their influence in __________ & __________ & they became territories of Great Britain
The Partition Of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795)
 The Partition of Poland was 3 territorial _______________ of Poland perpetrated by Russia, Prussia &
Austria
o Poland’s size was progressively reduced until, after the final partition, the state of Poland ceased to
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The First Partition occurred after Russia became involved in a war against the _______________ Turks
(1768)
o They won impressive victories, particularly in the Danubian principalities & Austria became alarmed &
_______________ to enter the war against _______________
_______________ (the Great) of Prussia, in order to avoid an escalation of the Russo-Turkish War,
determined to calm Austro-Russian relations by shifting the direction of Russia’s expansion from the Turkish
provinces to _______________
o Poland not only had a structurally weak government but also, since 1768, had been devastated by a civil
war & by Russian intervention & incapable of resisting territorial _______________
o On August 5, 1772, Russia, Prussia & Austria signed a treaty that _______________ Poland
The agreement deprived Poland of approximately __________ of its population & almost one-thirdof its land
area
o _______________ received all the Polish territory east of the line formed roughly by the Dvina &
Dnieper rivers
o _______________ gained the economically valuable province of Royal Prussia, excluding the cities of
Gdańsk (Danzig) & Toruń & also gained the northern portion of the region of Great Poland
(Wielkopolska)
o _______________ acquired the regions of Little Poland (Małopolska) south of the Vistula River,
western Podolia, & the area that subsequently became known as Galicia
Almost _________ years later Poland, which had made efforts to strengthen itself through internal reforms
as they adopted a new, liberal constitution (May 3, 1791)
o That action resulted in the formation of the conservative Confederation of _______________ (May
14, 1792) which asked Russia to intervene to restore the former Polish _______________
o Not only did Russia accept the confederates’ invitation but Prussia also sent troops into Poland & on
January 23, 1793, the two powers agreed upon the _______________ Partition of Poland
o Confirmed in August & September 1793—surrounded by Russian troops—the Second Partition
transferred to _______________ the major remnant of Lithuanian Belorussia & the western Ukraine
including Podolia & part of Volhynia & allowed _______________ to absorb the cities of Gdańsk &
Toruń as well as Great Poland & part of Mazovia
In response to the Second Partition the Polish officer Tadeusz Kościuszko led a national _______________
(March–November 1794)
Russia & Prussia intervened to suppress the _______________ & on October 24, 1795 they concluded an
agreement with Austria that divided the remnants of Poland b/t themselves
o By the Third Partition of Poland, which was not finally settled until January 26, 1797,
_______________ incorporated Courland, all Lithuanian territory east of the Neman (Nieman) River
& the rest of the Volhynian Ukraine
o _______________ acquired the remainder of Mazovia, including Warsaw & a section of Lithuania
west of the Neman
o _______________ took the remaining section of Little Poland, from Kraków northeastward to the
arc of the Northern Bug River
Those territorial _______________ were altered in 1807 when the emperor Napoleon of France created the
duchy of Warsaw out of the central provinces of Prussian Poland & in 1815 when the Congress of __________
created the Congress Kingdom of Poland
However, the main result of the partitions was the elimination of the sovereign state of Poland which was in
effect until after _______________, when the Polish republic was finally restored (November 11, 1918)
ECONOMIC EXPANSION & SOCIAL CHANGE
The depressed _______________ conditions of the 17th century began to improve in the early 18th century
as rapid population growth, expansion in banking & trade, the beginnings of _______________ & an increase
in world wide trade characterized the economic patterns of the 18 th century
Growth Of The European Population
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Europe’s _______________ began to grow around 1750 & experienced a slow but steady rise (120 million in
1700 to 190 million in 1790) creating serious _______________
The most important cause of the population growth rate was a decline in the _________ rate due to more
plentiful food & better transportation of food supplies which led to improved diets & less ____________
o There was also an end to the __________ plague but diseases like typhus, smallpox, influenza &
dysentery were still rampant b/c ___________ conditions remained poor (no trash pickup, little
bathing, dirty clothes no system to eliminate human waste)
Family, Marriage & Birthrate Patterns
 The __________ rather than the individual was still the heart of Europe’s social organization & most people
still thought of the family in traditional terms (patriarchal w/husband dominating his wife & children)
o Parents (fathers) still selected _______________ partners for their children based on the interest
of the family ($$$ or land was more important than happiness)
 At the beginning of the 18th century traditional attitudes prevailed in ___________ care
o Lower class women _______________ for best nutritional values & also served as wet nurses (breast
feeders) for aristocratic & upper middle _______________ (it was undignified to them)
 In the 2nd half of the 18th century, traditional _______________ began to change especially in Western
Europe as the impact of Enlightenment thought & increasing survival rates of infants led to new attitudes
toward _______________
o Shops for children’s clothes appeared, appeals for women to breast-feed their own children followed &
“_______________” (treating the 1st kid as the favorite) came under attack---all children deserve
their parents attention
o In England, games & toys for children now appeared, the jigsaw puzzle was invented & books aimed to
please as well as __________ children
 The changes were limited mostly to upper classes & not peasants as they sometimes resorted to
“_______________” (killing the child) or abandonment due to _______________ crisis
o Infanticide was now punishable by death but it remained a solution to the problem of too many children
o Children were now “_______________” suffocated in their parents bed & unwanted children were
now being placed in hospitals or founding homes
 In most of Europe, newly married couples established their own _______________ independent of their
parents as the “_______________” (parents & independent children) family became more popular
o Late marriages (old) imposed limits on the _______________ (natural birth control) but it was offset
by the number of babies born out of _______________
o 5 births per family was the norm which caused a significant _______________ in the population
 _______________ of both women & children were crucial to the family economy as both helped in the
handicraft manufacturing in the home or were sent out to work as _______________ servants
o In __________areas, children worked on the land, married women grew vegetables in small plots,
tended livestock & sold eggs, vegetables & milk
 Bad harvests or a downturn in employment in cities often reduced people to poverty & a life of ___________
An Agricultural Revolution
 18th century _______________ was characterized by increases in food production due to 4 reasons
o More farmland, Increased yields per acre, Healthier & more abundant livestock & Improved climate
 The little _______________ of the 17th century declined in the 18th century & is evident in moderate
summers that provided more ideal _______________ conditions
 The amount of land under _______________ was increased by abandoning the old open-field system (part of
the land lied vacant to renew)
 The formally _______________ fields were now planted with new crops (alfalfa, turnips & clover which
restored nitrogen = fertility)
 They also produced dried hay or feed in the _______________ for livestock enabling landlords to maintain a
huge number of animals which increased the amount of meat in the European diet & enhanced food production
to more _______________ (crap) to fertilize the fields yielding more food per acre
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Better yields of _______________ (potato & maize) which are rich in vitamin A & C & high in carbs could now
be stored for _______________ use
The English were the leaders in adopting new techniques & this early modernization of agriculture increased
the productivity, made it possible to feed an expanding population which later ushered in a new world of
_______________ & _______________
New Methods Of Finance
 A decline in the supply of __________ & __________ in the 17th century had created a chronic shortage of
money that undermined the efforts of governments to meet their needs
 The establishment of new public & private __________ & the acceptance of paper notes made possible an
expansion of __________ in the 18th century
o The Bank of _______________ (1694) received deposits & exchanged foreign currencies but it also
made loans
o In return for lending money to the government, the bank was allowed to issue paper
“_______________” backed by its credit which provided a paper substitute for gold & silver
European Industry
 The most important product of European industry in the 18 th century was _______________
o Woolen cloth made up 75% of Britain’s exports & later France also became a leader in wool cloth
production
o Most textiles were still produced at workshops in cities & by “domestic system” in the countryside
which became known as the “_______________ system” (in the home piece by piece & a family
enterprise)
 The importation of raw _______________ from slave _______________ encourage the production of
cotton cloth in Europe
 _______________ developed new methods & new machines (flying shuttle, water frame) --- part of the
_______________ Revolution
THE SOCIAL ORDER OF THE 18th CENTURY
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Social status was still largely determined not by wealth & economic standing but by the division into traditional
“_______________” or “_______________” determined by heredity
The Peasants
 Because society was still mostly rural during the enlightenment, the peasants were the largest social group
(_______ of Europe’s population)
o _______________ were different from area to area (free peasant & the serf)
 Local villages were the centers for peasants social lives as the village maintained public order, provided poor
relief, a village church, collected taxes for the government, maintained the roads & bridges & established
common _______________ for sowing, plowing & harvesting crops
 The peasant diet consisted of dark _______________ (wheat & rye flour), water, wine, beer & soups of
_______________ & vegetables
The Nobility
 The nobles were only _______________ of the European population but they dominated the society
o Being born a noble automatically _______________ a place at the top of the social order with special
_______________ & _______________ (judgment by peers, immunity from severe punishment &
exemption from many taxes)
 Nobles played an important role in military & government _______________
o They served as military officers & administrative positions in the _______________
 The gap b/t the _________ & the __________ was huge (poor nobles were treated as peasants) but wealth
made it possible to enter the ranks of the nobility
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“The Aristocratic Way Of Life” fulfilled the desire of aristocrats for both elegance & greater privacy with
huge _______________
o They were also educated, learned multiple languages, traveled & were _______________
The Inhabitants Of Towns & Cities
 _______________ were still a distinct minority of the total population except (Dutch, Britain & Italy)
 Urban dwellers were outnumbered by rural inhabitants, town played an important role in Western _________
o Peasants resented the _______________ of towns & their exploitation of the countryside to serve
urban interests
 _______________ was a highly visible problem in the 18 th century both in cities & in the countryside
 The poor had been viewed as “blessed children of God” & the problem of _______________ remained as
another serious blemish on the quality of 18 th century life