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Introduction Details the basic workings of a camera
Zoetrope The development of the illusion of motion
The Lumière brothers and their contributions to the cinematic image
Cinematography What is cinematography? What does a cinematographer use?
The Director The function and history of the controlling source
Image How the image moves; qualities of the image
Lens An introduction to the workings of the lens
Lens Perspective and Depth Perspective Relations, Focal Depth, and Field Depth
Film Stock Techniques of application and development
Framing The ways in which the viewer and camera co-operate, and point-of-view
Focus The use of focus to create certain shots
Mise-en-Scene An introduction to Mise-en-Scene
Mise-en-Scene and Setting Considerations of what we see on film
Lighting A primary source of emotion in film!
Space The use of space, aesthetics and timing in cinema
Movement The methods which the camera uses to move around
Shots Types of shots and distances used by the camera
Introduction to the camera
As you may know from using ordinary photographic cameras, there must be no light
entering the mechanisms. If light gets in (unless it's deliberate), you have one ruined film!
The camera's internal chamber must be light-tight.
How do images work their way onto the film?
The lens has this job. What the lens does is to focus light reflected from a scene onto each
frame of film.
How does the film get there?
The shutter lets light onto the film through the lens. This happens only when the film is not
moving and is ready for exposure.
How does the film move around the camera?
Two reels move the film across the lens and aperture. One brings the film in, the other takes it
back out. This other reel is called the take-up reel.
In one second, 24 individual frames of film shoot across the lens! This speed is commonly
referred to as 24 fps or 24 frames per second.
How does the image move?
24 frames per second is fast enough to fool your brain into thinking that these images actually
move. We'll find out more by looking at the
Preparing a scene and shooting
Whether you are creating an one minute short video about a family event, or a one hour
documentary about a pressing special issue, just remember these basic points – tell a
story with your production, make sure you are comfortable with your equipment,
including the camcorder, audio and tripod, and expect things to go wrong and have a
work around plan and gear just in case. Of course, since you are planning to put your
video on the web, you will also have to deal with compression, uploading, bandwidth
restraints and the other issues associated with streaming and web based video.
Shooting Movies for the Web.
The process of making movies for the Internet is not altogether different from making
classical films, but there are several distinctions that will call for special attention.
When shooting for the Web, you should begin with the end in mind: Watching Net
cinema is a radically different experience than seeing a movie in a television set or
cinema. The width of the screen (the monitor window of most multimedia players) is
three inches, not thirty feet. The typical Web surfer huddles only 15 inches away from
the image, not 150 feet. The factors that determine how your movie will appear over the
Web are governed by the video-compression software used to squeeze your raw DV
signal into a video file. For this reason, you need to consider several shooting methods
that can dramatically improve the Web movie experience.
Cinematographer and his staff.
The cinematographer is the source of information on all things to do with the camera.
The knowledge that the cinematographer is required to know encompasses photography
composition and processes, lighting, and camera movement. Cinematography is
therefore very involved with each shot of a film.
The following staff work under and report to the cinematographer:
- Camera Operator, who may have further assistants to operate and maintain the
cameras.
- Key Grip, supervisor of the team of grips. The grips carry and arrange equipment and
props, as well as set and lighting parts.
- Gaffer, that often-puzzling name which is really the head of electrics. The gaffer
supervises organisation and positioning of lights. The gaffer's assistant is, of course, the
best boy
The Director.
The director is generally in charge of those phases in production which require the
camera and editing; co-ordinating the look of the film and how these 'looks' are
assembled together. The director's aim is to give an ideal picture of the scene, in each
case placing his camera in such a position that it records most effectively the particular
piece of action or detail which is dramatically significant. He becomes, as it were, a
ubiquitous observer, giving the audience at each moment of the action the best possible
viewpoint. The director and cinematographer very often work together on how each
scene will be shot and lit.
Know Your Equipment.
Concerning equipments, the cinematographer uses film cameras running at the agreed
standard of 24 frames per second (fps), cinematographers are limited in the choice of
shutter speeds they can use. The shutter speed therefore cannot exceed 24fps.They can,
however, control exposure time by using a variable speed camera. For internet movies
around 14 fps are enough.
If your camcorder supports it, turn on the start and stop beeps. Also, if your camcorder
provides, make sure the time code or footage meter is displayed in the viewfinder or
foldout LCD view screen. Another good technique to practice with your new
camcorder is zooming. Some zoom controls are very touchy while some are smooth as
silk. Almost every camcorder now comes with variable touch zoom control. The harder
you push, the faster the zoom goes. Practice with it so that you know just how much
touch is needed to do a slow zoom versus a crash zoom. Also play with focus. Even
though auto focus works great most of the time, there are some moments when you will
need to focus manually. Know how to find that focus ring in the dark; learn which way
you need to turn the focus ring. What about manual overrides, transitions and special
effects? If you use controls like white balance, aperture, shutter speed, etc., practice
with them before using them for the first time in the field. If your camcorder supports it,
check out the various auto exposure modes and see how they affect your camcorder.
Sometimes modes like Sports, Sun & Ski, Landscape, etc., can be very helpful. On
other camcorders they may not do much at all.
Another question is how light sensitive is your camcorder? How much light do you
really need to make nice pictures? You need to know before you volunteer to shoot a
wedding ceremony in a candlelit church how your camcorder is going to respond in that
low lighting. Will you need to make special adjustments to the manual controls like
aperture, shutter speed and gain? Do you even know where your aperture, shutter and
gain controls are?
Special Effects or Not. If you apply a special effect to your video while you are
shooting, you are stuck with it. If you decide to use an “old time movie” effect while
shooting your video, you can not go back later and get rid of it. That is why it is
recommended adding all your special effects later in the editing process. That way the
original footage stays pristine and perfect. Experiment with effects in the editing
process. By the way, many new camcorders can now add these special effects during
playback so that if you really want them, you can get them without affecting your
original video. The biggest problem which has been noted with camcorder special
effects is that sometimes they get accidentally turned on and you end up shooting your
whole video without noticing that the image is stretched out to wide angle or that the
image is tinted pink. In the rush of excitement when shooting a family event, it is easy
to overlook the fact, especially in a dark hall, that something just doesn’t look right
about the picture in the viewfinder. However, there may be times when you have to use
special effects. Maybe you hate to edit or don’t have time to add additional effects. I
know professional wedding guys who prefer to do many of their effects in camera.
They have pre-set up “wedding day” stills with a series of graphics that can be used to
superimpose over the live video. They also use pre-made stills to act as chapters
between the various sections of the event.
Be prepared as well as possible. Maybe it is the Boy Scout motto or Murphy’s Law,
but being ready for all that can go wrong is the best way to prepare for a video shoot.
For example – do you have enough batteries in case the ceremony or event goes long?
Are they fully charged? If you do run out of charged batteries, did you remember to
bring the AC power supply? OK, you got the power supply but did you bring power
extension cords? How about some duct tape to tape down those cords so that people
don’t trip over them? How about videotape? Do you have enough? Do you have a good
system for labeling and keeping track of your tapes? What about shooting outside
events? Are you ready for all eventualities? What if it starts to rain or snow? What are
you going to do if the sun sets?
Shoot Too Much – Cover Your Scene Unless you are planning to edit your entire
production in the camera, on location, feel free to overshoot. Tape is cheap. As long as
you have power and tape, shoot as long as possible. Make sure you get lots of closeups. Close-ups of faces, of presents, of the cake, etc. Get shots of any documentation
like signs, cards and banners. These kinds of shots, often referred to a b-roll in the
professional world, often spell the difference between a boring chronological
documentary of what happened at an event and a lively and exciting video production.
You might want to hand off your camcorder to others and let them have a go. If you
feel comfortable, bring some extra consumer camcorders, put them on full automatic,
and hand them out. Let some of the other people at the event roam around and gather
footage. Each video shooter has a personality. There are certain kinds of shots you will
prefer to grab. By letting other personalities participate in the shooting process, you will
get a much wider range of shots to select from. Of course, the negative is that you will
have to watch and log these other tapes and unfortunately, much of it may simply be
unusable.
Audio
If you want the audio to sound good you need to spend some time planning on how to
capture interviews, music and other room sounds. Unfortunately, the built-in
microphones on most camcorders are not very good. DV camcorders have the
“potential” to capture great CD quality sound but once again, their built-in microphones
border on average to poor. On many camcorders, especially those tiny little DV
camcorders, the microphone is on top, perfect for catching room noise and little else.
You will need to use some kind of external microphone plugged into your camcorder’s
audio in jack. Some camcorders, in particular, Sony, provide a mike power outlet as
well. Either way, by using an external mike, you will be able to get much better quality
audio. If you are working by yourself you can attach a shotgun mike to your camcorder
and walk around the room, catching video and audio. Another option is to use a
wireless microphone system. The receiver unit sits on your camcorder. You can then
attach a wireless lavaliere mike to whoever is speaking or you can hold a mike in your
hand. If you can recruit a helper, it is often helpful to have someone walk around the
event conducting interviews with the guests and partygoers. If you have a helper, you
can have them do these interviews with a hand held mike, or by using a mike on a
boom, actually move in close enough to mike the various guests. Whatever option you
choose, make sure you hook up your mike system before you go to the event and try it
out. Play with it a while and make sure the connections are secure. Of course, if these
are powered mikes, brings lots of extra batteries.
Have a Plan. Every video you shoot tells a story. It has a beginning, middle and end.
Whether you are simply documenting your kid’s birthday party, a little league game or
a wedding, every event has a structure. Obviously the easiest structure to follow is
chronological. First this happened, then this, then this. You don’t have to shoot in this
order but your finished production should have a pattern and structure. For example, let
us take a typical children’s birthday party. You might want to start with interviewing
your kid when he or she wakes up the morning of the party. You may then want to cut
to a close-up of the invitation. This could serve as a great title section for the movie.
Your next shots might be preparing for the party and getting everything ready. Your
next shots could be a series of the guests arriving, then a montage of various party
games cut to some cool rock and roll, and finally ending with everyone singing happy
birthday, and opening up the presents. Document the guests leaving, the big mess in the
house, and maybe then end with a still shot of your 5 year old napping after the big
event. You get the idea. Create a story. Write down the shots you will need. Create a
checklist to make sure you get all the shots you need. Of course, be open to “found”
shots. Things just happen and you should be open to catching the unexpected.
Depending on your computer and editing gear, you might want to edit all this in the
camcorder, carefully shooting one scene after another. You can also connect two DV
camcorders together via their 1394/FireWire ports and assemble edit between them,
building your final presentation. And of course, if you have nonlinear editing software
on your computer, you can edit your final production together and add sophisticated
titles, effects and transitions.
Use of lights and lighting a scene. Photography is painting with light: you start with a
subject, and then add or subtract light to achieve the look you want. The goal of lighting
is not to fill in all the shadows so that everything is lit evenly. The lights are your
instruments for creating an effect or mood. Today's camcorders enable you to create an
infinite variety of lighting effects. If all you do is use just the available light, you will
probably get useable pictures. However, if you take the time to control the light in a
scene, you can produce great pictures that work well with your story.
In professional moviemaking, producers can't afford to worry about the time of day or
the weather. They defy nature by bringing lighting gear to create their own time and
weather. If it’s overcast, they can add sunlight. You probably won't have that kind of
flexibility and budget. In most cases, you won't be building a set and lighting it from
scratch, but using real locations and adjusting the available light.
Here are things to think about as you work to light the shot:

Look at the shot. With the camera set up and actors or stand–ins in position,
study the lighting and notice how it works with the actors and the background.
Does it accentuate the primary subjects? In the composition of the shot, is
anything highlighted so that it competes with the subject for the viewer’s
attention? Does the lighting make sense with the story? Will the lighting in the
shot match the lighting in other shots when they are edited together? Suppose
that in the office you are using, there is only one artificial light, which sits on a
desk behind the camera, plus strong, direct sunlight filtering through blinds on
the other side of the room.

Make decisions. Does the existing light work? In this example, you'd probably
decide to eliminate the sunlight. It is so strong that the room light is too low for
the given contrast ratio of the camera. In other words, everything that is not lit
by sunlight is almost black. The sunlight also competes with the story. You want
the scene to feel foreboding, not sunny. There are two other reasons why the
sunlight doesn’t work. First, it is not motivated. If your scene includes heavily
filtered sunlight, the viewer is going to want to know why. If it doesn’t relate to
the story, then you've added an element of confusion. In addition the sun will
move. If it takes more than a few minutes to complete the shoot, the shots won't
match when it comes time to edit the scene together. With the sun gone, the
room will be fairly dark. You can take advantage of additional lighting in the
room, or use some of the lights you brought.

Set up lighting. So far you've made two lighting changes: you reduced the
sunlight by closing the blinds, and added additional overhead room light. The
room light adds a low, warm, diffused light from above that covers the whole
scene. You can turn the exposure up on the camera to compensate. Even though
the actors’ faces are now lit, they seem undefined, and blend too much with the
wood walls in the background. Definition is created by adding and controlling
shadows. You can add lighting to the actors’ faces by bouncing a photoflood off
a white wall that is out of frame to the right of the camera. This adds a soft,
diffused light to the sides of their faces and provides some definition. To add
some color and warmth to the shot, you could also move the floor lamp into the
background and turn it on.

Last check. Now you ask the actors to walk through the shot one last time. As
they move, you watch every move carefully and look for areas where the
lighting can be improved further. You notice that one actor passes through a
shadow as he enters the room, so you add a light in the hallway outside.

Everything looks good. The adjusted lighting now adds just the right amount of
contrast and definition to objects in the shot—it complements the composition.
It also matches the other shots in the scene. Most importantly, it helps set the
mood for the scene. And by doing this, it fits with the story you are telling. If
you have little or no control over your subjects, you must block and set up shots
as you go. When you study a location, think about how you are going to get the
shots. If you can, adjust the lighting before you start. If not, and the location is
fairly dark, you can try using a very diffused camera light or turning the gain up
on the camcorder. In situations where you have little or no control over lighting
and the subject, you have to be very creative. The pictures may not be pretty, but
if they fit with the story you are telling, the shots will work.
Shooting.
You've spent the time and energy to plan, block, and compose the shot. You've set the
lights, and prepared the sound. Now it's finally time to start shooting. As the director, it
is time for you to take charge. Before you press the red button on the camcorder, you
need to let everyone know who is in control.
If you are shooting dialog and have control of the location, you should first make sure
that everything is as quiet as possible: all talking and noises stop. You might need to
speak up to get everyone's attention. Then, inform everyone that you are about to roll
and that everyone should go to their places; you can say “stand by” or “first positions.”
When everyone is quiet and waiting, start the camcorder and inform the group that the
camera is “rolling,” or “rolling and recording.” When you are ready, cue the actors to
begin the shot by announcing “action.” The type of shot will dictate how much
direction you need to give before you start rolling. If you are shooting real life and want
the shot to seem unplanned, you may not want to give any warning at all. Do whatever
it takes to get the shot. It may require setting up 50 feet away from the subject and
giving no direction; it may mean setting up one foot away and jabbing the subject with
a stick. In either case, a director's job is to get the shot, and you go about that anyway
you see fit.
Review Your Work
To make sure a take is good, especially if it was a complicated setup, you should play it
back in the camera. As you play it back, carefully examine the performance, framing,
lighting, and sound. It’s possible a moment you thought was brilliant was actually out
of focus, or the tape jammed and nothing was recorded. If you check your work often,
you might be able to catch the mistake and re–shoot the material immediately.
During production of a big–budget movie, the producers, the director, and the director
of photography view dailies to make sure the shoot is on track. Dailies are a
compilation of the good takes from the day’s shoot. If you have time in the evening
after your shoot, play back the material you took during the day. If you have a break
between shooting days, do a rough edit of the pieces you shot. It is far easier to do a
pick–up while you are set up for production than to have to set everything up again. A
pick–up is a shot or part of a shot that you get later to repair or improve a previous bad
shot.
References
[1] Bill Birney, Matt Lichtenberg, and Seth McEvoy, The Microsoft Windows Movie
Maker Handbook, Microsoft Press, 2000.
[2] Laura Mulvey, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, in Antony Easthope, ed.
Contemporary Film Theory. London: Longman, 1993
[3] Robert Stam, Robert Burgoyne, Sandy Flitterman-Lewis. New Vocabularies in Film
Semiotics. London: Routledge, 1992.
How Composition and Lighting
Can Help You Make Better
Movies
Composition
Posted: November 01, 2002
By Bill Birney, Matt Lichtenberg, and Seth McEvoy, authors of The Microsoft
Windows Movie Maker Handbook, Microsoft Press, 2000.
To compose a shot, study what you are going to shoot before setting up the camera. If
you are using actors, place them on the set or use other people to stand in for them. If
you have no control of the scene, study what you have. Move around and notice how
the objects in the shot change in relation to each other—how they move closer or
farther away, or get larger and smaller. Ask yourself how can you best relate the story
visually.
Here are a few pointers for composing a shot:
Select a subject
A shot should have only one subject. If a shot has more than one subject, you can break
it up into two or more shots. For example, if a scene has two people conversing, you
can shoot the entire scene from three different angles: one shot of both people, a second
shot with the one person as the primary subject, and a third with the other person as the
primary subject.
Find a frame for the subject
If you have control of your subjects, place them at their first positions. Then look for an
angle where the subjects and all the other objects in the shot can be contained
comfortably in the frame and each is angled the way you want. If you are using a wide–
angle shot, look for objects that you can place in the foreground to add a natural frame.
Find a balanced composition
Notice how all the objects in your shot are balanced. Look at the shapes, colors, and
areas of light and dark, and imagine them as simple shapes and lines. Do the shapes
create a balanced, well-composed picture that draws attention to the subject, or does it
draw the eye away from the subject? Keep moving until you find a balanced shot.
Figure 2: Shapes, lines, and light intensity draw your eye into the image.
Bring the camera in and check the shot
Use the zoom and focus and find the best framing for your subject.
Simplify
If you know what your primary subject is, you can simplify the composition. Strengthen
the focus on the subject by selecting uncomplicated backgrounds. Get closer to the
subject, if necessary, to cut out distractions.
Change the depth of field
Move the camera away from the subject and zoom in to reduce the depth of field. When
you do that, you can center attention more on your subject by throwing distracting
background and foreground objects out of focus.
Use the rule of thirds
The rule of thirds is a guideline used by photographers to determine positioning for a
subject. Imagine the frame divided into thirds, with equally spaced horizontal and
vertical lines dividing the frame. The four points where the lines intersect are where you
can position your subject to conform with the rule of thirds and create a good
composition. Putting the subject in the center of the frame is generally considered to be
bad composition.
Figure 3: A frame divided using the rule of thirds.
Lead the eyes and movement of your subjects
If a person is walking across the frame from left to right, the viewer will feel more
comfortable if the person is framed on the left so there is space in front. If a person is
standing looking off the left side of the frame (frame left), it works better to place him
on the right side of the frame.
Figure 4a: A subject on the left side of the frame has eye room to the right.
Figure 4b: Subject placement and eye room from right to left.
Use your lens and camera angle to emphasize a feeling
Use a long lens, or zoom in and move the camera back, to create a softer, intimate feel
to a shot. If you shoot a subject from a low angle you make it seem more powerful.
Shooting from above tends to diminish a subject. Ask yourself what camera angle will
best convey the emotion you’re aiming for.
Figure 5: Using a long lens to create a more intimate feel.
Adjust lighting
After lining up a shot, if you notice that the light seems unnatural or uneven, add or
subtract light.
Move to next position
If there will be movement in a shot, have the actors go to their next positions. In this
new position, does the shot composition still work? If not, think about how you can
move the camera or reposition the actors to recompose the shot. You may even need to
re-block the shot to make all of the elements work. Ideally, the camera and everything
in the shot should move fluidly and seamlessly from one position to the next.
Shooting on the Fly
If you are shooting real life and have no control over the subject, you need to do all this
on the fly. You have to size up a shot, set the camera, and start rolling, often before you
have a completely balanced shot. Usually, your composition will be compromised in
some way; you may not be able to get the subject’s facial expression or the lighting
exactly the way you want it. If you have no control of your subject and need perfectly
composed shots, plan on spending more time for the shoot and bringing along plenty of
video tape.
Rather than try to fight a situation that is out of your control, you can try using the
unplanned look as a style. Directors often work to make a shot look unplanned by
unbalancing the frame or adding distractions. While these techniques may not be
appropriate in every case, they can add a touch of reality that keeps an audience
engaged.
There is no law that says a shot has to be perfectly composed to work. It often works to
your advantage to intentionally break the rules to give your movie the feeling you want
to express. Composition is one part of the process. The overall goal of a shot is to help
tell your story.
------------------------By Bill Birney, Matt Lichtenberg, and Seth McEvoy, authors of The Microsoft
Windows Movie Maker Handbook, Microsoft Press, 2000.
Because travel time and location expenses are one of the biggest parts of a production
budget, production schedules are typically arranged to get shots by location. For
example, if you were using a mansion and a football field as shooting locations, you
would shoot all the scenes in the mansion before moving on to the football field, even if
you have to shoot them out of order. If you are shooting a documentary and your
outline calls for shots of a beach, it’s easier on your budget to get all shots on the same
day even if they will be spread throughout your movie. Be on the lookout for ways to
economize. For example, if a difficult setup is used for two scenes, you should plan to
do both shots together.
The basic strategy for getting a shot is to shoot the scene all the way through and keep
doing takes until you are satisfied with everything. Even if it seems repetitive and
painfully boring to shoot the entire scene from every setup multiple times, you will be
rewarded in the editing room with adequate coverage. If everything works right on the
first shot, you can move on to the next one—or maybe get another take just for safety.
Review Your Work
To make sure a take is good, especially if it was a complicated setup, you should play it
back in the camera. As you play it back, carefully examine the performance, framing,
lighting, and sound. It’s possible a moment you thought was brilliant was actually out
of focus, or the tape jammed and nothing was recorded. If you check your work often,
you might be able to catch the mistake and re–shoot the material immediately.
During production of a big–budget movie, the producers, the director, and the director
of photography view dailies to make sure the shoot is on track. Dailies are a
compilation of the good takes from the day’s shoot. If you have time in the evening
after your shoot, play back the material you took during the day. If you have a break
between shooting days, do a rough edit of the pieces you shot. It is far easier to do a
pick–up while you are set up for production than to have to set everything up again. A
pick–up is a shot or part of a shot that you get later to repair or improve a previous bad
shot.
------------------------------Are you Really Ready to Make Good Home Movies and Videos?
Lessons learned from Real Life
By Mark Shapiro
Are you just starting out with your first camcorder and are looking to become the Steven
Spielberg, Kevin Smith or Quentin Tarantino of your family and neighborhood? Maybe you have
had a camcorder for a while but have been afraid to do much more than just pick it up and
shoot some video around the house? Maybe you have been shooting videos for a while but
they are not looking as good as you would like? Here are some tips, gathered over years of
both professional and amateur videomaking, that may be of value to you. These tips are for
general moviemaking and using a camcorder, not just for shooting video destined to be used on
a web site or distributed digitally.
Know Your Equipment
It may sound odd but every camcorder is different. Each model has its particular quirks and
techniques for optimal performance. In my years of reviewing camcorders and of using a
diverse cornucopia of camcorders and video cameras to videotape family events, weddings,
business meetings, music videos and concerts, I have noticed that it takes a while to figure out
just where each camcorder’s buttons are and just how far I can move my thumb before I
accidentally activate the wrong effect or transition.
There are many different things you should know about your camcorder before you decide to
tape a one time event where a single mistake may earn you your family’s ire for years to come.
Start first with the basics. Know where the start and stop recording button is and learn to
recognize when your camera is rolling tape and when it is not. There is little worse then thinking
you had captured your daughter’s first homerun and then looking at your camcorder with a
sickening feeling and discovering that you have been in PAUSE the entire time. “Daddy, when
can we see my video?”
If your camcorder supports it, turn on the start and stop beeps. Also, if your camcorder
provides, make sure the time code or footage meter is displayed in the viewfinder or foldout
LCD view screen. I get a very comfortable feeling as I see those numbers churning away,
reminding me that yes indeed, the tape is actually moving past the video heads and is recording
video and audio.
Another good technique to practice with your new camcorder is zooming. Some zoom controls
are very touchy while some are smooth as silk. Almost every camcorder now comes with
variable touch zoom control. The harder you push, the faster the zoom goes. Practice with it so
that you know just how much touch is needed to do a slow zoom versus a crash zoom.
Also play with focus. Even though auto focus works great most of the time, there are some
moments when you will need to focus manually. Know how to find that focus ring in the dark;
learn which way you need to turn the focus ring.
What about manual overrides, transitions and special effects? If you use controls like white
balance, aperture, shutter speed, etc., practice with them before using them for the first time in
the field. If your camcorder supports it, check out the various auto exposure modes and see
how they affect your camcorder. Sometimes modes like Sports, Sun & Ski, Landscape, etc.,
can be very helpful. On other camcorders they may not do much at all.
Master your Backlight button
Backlight helps you save those situations where you are videotaping someone against a bright
background and all you are getting is a silhouette. Obviously the best thing to do, if possible, is
move the subject so they are properly lit. You can also re-compose your shot to eliminate the
glaring background. Baring those solutions, the next best is the backlight control which opens
up the camcorder aperture a few stops enabling your subject to be more properly exposed
while letting the background burn out.
How light sensitive is your camcorder? How much light do you really need to make nice
pictures? You need to know before you volunteer to shoot a wedding ceremony in a candlelit
church how your camcorder is going to respond in that low lighting. Will you need to make
special adjustments to the manual controls like aperture, shutter speed and gain? Do you even
know where your aperture, shutter and gain controls are?
Some camcorders make it easy to access the manual controls…some force you to navigate an
endless series of menus to turn on and control these effects. In some instances, these
frustrating menus may actually be better because it makes it more difficult to accidentally
engage an effect or control. If you are going to use overrides, make sure you can find them and
control them in dimly lit situations.
If you have been reading this magazine or doing video for any length of time you know about
the need for a good tripod. However, every tripod is different. Some pan and tilt smoother than
others; some need extra muscle to lock and unlock them. Some have legs and extensions that
are tricky to open up and use. It might sound silly but you need to practice setting up and using
your tripod, just like your camcorder. Tripods and heads vary in many ways.
When I was working a professional camera operator, one of the first things I would do whenever
I got on a job with a new camera and tripod was to practice setting it up and adjusting it. Also, I
would spend a lot of time panning and tilting with the camcorder mounted on the tripod head.
Which lock does what? Which control knob loosens what? A good exercise is to focus on a
distant object and then practice zooming in and out while at the same time panning and tilting,
trying to keep the entire process as smooth as possible.
Special Effects or Not –
I don’t like using special effects when shooting. If you apply a special effect to your video while
you are shooting, you are stuck with it. If you decide to use an “old time movie” effect while
shooting your video, you can not go back later and get rid of it.
That is why I recommend adding all your special effects later in the editing process. That way
the original footage stays pristine and perfect. Experiment with effects in the editing process. By
the way, many new camcorders can now add these special effects during playback so that if
you really want them, you can get them without affecting your original video.
The biggest problem I have noted with camcorder special effects is that sometimes they get
accidentally turned on and you end up shooting your whole video without noticing that the
image is stretched out to wide angle or that the image is tinted pink. In the rush of excitement
when shooting a family event, it is easy to overlook the fact, especially in a dark hall, that
something just doesn’t look right about the picture in the viewfinder.
However, there may be times when you have to use special effects. Maybe you hate to edit or
don’t have time to add additional effects. I know professional wedding guys who prefer to do
many of their effects in camera. They have pre-set up “wedding day” stills with a series of
graphics that can be used to superimpose over the live video. They also use pre-made stills to
act as chapters between the various sections of the event.
Be prepared – the videographer’s mantra
Maybe it is the Boy Scout motto or Murphy’s Law, but being ready for all that can go wrong is
the best way to prepare for a video shoot. For example – do you have enough batteries in case
the ceremony or event goes long? Are they fully charged? If you do run out of charged
batteries, did you remember to bring the AC power supply? OK, you got the power supply but
did you bring power extension cords? How about some duct tape to tape down those cords so
that people don’t trip over them?
How about videotape? Do you have enough? Do you have a good system for labeling and
keeping track of your tapes? What about shooting outside events? Are you ready for all
eventualities? What if it starts to rain or snow? What are you going to do if the sun sets?
Speaking of the sun, where will it be? I remember a time when I decided to do a favor for some
friends of mine who were getting married. At the last second they had called up and asked if I
would videotape their wedding as the company they had hired fell through. It was a beautiful
location – on a cliff overlooking the ocean at sunset. The only problem was that they wanted to
have the setting sun behind them. Oops. Because I rushed down there without any
preparation, it was one of the most difficult jobs I ever had. Between trying to keep the couple
and other members of the wedding party properly lit, and trying to capture the sounds of their
vows, it turned out to be a nightmare. And it was a favor…
Shoot Too Much – Cover Your Scene
Unless you are planning to edit your entire production in the camera, on location, feel free to
overshoot. Tape is cheap. As long as you have power and tape, shoot, shoot, and shoot some
more. Make sure you get lots of close-ups. Close-ups of faces, of presents, of the cake, etc.
Get shots of any documentation like signs, cards and banners. These kinds of shots, often
referred to a b-roll in the professional world, often spell the difference between a boring
chronological documentary of what happened at an event and a lively and exciting video
production.
You might want to hand off your camcorder to others and let them have a go. If you feel
comfortable, bring some extra consumer camcorders, put them on full automatic, and hand
them out. Let some of the other people at the event roam around and gather footage. Each
video shooter has a personality. There are certain kinds of shots you will prefer to grab. By
letting other personalities participate in the shooting process, you will get a much wider range of
shots to select from. Of course, the negative is that you will have to watch and log these other
tapes and unfortunately, much of it may simply be unusable. Bu that is the penalty for creativity.
Audio – Use a Good Mike
If you want the audio to sound good you need to spend some time planning on how to capture
interviews, music and other room sounds. If you are going to edit MOS (mitt out sound – an old
film expression) and just lay in a music soundtrack, it obviously doesn’t matter.
Unfortunately, the built-in microphones on most camcorders are not very good. DV camcorders
have the “potential” to capture great CD quality sound but once again, their built-in microphones
border on average to poor. On many camcorders, especially those tiny little DV camcorders, the
microphone is on top, perfect for catching room noise and little else.
You will need to use some kind of external microphone plugged into your camcorder’s audio in
jack. Some camcorders, in particular, Sony, provide a mike power outlet as well. Either way, by
using an external mike, you will be able to get much better quality audio.
If you are working by yourself you can attach a shotgun mike to your camcorder and walk
around the room, catching video and audio. Another option is to use a wireless microphone
system. The receiver unit sits on your camcorder. You can then attach a wireless lavaliere mike
to whoever is speaking or you can hold a mike in your hand. If you can recruit a helper, it is
often helpful to have someone walk around the event conducting interviews with the guests and
partygoers. I have done this before and recommend using several different interviewers as
each will know different people and have different angles on doing interviews. By the way, it
might be tempting to hand the mike to a drunk and boisterous volunteer but usually you end up
regretting it…
If you have a helper, you can have them do these interviews with a hand held mike, or by using
a mike on a boom, actually move in close enough to mike the various guests. Whatever option
you choose, make sure you hook up your mike system before you go to the event and try it out.
Play with it a while and make sure the connections are secure. Of course, if these are powered
mikes, brings lots of extra batteries.
Have a Plan – All Parties tell a story and all events are epics
Every video you shoot tells a story. It has a beginning, middle and end. Whether you are simply
documenting your kid’s birthday party, a little league game or a wedding, every event has a
structure. Obviously the easiest structure to follow is chronological. First this happened, then
this, then this.
You don’t have to shoot in this order but your finished production should have a pattern and
structure. For example, lets take a typical children’s birthday party. You might want to start with
interviewing your kid when he or she wakes up the morning of the party. You may then want to
cut to a close-up of the invitation. This could serve as a great title section for the movie. Your
next shots might be preparing for the party and getting everything ready. Your next shots could
be a series of the guests arriving, then a montage of various party games cut to some cool rock
and roll, and finally ending with everyone singing happy birthday, and opening up the presents.
Document the guests leaving, the big mess in the house, and maybe then end with a still shot
of your 5 year old napping after the big event. You get the idea. Create a story.
Write down the shots you will need. Create a checklist to make sure you get all the shots you
need. Of course, be open to “found” shots. Things just happen and you should be open to
catching the unexpected.
Depending on your computer and editing gear, you might want to edit all this in the camcorder,
carefully shooting one scene after another. You can also connect two DV camcorders together
via their 1394/FireWire ports and assemble edit between them, building your final presentation.
And of course, if you have nonlinear editing software on your computer, you can edit your final
production together and add sophisticated titles, effects and transitions.
It is up to you.
Whether you are creating a one minute short video about a family event, or a one hour
documentary about a pressing special issue, just remember these basic points – tell a story
with your production, make sure you are comfortable with your equipment, including the
camcorder, audio and tripod, and expect things to go wrong and have a work around plan and
gear just in case.
Of course, if you are planning to put your video on the web, you will also have to deal with
compression, bandwidth restraints and the other issues associated with streaming and web
based video.
Introduction Details the basic workings of a camera
Zoetrope The development of the illusion of motion
The Lumière brothers and their contributions to the cinematic image
Cinematography What is cinematography? What does a cinematographer use?
The Director The function and history of the controlling source
Image How the image moves; qualities of the image
Lens An introduction to the workings of the lens
Lens Perspective and Depth Perspective Relations, Focal Depth, and Field Depth
Film Stock Techniques of application and development
Framing The ways in which the viewer and camera co-operate, and point-of-view
Focus The use of focus to create certain shots
Mise-en-Scene An introduction to Mise-en-Scene
Mise-en-Scene and Setting Considerations of what we see on film
Lighting A primary source of emotion in film!
Space The use of space, aesthetics and timing in cinema
Movement The methods which the camera uses to move around
Shots Types of shots and distances used by the camera
Shooting
Shooting Movies for the Web
Making movies for the Internet is not altogether different from making classical films, but there
are several distinctions that will call for special attention. When shooting for the Web, you
should begin with the end in mind
Watching Net cinema is a radically different experience than seeing a movie in a television set
or cinema. The width of the screen (the monitor window of most multimedia players) is three
inches, not thirty feet. The typical Web surfer huddles only 15 inches away from the image, not
150 feet.
The factors that determine how your movie will appear over the Web are governed by the
video-compression software used to squeeze your raw DV signal into a video file. The old
adage "garbage in, garbage out" is acutely relevant to DV footage. For this reason, you need to
consider several shooting methods that can dramatically improve the Web movie experience.
Introduction to the camera
As you may know from using ordinary photographic cameras, there must be no light
entering the mechanisms. If light gets in (unless it's deliberate), you have one ruined
film! The camera's internal chamber must be light-tight. The lens has the job to do
images work their way onto the film?. What the lens does is to focus light reflected from
a scene onto each frame of film. The shutter lets light onto the film through the lens.
This happens only when the film is not moving and is ready for exposure. Two reels
move the film across the lens and aperture. One brings the film in, the other takes it
back out. This other reel is called the take-up reel. In one second, 24 individual frames
of film shoot across the lens! This speed is commonly referred to as 24 fps or 24
frames per second. These 24 frames per second is fast enough to fool your brain into
thinking that these images actually move.
Cinematographer, his staff and equipment
Cinematography literally means writing in light. Therefore, it is as much to do with
lighting and photography as it is with film. The cinematographer is a role of its own,
and is also known as the Director of Photography. The cinematographer is the source
of information on all things to do with the camera. The knowledge that the
cinematographer is required to know encompasses photography composition and
processes, lighting, and camera movement. The director and cinematographer also
work on how each scene will be shot and lit.
The following staff work under and report to the cinematographer:
Camera Operator, who may have further assistants to operate and maintain the
cameras.
Key Grip, supervisor of the team of grips. The grips carry and arrange equipment and
props, as well as set and lighting parts.
Gaffer, that often-puzzling name which is really the head of electrics. The gaffer
supervises organisation and positioning of lights. The gaffer's assistant is, of course,
the best boy
Concerning equipments, the cinematographer uses film cameras running at the agreed
standard of 24 frames per second (fps), cinematographers are limited in the choice of
shutter speeds they can use. The shutter speed therefore cannot exceed 24fps.They
can, however, control exposure time by using a variable speed camera.
How does the cinematographer influence the look of a film?
Cinematography is therefore very involved with each shot of a film. From this
introduction, we can now examine the elements of cinematography, and how they go
into making one shot portray a certain mood and emotion.
As the cinematographer has a very important role to play in film-making, it is
possible for a cinematographer to have a noticeable style. This brings in questions and
debates on
The Director
The director is generally in charge of those phases in production which require the
camera and editing; co-ordinating the look of the film and how these 'looks' are
assembled togetherThe director's aim is to give an ideal picture of the scene, in each
case placing his camera in such a position that it records most effectively the
particular piece of action or detail which is dramatically significant. He becomes, as it
were, a ubiquitous observer, giving the audience at each moment of the action the best
possible viewpoint.
The Image
It is well known that Sternberg once said he would welcome his films being projected
upside down so that story and character involvement would not interfere with the
spectator's undiluted appreciation of the screen image.
Laura Mulvey, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, in Antony Easthope, ed.
Contemporary Film Theory. London: Longman, 1993. p.114.
The Image is the product of the mise-en-scene. You may want to consider the
relationship between the images of photography and of film. Certainly, a fundamental
difference is in the depiction of the real. Further, consider the role that documentary
has with the mise-en-scene. While film has the greater technology to depict special
effects which look real and existent, photography is regarded as the absolute medium
to recreate real life.
Although the use of special effects is now mainly in the hands of post-filmic
technology, other situations can also give rise to a variety of effects. Physically
manipulating the film - scratching, drawing and punching directly onto it, changing
speeds, for example - can bring new qualities and capabilities. The early magical
films of Méliès do just that.
The image is made of two qualities:
Subject - What is filmed
Method - How it is filmed
These qualities make up Cinematography.
Movement
Movement is usually thought of as being attributed only to the actors, but it occurs in
other respects to provide further kinetic expression. Akira Kurosawa's film The Seven
Samurai is a prime example of the use of kinetics. The speed of the running soldiers,
the pounding of the rain countering the soldiers' inactivity... this feeling of activity
moves into sound, where the incoming hooves of a horse are heard but not seen. In a
more up-to-date example, consider the movement of the props and figures of Back to
the Future II, comparing the action between the different era of time.
As with theatre, movement can be changed according to atmosphere. The exaggerated
fantasy of The Wizard of Oz contrasts with, say, Taxi Driver, where the movement is
like boiling water - slow at first, gradually breaking into dynamic action until it
bubbles over and explodes
Lens
A lens represents one eye, it may be the right or the left. Therefore it is important in
sets to get depth, not width. The depth of a motion picture is infinite, its width finite.
The lens transforms depth onto a flat surface of film by gathering differing lengths of
light waves. The film becomes the focal plane. Your eyes do basically the same job.
The different lengths between light waves become a subject themselves, if the
lengths are to do with such entities as a film set and characters. The recording of
different light waves by the lens thus brings in perspective relations, and questions of
differing lenses and depth. In general, Prime lenses offer a better quality of picture
than a Zoom lens. This is because a Zoom lens contains more pieces of glass for the
light to pass through, which makes it more difficult for the light to reach the focal
point. However, with Zoom lenses, it is easier to find the right focal length for
certain shots, or where you are filming and don't have time to change lenses
Lens Perspective and Depth
Objects appear to be smaller the further away they are - of course, they may actually
be very large. Your eyes constantly feed you information about object distance, by the
reflection of light rays. Thus, even though objects may be far away, you can
(approximately) gather relations of size and space between objects. These are
perspective relations. Camera lenses operate in a similar way. However, lenses can
be changed, giving different possibilities of rendering perspective relations.
Focal length
The focal length alters perspective relations in the shot. Three types of lenses convey
different relations.
Wide-angle depth is longer
A Wide-angle lens distorts straight lines towards the edges of the screen. This alters
perception, and makes the viewer think that there is more space than there actually is.
A tiny room can appear to be much larger. Because of this, movement of characters
appears to be faster.
Normal depth is the same
A Normal lens attempts to minimise any 'fooled' perception. The space and
perspective should seem adequately spaced. A tiny room would appear to be a tiny
room.
Telephoto depth is shorter
A Telephoto lens flattens the depth planes, making spaces seem to be smaller.
Imagine a telephoto lens in a soap opera, turning a huge studio set into the look of a
tiny living room. Distances can squash together, giving an alteration of perspective as
noticable as a Wide-angle lens.
Depth of field
Depth of field indicates the range of which a shot can be in focus. Outside of the
specified focus depth, the image will look less sharp, even out of focus. A wide-angle
lens will have a greater depth of field than a telephoto lens, and offers smoother
camera movement due to its greater frame size.
Applications of lenses
Film Stock
Although technology in recreating the image has obviously brought change over the
decades, technology does not necessarily mean that you can be more innovative in
film. German Expressionism in the 1920s used film lighting to overt visual effect to
compensate for the bad quality of light in the filmstock.
Slow and fast film stocks
Film stocks vary in their sensitivity to light.
Slow stock is not as sensitive to light as "faster" film stocks. More light is needed to
produce an image on slow stock. Fast stock can record images faster, but both have
advantages and disadvantages of use.
Application Slow Stocks
Fast Stocks
Grain
Finer
Grainer
Quality
Requires more light, but better
picture quality
Requires less light
Cost
Costs more due to longer exposing
Cheaper
Situation
Ideal for shooting exteriors on bright
sunny days
Good for situations with
minimal light
Pushing and pulling
Two easy and highly effective methods of distorting film are Pushing and Pulling.
Pushing means underexposing then overdeveloping.
Pulling means overexposing then underdeveloping.
Application Pushing
Pulling
Contrast
Increases contrast
Helps to control contrast if used effectively
Colour
Makes colours
more saturated
Reduces colour saturation
Quality
Grain increased
May result in flat negatives, with no true blacks
and overemphasis on light grey/white end of
tonal range
Problems
May result in
murky shadow
areas
Very difficult to control!
Film and film
Watching fictional narratives indicates that we have unconsciously surrendered an
awareness. We take notice of what is happening in terms of plot and so on, and ignore
that there is film being physically projected at 24 fps onto a screen. Peter Gidal
comments on viewer subjectivity in manipulative cinema:
The photochemical process can put an "imaginary" image on the screen; at the same
time, a film-process can produce this imaginary as imaginary. Thus, it is not a matter
of "non manipulative" cinema, but an awareness of its manipulation in-process, not
after the fact.
Focus
Deep focus cinematography relates very much to mise-en-scene. As everything
is clear and in focus when a deep focus is used, the mise-en-scene can be viewed
more clearly, and set up with greater visual detail:
After 1942... Hollywood cinematography adopted a less picturesque deep-focus style
better suited to the demands of classical narrative and decoupage. Long takes would
be used, but not in conjunction with static deep-focus compositions. The ability to
execute a shot in depth became one more mark of the expert cinematographer, but the
wary professional chose not to call attention to deep focus by making it a personal
trademark.
Ibid., pp.351-2.
Deep focus was brought to new heights by Orson Welles in the classic Citizen Kane,
which you must watch if you are studying film! Consider the spatial relations between
characters in the film.
Focus can also utilise the mobility of the frame. Pulling focus allows different focal
planes to be brought into the foreground or background. Thus, certain objects can be
focused on at certain points, to change or subvert the image.
Framing
Framing is an important part of visual film study. It is one of the key signifiers of film
as an art form, that composition applies to film as much as it does to other visual
media.
The frame and camera movement are dependant on each other. There are
classifications, as seen in Types of shot, and Types of movement.
Angle and direction
The angle of the frame specifies certain relationships between viewer and situation.
The camera looking up to a person may imply a submissive relationship, as with a
child. Consider this in Citizen Kane, and contrast to an 'inferno' thriller, looking
straight down from the roof of a skyscraper.
Point of view
Optical
What you are seeing now is through your own optical point of view - directly of a
person's eyes. An example is a horror film, where the stalker is shown by its optical
point of view. You may never see the stalker's appearance, but you understand where
the stalker is and what it is thinking by the use of its optical point of view.
Point of View shots, thus, can assume the identity of someone, even if it cannot be
attributed to a diegetic character. This can open up new levels of discourse.
A major example is Klute (Alan Pakula, USA, 1971). For much of the film, Bree
Daniels (Jane Fonda) is the object of the camera's gaze. Does this mean that she is the
controlling presence of the film? Is the point of view a dominant male entity?
Klute was used by Laura Mulvey in her work on spectatorship, Visual Pleasure and
Narrative Cinema. A full definition of this work can be found here.
Associated
Imagine a camera on your shoulder, seeing everything you do. It not only sees what
you see, but also includes a portion of your body, giving it a degree of intimacy. An
example is a cowboy shootout. An associated point of view may be at the side of a
cowboy - you can see the body and any related bodily movement, such as reaching for
a gun.
Point-of-view is described in terms of narrative by Edward Brannigan:
The specific thrust of the argument is to locate the spectator as the fundamental
organising agency, the subject who makes use of the relations, the cues and shifts
along the various levels of narrative form, to make sense of the fictional world.
Point-of-view, in this treatment, links the discourse, or the textual mechanisms of
shot/reverse shot, eyeline matches, camera movements, etc., to the story-world - the
world of events, characters, fictional space and time.
Robert Stam, Robert Burgoyne, Sandy Flitterman-Lewis. New Vocabularies in Film
Semiotics. London: Routledge, 1992.
The point-of-view system developed in tandem with technological innovation in
editing:
Filmmakers had discovered that continuity could be held while varying the shots, as
long as there was careful attention to screen direction. The added implication of a
change of angle is that it is no longer necessarily the point of view of one of the
characters; it may be a privileged point of view, that of the "narrator" or the film's
spectators.
Eileen Bowser. The Transformation of Cinema. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1990. p.261.
Widescreen
Why are films shot in widescreen?
Our eyes perceive in widescreen. Take a look at the world around you - you can see
much more looking horizontally than vertically. Thus, widescreen is the method
which is the easiest for our brain to perceive. The common ratios of widescreen are
1:2.2 (2.2 centimetres of horizonal for every 1 of vertical), used in 70mm film.
The numeric definition of horizontal to vertical is the aspect ratio.
Open and Closed Form
The Closed Shot is where we are content with what is going on completely inside the
frame - we develop a 'nonawareness' that we are watching a film.
The Open Shot is where we are (subliminally or otherwise) aware of what is
happening in the area outside of the frame. Imagine a scene where two people are
talking, but only one is in the frame.
On a wider subject, Umberto Eco discusses notions of open and closed in his book
The Role of the Reader.
Mise-en-scene
Mise-en-scene means staging an action. It is historically to do with directing plays,
and became later to do with film to express how the material in the frame is directed.
Robin Wood describes the death of the mise-en-scene by the use of other camera
devices in combination with a more subjective portrayal in dominant cinema:
...the audience's focus of attention is deliberately shifted by a shift of focus within a
shot. The implications of such changes cannot be formulated simply. They are clearly
bound up with what Victor Perkins called "the death of mise-en-scene", a remark
dependent on a definition of mise-en-scene that would stress the relative invinsibility
of the director and of technique, the strict subordination of style to the action.
Robin Wood. Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1986. p.34.
Continuing this notion, Laura Mulvey says...
However self-conscious and ironic Hollywood managed to be, it always restricted
itself to a formal mise-en-scene reflecting the dominant ideological concept of the
cinema.
Laura Mulvey, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, in Antony Easthope, ed.
Contemporary Film Theory. London: Longman, 1993. p.113.
Thus, the characters and narrative elements in a mainstream film are overriding the
possibilities it can have in terms of technique and style. Consider the following
questions:
Does this apply unilaterally across dominant cinema?
Where does this theory not apply?
Is the theory, above all, true, that the emphasis lies with action rather than stylistic
innovation?
Mise-en-scene can also be broken up into small elements...
Setting
The fictional and non-fictional setting of the film
Lighting and colour
Primary sources of emotion in film!
Space and time
How Mise-en-Scene creates and manipulates space and time
You may also want to consider the use of mise-en-scene in documentary.
Méliès and the discovery of mise-en-scene
Georges Méliès, having watched the demonstration by the Lumiere brothers in 1895
of their short films, made a camera of his own.
Méliès was filming the Place de l'Opera. As a bus passed, his camera jammed. He
quickly repaired it and carried on filming, although by now a hearse was passing the
Place. Upon watching the film, it appeared as if the bus had transformed into a hearse.
This demonstrated the power of mise-en-scene, something which was to enrapture
Méliès for much of his life.
Film > Camera > Mise-en-scene and setting
Mise-en-scene and setting
Realism's disguising of the constructed as 'the natural' is a direct parallel to the
function of ideology. The power of realist film, however, lies in the inefficiency of
this disguise, its ability to appear to be an unmediated view of reality. Colin
MacCabe (1981) has argued that in realist film, television drama and the novel,
there is what he calls a 'hierarchy of discourse'. Realist narratives offer problems,
dilemmas, deficiencies to be solved or supplied; the reader or viewer makes his/her
way through the narrative gaining knowledge about how this is to occur.
Graeme Turner. Film as Social Practice. London: Routledge, 1988. p.156.
The director can choose to set the film in a real environment (such as with
documentaries), or in a constructed one - the studio set.
Although the human characters are (usually) the most important features in the
setting and narrative, they are not the only features. The organisation and
manipulation of all objects in the frame are important, regardless of whether the
film is shot on set or at a "real" location. Realism is a fairly grey area in setting, as
it always has been, since its incarnation by the Lumière brothers. Realism in miseen-scene depends on an number of factors.
Historical period
What may have seen very realistic and innovative at the time, may seem stylistic
and 'forced' if seen by future audiences.
Personal attributes
The director may have certain ideas, altering the overall image and portrayal. One
person's fact is another's fiction.
Visual style
The objects can possess differing colours - not only to each other, but to
themselves at different stages of the film. A character can dress with different
colours, depending on their mood and feelings.
Special effects
Think of Jurassic Park, the computer-generated dinosaurs running amok around a
real landscape.
Tasks
Watch the film Psycho, and note the use of the shower curtain.
Take a film of your choice, looking at the colours of the characters' clothes, and of
objects in the frame.
Lighting
The most important tool to change visual meaning is lighting. German Expressionist
cinema of the 1920s used techniques of design to create a look that was stark and
dramatic. Although the Hollywood style is considered more 'natural', it is of course
not wholly real, as the light is still very bright compared to standard lighting. Quality
of lighting can be split into two factions.
Hard gives clearly defined shadows.
Soft creates a more ambient, subtle illumination.
Direction
Von Sternberg wrote of the "Adventure and drama of light", created by wherever the
light stems from. Lights can be placed all around the camera (singular or
simultaneously). An example of lighting is in the horror film, where the monster's
face is lit from underneath.
Source
The Key provides the dominant light,
while manipulation of shadows
(softening them, or eliminating them
completely) is performed by the Fill
light.
Colour: Is mainly used in the objects
and characters, with the lights used to
highlight them. However, consider the
moods created by using coloured lights and filters. Blue can emphasise mood in,
for example, an underwater piece. Imagine the red shades of Mars in Total
Recall. You may want to think about:Why monochrome films have a 'higher art
factor'
than
colour.
Why, in Sergei Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin, only one object is coloured in an
otherwise entirely monochromatic film - the red flag.
Space The use of space is all to do with Visual aesthetics, and how we perceive a 3D
image as it appears on a 2D screen. The main function is the use of planes - the
distances between foreground and background. Lens Perspective and Depth explains
this in greater detail.
Aerial Perspective is the name given to how we perceive an object being in the
foreground, background, or somewhere in between. This can be easily achieved by
the use of lighting and focus. Movement is linked to aerial perspective, as we also
change perception, depending on whether objects are still or moving. For example, a
branch breaking from a tree in the background makes the viewer look at it, without
necessarily being where the action is.
Different relations can occur between
depth planes, so find out how films
of your choice manipulate the
relation of depth in the frame.
In the mise-en-scene, our eyes are
always directed towards movement.
The combination of movement and
the use of aerial perspective is
powerful and limitless! Mise-enscene controls not only what we see,
but when we see it. Different objects
move at different times in the frame. Thus, we are 'guided' towards certain events by
when they occur. These techniques have, for example, been used in an invert manner