Для фармацевтів-бакалаврів
У К Л А Д А Ч І:
Бойко Ольга Василівна
Викладач іноземної мови Черкаського медичного коледжу
Кравченко Олена Павлівна
Викладач іноземної мови Черкаського медичного коледжу
Крив’oвяз Інна Миколаївна
Викладач іноземної мови Черкаського медичного коледжу
ІНОЗЕМНА МОВА ЗА ПРОФЕСІЙНИМ СПРЯМУВАННЯМ
ПОЯСНЮВАЛЬНА ЗАПИСКА
Вивчення предмету „Англійська мова за професійним спрямуванням” передбачає
вдосконалення знань з курсу і забезпечує профілізацію навчання.
Програма з англійської мови спрямована на підготовку спеціалістів до спілкування в усній і
письмовій формах на англійській мові, що зумовлює наявність у них таких вмінь у різних видах
мовної діяльності, які по закінченні курсу дають можливість:
 розуміти англійську мову та вести бесіду із спеціальних та побутових питань;
 читати оригінальну спеціальну та побутову літературу з метою одержання інформації;
 вести ділове та приватне листування;
 брати участь у міжнародних конференціях, вести переговори;
 розмовляти по телефону.
Програма передбачає три етапи навчання англійській мові, в процесі яких досягаються
зазначені вище практичні цілі.
На І етапі корегуються основні мовні навички та вміння, які необхідні для досягнення мети
навчання і здійснюється цілеспрямована робота щодо накопичення лексичного запасу.
На ІІ етапі формуються і закріплюються уміння і навички усної комунікації англійською
мовою (монолог, діалог, бесіди і т.ін.)
На ІІІ етапі вдосконалюються уміння і навички в усній мові і читанні в процесі самостійного
використання студентом іноземної мови при вивченні своєї спеціальності. На цьому етапі
здійснюється перехід від вивчення іноземної мови як навчального предмету до його практичного
використання з професійною метою.
Метою навчання є підготовка майбутніх фахівців:
 до усного звертання англійською мовою;
 до читання оригінальної літератури з метою отримання різної інформації;
 до ділового та приватного листування.
Програма орієнтована на професійне навчання майбутніх фахівців, на оволодіння ними
різноманітними видами мовної діяльності: говорінням і аудіюванням, читанням, письмом.
Говоріння і аудіювання передбачає формування вмінь і навичок монологічного та
діалогічного мовлення.
Завдання:
 удосконалювати отримані вміння і навички говоріння і аудіювання на розширеному
мовному матеріалі;
 брати участь у діалозі; виступати з повідомленнями за спеціальністю;
 вести бесіду на різні теми повсякденного спілкування.
Студент повинен уміти:
 розуміти мову в процесі безпосереднього спілкування і у фонозапису;
 робити повідомлення за вивченим матеріалом; брати участь у бесіді-обговоренні.
Читання передбачає формування умінь і навичок, необхідних для різних видів читання.
Завдання:


сформувати вміння читати тексти з метою перегляду, ознайомлення і поглибленого
вивчення;
сформувати вміння читати автентичні тексти.
Студент повинен уміти:
 змінювати спосіб читання відповідно до поставленого завдання, нової ситуації;
 переказувати одержану при читанні інформацію.
Письмо.
Студент повинен уміти:
 правильно писати слова і словосполучення;
 виконувати письмові завдання.
Під час курсу студенти повинні оволодіти лексичним матеріалом з таких тем, як:
„Вуглеводи”, „Білки”, „Жири”, „Мінерали”, „Кальцій”, „Амінокислоти” та поглибити знання з таких
граматичних тем, як „Іменник”, „Артикль”, „Прикметник”, „Дієслово”, „Займенник”, „Прислівник”.
Тематичний план
семестр
1
Тема
1. Амінокислоти. Ферменти.
2. Лікарські рослини. Заняття з контролю знань.
години
2
2
Усього:
4
ЗАВДАННЯ ДО КОНТРОЛЬНОЇ РОБОТИ
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Примітка: додаток „пр” показує номер завдання у розділі практичні завдання
ПЕРЕЛІК КОНТРОЛЬНИХ ТЕОРЕТИЧНИХ ПИТАНЬ
ЩОДО ВИКОНАННЯ КОНТРОЛЬНОЇ РОБОТИ
Розкрийте поняття:
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Іменник. Рід, число, відмінок іменника.
Власні та загальні, обчислювані та необчислювані іменники.
Артикль. Неозначений артикль.
Означений та нульовий артикль.
Прикметник. Ступені порівняння прикметників.
Займенник. Класифікація займенників.
Дієслово. Спосіб та стан дієслова.
Прислівник. Ступені порівняння прислівників.
Вживання Present Indefinite Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та питальної
форм Present Indefinite.
Вживання Past Indefinite Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та питальної
форм Past Indefinite.
Вживання Future Indefinite Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та питальної
форм Future Indefinite.
Вживання та утворення Future Indefinite-in-the-Past Tense.
Вживання Present Continuous Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та
питальної форм Present Continuous.
Вживання Past Continuous Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та питальної
форм Past Continuous.
Вживання Future Continuous Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та
питальної форм Future Continuous.
Вживання та утворення Future Continuous-in-the-Past Tense.
Вживання Present Perfect Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та питальної
форм Present Perfect.
Вживання Past Perfect Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та питальної
форм Past Perfect.
Вживання Future Perfect Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та питальної
форм Future Perfect.
Вживання та утворення Future Perfect-in-the-Past Tense.
Вживання Present Perfect Continuous Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та
питальної форм Present Perfect Continuous.
Вживання Past Perfect Continuous Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та
питальної форм Past Perfect Continuous.
Вживання Future Perfect Continuous Tense. Утворення стверджувальної, заперечної та
питальної форм Future Perfect Continuous.
Вживання та утворення Future Perfect Continuous -in-the-Past Tense.
Узгодження часів. Які є правила узгодження часів?
Модальні дієслова. Еквіваленти модальних дієслів.
Допоміжні дієслова.
Неособові форми дієслова. Інфінітив.
Неособові форми дієслова. Герундій.
Неособові форми дієслова. Дієприкметник.
ПЕРЕЛІК КОНТРОЛЬНИХ ПРАКТИЧНИХ ЗАВДАНЬ
ЩОДО ВИКОНАННЯ КОНТРОЛЬНОЇ РОБОТИ
Завдання №1:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Замість крапок вставте, де необхідно, артиклі:
I cannot find … letter which you gave me this morning.
Yesterday I spoke to … man who had just returned from … Arctic expedition.
… clock in … hall is slow.
I have received … letter of great importance.
They were standing on … top of … hill.
Завдання №2:
Запишіть кожне з нижчеподаних слів у відповідному стовпчику:
1. Іменники, що вживаються лише в однині;
2. Іменники, що вживаються лише в множині;
Money, hair, knowledge, content, opera-glasses, wages, watch, news, margin, clothes, fruit,
fighting.
Завдання №3:
Запишіть кожне із слів у відповідному стовпчику:
1. Іменники із закінченням -s, що вимовляється як [iz];
2. Іменники із закінченням -s, що вимовляється як [z];
3. Іменники із закінченням -s, що вимовляється як [s].
Noses, flowers, cliffs, beds, bridges, boys, caps, horses, doves, bees, hats, books.
Завдання №4:
Запишіть кожне із слів у відповідному стовпчику
1. Іменники, які утворюють множину за допомогою закінчення;
2. Іменники, які утворюють множину іншими шляхами;
House, man, mouth, tooth, goose, mouse, woman, foot, smile, louse, ox, child.
Завдання №5:
Запишіть кожне із слів у відповідному стовпчику
1. Прикметники, які утворюють ступені порівняння за допомогою закінчення –er, -est;
2. Прикметники, які утворюють ступені порівняння за допомогою додаткових слів “more”
and “most”;
Happy, beautiful, important, simple, careful, sad, duty, narrow, dangerous, thoughtful,
skeptical, windy, bitter, brave, nervous, impossible, big, respectable, busy, fine.
Завдання №6:
Запишіть кожне із слів у відповідному стовпчику
1. Прикметники, які утворюють ступені порівняння за загальними правилами;
2. Прикметники, які утворюють ступені порівняння за допомогою інших слів;
Large, good, bad, near, much, regular, little, slow, old, many, easy, far.
Завдання №7:
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Заповніть пропуски словами as … as, so … as:
The temperature today is … high … it was yesterday.
He is not … old … he looks.
He is … strong … his brother.
This street is … wide … the next one.
The trunk is not … heavy … I expected it to be.
Завдання №8:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Замість крапок вставте відповідні присвійні займенники:
Tell him not to forget … ticket; she mustn’t forget … either.
I see that he has lost … pencil; perhaps you can lend him …?
Lend them … dictionary; they have left … at home.
My trunk is heavier than ….
This doesn’t look like … book, it must be ….
Завдання №9:
Виберіть правильні слова в дужках та запишіть речення повністю:
1. What … (do/ does) he … (want/ wants) to become?
2. Where … (do, does) you … (keep/keeps) your books?
3. Why … (do/does) his brother … (miss/misses) classes?
Завдання №10:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The girl … (learn/learns) English.
His mother …(teach/teaches) geography at school.
They … (listen/listens) to the radio in the morning.
It often … (snow/snows) in November.
Nick … (go/goes) to bed at ten.
I … (drink/drinks) coffee in the evening.
Завдання №11:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Виберіть правильні слова в дужках та запишіть речення повністю:
Виберіть правильні слова в дужках та запишіть речення повністю:
They … (are preparing/have been preparing/prepared) for examinations for a month.
His younger brother always … (is skating/has been skating/skates).
Ann … (is speaking/has been speaking/spoke) now.
Ann … (is speaking/has been speaking/spoke) for the last ten minutes.
Завдання №12:
Поставте дієслова, які стоять у дужках, в залежності від змісту, в Present Indefinite,
Present Continuous, Present Perfect або Present Perfect Continuous:
1. Helen (to learn) English at the Institute. She (to learn) English since last autumn.
2. They are busy now. They (to discuss) an important question. They (to discuss) it since five
o’clock.
3. My brother (to be) in hospital. He (to be) there for ten days.
Завдання №13:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
I (to wait) for you at five o’clock tomorrow.
I am sure that they (to complete) their work by May.
At 2 o’clock tomorrow I (to have) an English lesson.
Tomorrow at this time you (to sail) down the Moskva River.
I hope it (to stop) raining by five o’clock.
Завдання №14:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Напишіть наступні речення в минулому та майбутньому часі:
We can help you.
I can do this work myself.
She can translate the article into Russian.
I can buy a dictionary for you.
He can go to the library with you.
Завдання №15:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Поставте дієслова, які стоять у дужках, в залежності від змісту, в Future Indefinite,
Future Continuous, Future Perfect:
Напишіть наступні речення в минулому та майбутньому часі:
I must do my exercises.
He must be at the Institute at 9 o’clock.
You must learn the story by heart.
We must walk fast to get to the station in time.
She must do it at once.
ТЕКСТОВІ ЗАВДАННЯ
1. Прочитайте та письмово перекладіть текст.
2. Поставте 4 типи запитань до будь-якого речення в тексті.
TEXT 1
Enzymes
At any given moment, all of the work being done inside any cell is being done byenzymes. If
you understand enzymes, you understand cells. A bacterium like E. coli has about 1,000
different types of enzymes floating around in the cytoplasm at any given time.
Enzymes have extremely interesting properties that make them little chemical-reaction
machines. The purpose of an enzyme in a cell is to allow the cell to carry out chemical reactions
very quickly. These reactions allow the cell to build things or take things apart as needed. This
is how a cell grows and reproduces. At the most basic level, a cell is really a little bag full of
chemical reactions that are made possible by enzymes!
Enzymes are made from amino acids, and they are proteins. When an enzyme is formed, it is
made by stringing together between 100 and 1,000 amino acids in a very specific and unique
order. The chain of amino acids then folds into a unique shape. That shape allows the enzyme
to carry out specific chemical reactions -- an enzyme acts as a very efficient catalyst for a
specific chemical reaction. The enzyme speeds that reaction up tremendously.
For example, the sugar maltose is made from two glucose molecules bonded together. The
enzymemaltase is shaped in such a way that it can break the bond and free the two glucose
pieces. The only thing maltase can do is break maltose molecules, but it can do that very rapidly
and efficiently. Other types of enzymes can put atoms and molecules together. Breaking
molecules apart and putting molecules together is what enzymes do, and there is a specific
enzyme for each chemical reaction needed to make the cell work properly.
A maltose molecule floats near and is captured at a specific site on the maltase enzyme.
The active site on the enzyme breaks the bond, and then the two glucose molecules float
away.
You may have heard of people who are lactose intolerant, or you may suffer from this
problem yourself. The problem arises because the sugar in milk -- lactose -- does not get
broken into its glucose components. Therefore, it cannot be digested. The intestinal cells of
lactose-intolerant people do not produce lactase, the enzyme needed to break down lactose.
This problem shows how the lack of just one enzyme in the human body can lead to problems.
A person who is lactose intolerant can swallow a drop of lactase prior to drinking milk and the
problem is solved. Many enzyme deficiencies are not nearly so easy to fix.
Inside a bacterium there are about 1,000 types of enzymes (lactase being one of them). All of
the enzymes float freely in the cytoplasm waiting for the chemical they recognize to float by.
There are hundreds or millions of copies of each different type of enzyme, depending on how
important a reaction is to a cell and how often the reaction is needed. These enzymes do
everything from breaking glucose down for energy to building cell walls, constructing new
enzymes and allowing the cell to reproduce. Enzymes do all of the work inside cells.
TEXT 2
Protein
Protein is essential for growth and development. It provides the body with energy, and is
needed for the manufacture of hormones, antibodies, enzymes, and tissues. It also helps
maintain the proper acid-alkali balance in the body.
When protein is consumed, the body breaks it down into amino acids, the building
blocks of all proteins. Some of the amino acids are designated nonessential. This does not
mean that they are unnecessary, but rather that they do not have to come from the diet because
they can be synthesized by the body from other amino acids. Other amino acids are considered
essential, meaning that the body cannot synthesize them, and therefore must obtain them from
the diet.
Whenever the body makes a protein—when it builds muscle, for instance—it needs a
variety of amino acids for the protein-making process. These amino acids may come from
dietary protein or from the body's own pool of amino acids. If a shortage of amino acids
becomes chronic, which can occur if the diet is deficient in essential amino acids, the building of
protein in the body stops, and the body suffers.
Because of the importance of consuming proteins that provide all of the necessary
amino acids, dietary proteins are considered to belong to two different groups, depending on the
amino acids they provide. Complete proteins, which constitute the first group, contain ample
amounts of all of the essential amino acids. These proteins are found in meat, fish, poultry,
cheese, eggs, and milk. Incomplete proteins, which constitute the second group, contain only
some of the essential amino acids. These proteins are found in a variety of foods, including
grains, legumes, and leafy green vegetables.
Although it is important to consume the full range of amino acids, both essential and
nonessential, it is not necessary to get them from meat, fish, poultry, and other complete-protein
foods. In fact, because of their high fat content—as well as the use of antibiotics and other
chemicals in the raising of poultry and cattle—most of those foods should be eaten in
moderation. Fortunately, the dietary strategy called mutual supplementation enables you to
combine partial-protein foods to make complementary protein—proteins that supply adequate
amounts of all the essential amino acids. For instance, although beans and brown rice are both
quite rich in protein, each lacks one or more of the necessary amino acids. However, when you
combine beans and brown rice with each other, or when you combine either one with any of a
number of protein-rich foods, you form a complete protein that is a high-quality substitute for
meat. To make a complete protein, combine beans with any one of the following:
•
•
•
Brown rice.
Corn.
.
Nuts.
•Seeds
•Wheat
Or combine brown .
• Beans.
• Seeds.
• Nuts.
• Wheat.
rice with any one of the following:
However, if you have reduced the amount of meat and dairy foods in your diet, you
should make sure to get about 50 grams of protein a day. To make sure that you are getting a
great enough variety of amino acids in your diet, add protein-rich foods to meals and snacks
as often as possible. Eat bread with nut butters, for instance, or add nuts and seeds to salads
and vegetable casseroles. Be aware that a combination of any grains, any nuts and seeds, any
legumes (such as beans, peanuts, and peas), and a variety of mixed vegetables will make a
complete protein. In addition, cornmeal fortified with the amino acid L-lysine makes a complete
protein.
TEXT 3
HERBS
Part 1
A variety of flower blossoms are used to enhance cuisines. Calendula, also called pot
marigold, is a daisy-like flower with yellow petals that impart a tangy flavor to tea, butters,
soups, egg dishes, and rice. Since Roman times, calendula has been used as an affordable
substitute for saffron, an expensive spice made from crocus flowers.
Scientific classification: The genus Calendula belongs to the family Asteraceae (formerly
Compositae). The pot marigold is classified as Calendula officinalis.
Cornflower is widely cultivated as a garden ornamental. The blue, white, purple, or pink
flowers are borne on long, slender stems. In North America the most popular variety, used
extensively in floral arrangements, has bright blue flowers known also as bachelor's buttons.
Scientific classification: The cornflower belongs to the family Asteraceae (formerly
Compositae). It is classified as Centaurea cyanus.
Common Dandelion
The flower of the common dandelion, which belongs to the genus Crepis, is not a single flower
but rather a composite made up of a large number of very small flowers. Although usually
considered a troublesome weed, the dandelion’s leaves are edible if collected early in the spring
before they become bitter. The species has long taproots, rosettes of deeply incised lanceolate
leaves, and flat flower heads containing bright yellow florets on hollow, stemlike stalks. The root
of the common dandelion contains a substance used as a laxative; the root is also roasted and
ground as a substitute or adulterant for coffee. The leaves are used for salad greens and
potherbs, and the flowers are sometimes used for making wine. The red-seeded dandelion is
similar to the common species, but is smaller, with reddish seeds and darker down. A Russian
species has some importance as a source of latex.
Scientific classification: Dandelions belong to the family Asteraceae (formerly Compositae).
The common dandelion is classified as Taraxacum officinale, the red-seeded dandelion as
Taraxacum erythrospermum, and the Russian species that is a source of latex as Taraxacum
kok-saghyz.
Foxglove Plant (Digitalis)
The common foxglove is grown for decorative and medicinal purposes. Digitalis, a drug
prepared from digitalin a glycoside obtained from the common foxglove, is used in medicine.
The flowers contain glycosides (chemicals that affect heartbeat and pulse), which can be
extracted from the leaves and used to regulate and strengthen a person’s heartbeat. However,
if plant materials containing glycosides are directly consumed by humans, nausea, abdominal
pain, diarrhea, and heartbeat and pulse abnormalities can result. If consumed in large enough
quantities, glycosides can cause convulsions and death.
Scientific classification: The genus Digitalis belongs to the family Scrophulariaceae. The
common foxglove is classified as Digitalis purpurea.
Stinging Nettle
Easily recognized by its prominent serrated leaves, the stinging nettle is a herbaceous plant
related to hops, marijuana, mulberries, and elms. The minute, fluid-filled hairs on the leaf
surface and stem can cause a stinging or burning sensation on contact with the skin.
Scientific classification: Nettles make up the family Urticaceae of the order Urticales. Its
representative genus is Urtica. The stinging nettle is classified as Urtica dioica. Ramie fiber, or
China grass, is obtained from the species classified as Boehmeria nivea.
TEXT 4
The Function of Minerals
Every living cell on this planet depends on minerals for proper function and structure.
Minerals are needed for the proper composition of body fluids, the formation of blood and bone,
the maintenance of healthy nerve function, and the regulation of muscle tone, including that of
the muscles of the cardiovascular system. Like vitamins, minerals function as coenzymes,
enabling the body to perform its functions, including energy production, growth, and healing.
Because all enzyme activities involve minerals, minerals are essential for the proper utilization
of vitamins and other nutrients.
The human body, as all of nature, must maintain its proper chemical balance. This
balance depends on the levels of different minerals in the body and especially the ratios of
certain mineral levels to one another. The level of each mineral in the body has an effect on
every other, so if one is out of balance, all mineral levels are affected. If not corrected, this can
start a chain reaction of imbalances that leads to illness.
Minerals are naturally occurring elements found in the earth. Rock formations are
made up of mineral salts. Rock and stone are gradually broken down into tiny fragments by
erosion, a process that can take literally millions of years. The resulting dust and sand
accumulate, forming the basis of soil. The soil is teeming with microbes that utilize these tiny
crystals of mineral salts, which are then passed from the soil to plants. The plants are eaten by
herbivorous animals. We obtain these minerals by consuming plants or herbivorous animals.
Nutritionally, minerals belong to two groups: bulk minerals (also called macrominerals)
and trace minerals (microminerals). Bulk minerals include calcium, magnesium, sodium,
potassium, and phosphorus. These are needed in larger amounts than trace minerals. Although
only minute quantities of trace minerals are needed, they are nevertheless important for good
health. Trace minerals include boron, chromium, copper, germanium, iodine, iron, manganese,
molybdenum, selenium, silicon, sulfur, vanadium, and zinc.
Because minerals are stored primarily in the body's bone and muscle tissue, it is
possible to develop mineral toxicity if extremely large quantities are consumed. Such
situations are rare, however, because toxic levels of minerals generally accumulate only if
massive amounts are ingested for a prolonged period of time.
Once a mineral is absorbed, it must be carried by the blood to the cells and then
transported across the cell membranes in a form that can be utilized by the cells. After minerals
enter the body, they compete with one another for absorption. For example, too much zinc can
deplete the body of copper; excessive calcium intake can affect magnesium absorption.
Consequently, supplemental minerals should always be taken in balanced amounts.
Otherwise, they will not be effective and may even be harmful. The absorption of minerals can
also be affected by the use of fiber supplements. Fiber decreases the body's absorption of
minerals. Therefore, supplemental fiber and minerals should be taken at different times.
TEXT 5
HERBS
Part 2
Lily of the Valley
The Convallaria majalis, known as the lily of the valley, is a perennial herb is popular for shady
gardens. A dichotomous plant, it has long-stalked oval leaves and a stem of several white
flowers. Because of their fragrance, the flowers are used in the manufacture of perfume. In
cultivation, the lily of the valley is usually propagated from the terminal buds, called pips, of the
underground rootstock. Once established, populations tend to persist with great tenacity.
Scientific classification: Lilies of the valley make up the genus Convallaria, of the family
Liliaceae. The cultivated species is classified as Convallaria majalis.
Hawthorn, common name for any of a genus of small trees of the rose family. Hawthorns are
native to temperate regions and are widely cultivated in the form of hedges. They have dense,
sharply thorned branches; single, irregularly toothed leaves that turn to brilliant colors in
autumn; tiny, red fruits even throughout the winter; and fragrant, white flowers borne in clusters.
The best-known species is the English hawthorn, also called the mayflower.
Scientific classification: Hawthorns belong to the family Rosaceae. The English hawthorn is
classified as Crataegus laevigata, the Washington hawthorn as Crataegus phaenopyrum, and
the cockspur hawthorn as Crataegus crus-galli.
Ebers Papyrus (a medical guide written in 1550 bc) suggested that a lint tampon medicated
with a mixture of acacia tree leaves, dates, and honey would prevent pregnancy. Acacia breaks
down into lactic acid, which today is recognized as a spermicide. Other substances once used
as spermicides include lemon juice, vinegar, soap solutions, cocoa butter, crocodile and
elephant dung.
The genus is of great and varied economic importance, yielding edible seeds and valuable
timber and gum.
Scientific classification: Acacias belong to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae
(formerly Leguminosae).
Wild Chamomile, a culinary herb with daisylike flowers that are dried and brewed as a
soothing tea reputed to aid indigestion, calm muscle spasms, and relieve the pain and swelling
of arthritis.
However, because it produces abundant seeds, it can become a troublesome weed if the
flowerheads are not removed after they bloom. The flowers are an ingredient in herbal
shampoos and can be used to make a yellow dye.
Scientific classification: Wild chamomile belongs to the Asteroideae subfamily of the family
Asteraceae (formerly Compositae). The most widely recognized scientific name for wild
chamomile is Matricaria recutita, although some sources refer to it as Matricaria chamomilla and
others as Chamomilla recutita.
Sweet Chestnut Tree
The European, or sweet, chestnut, belongs to the same family as the oak. In Europe and in
parts of Japan and China, chestnuts are an important source of food. Both the Japanese
chestnut and the Chinese chestnut have been introduced into the United States with promising
results. The Chinese chestnut produces a large, tasty nut, but the yield from the Japanese tree
is of inferior quality.
Scientific classification: Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae. The American chestnut is
classified as Castanea dentata, the chinquapin as Castanea pumila, the European chestnut as
Castanea sativa, the Japanese chestnut as Castanea crenata, and the Chinese chestnut as
Castanea mollissima.
TEXT 6
The Function of Amino Acids
Amino acids are the chemical units or "building blocks," as they are popularly called,
that make up proteins. Amino acids contain about 16 percent nitrogen. Chemically, this is what
distinguishes them from the other two basic nutrients, sugars and fatty acids, which do not
contain nitrogen. To understand how vital amino acids are, you must understand how essential
proteins are to life. It is protein that provides the structure for all living things. Every living
organism, from the largest animal to the tiniest microbe, is composed of protein. And in its
various forms, protein participates in the vital chemical processes that sustain life.
Proteins are a necessary part of every living cell in the body. Next to water, protein
makes up the greatest portion of our body weight. In the human body, protein substances make
up the muscles, ligaments, tendons, organs, glands, nails, hair, and many vital body fluids, and
are essential for the growth of bones. The enzymes and hormones that catalyze and regulate all
bodily processes are proteins. Proteins help to regulate the body's water balance and maintain
the proper internal pH. They assist in the exchange of nutrients between the intercellular fluids
and the tissues, blood, and lymph. A deficiency of protein can upset the body's fluid balance,
causing edema. Proteins form the structural basis of chromosomes, through which genetic
information is passed from parents to offspring. The genetic "code" contained in each cell's
DNA is actually information for how to make that cell's proteins.
Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by what are called peptide bonds.
Each individual type of protein is composed of a specific group of amino acids in a specific
chemical arrangement. It is the particular amino acids present and the way in which they are
linked together in sequence that gives the proteins that make up the various tissues their unique
functions and characters. Each protein in the body is tailored for a specific need; proteins are
not interchangeable.
The proteins that make up the human body are not obtained directly from the diet.
Rather, dietary protein is broken down into its constituent amino acids, which the body then
uses to build the specific proteins it needs. Thus, it is the amino acids rather than protein that
are the essential nutrients.
In addition to combining to form the body's proteins, some amino acids act as
neurotransmitters or as precursors of neurotransmitters, the chemicals that carry information
from one nerve cell to another. Certain amino acids are thus necessary for the brain to receive
and send messages. Unlike many other substances, neurotransmitters are able to pass through
the blood-brain barrier. This is a kind of defensive shield designed to protect the brain from
toxins and foreign invaders that may be circulating in the bloodstream. The endothelial cells that
make up the walls of the capillaries in the brain are much more tightly meshed together than are
those of capillaries elsewhere in the body. This prevents many substances, especially waterbased substances, from diffusing through the capillary walls into brain tissue. Because certain
amino acids can pass through this barrier, they can be used by the brain to communicate with
nerve cells elsewhere in the body.
Amino acids also enable vitamins and minerals to perform their jobs properly. Even if
vitamins and minerals are absorbed and assimilated by the body, they cannot be effective
unless the necessary amino acids are present. For example, low levels of the amino acid
tyrosine may lead to iron deficiency. Deficiency and/or impaired metabolism of the amino acids
methionine and taurine has been linked to allergies and autoimmune disorders. Many elderly
people suffer from depression or neurological problems that may be associated with
deficiencies of the amino acids tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, and histidine, and also of
the branched-chain amino acids. These are amino acids that can be used to provide energy
directly to muscle tissue. High doses of branched-chain amino acids have been used in
hospitals to treat people suffering from trauma and infection.
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